Madison County, Ohio - Chapter 24: Education, 1915

Chapter 24: Education

Those venerable men of today who are familiar with the olden time in Madison county, of which they were a part, and who grew up 'with the ever enlarging civilization, of this region, are living in a changed atmosphere. So suddenly and so strangely has the genius of change and alteration waved his charmed wand over the land, that the early settler has changed and kept pace with the changing years, and the unwritten history of the early days is recalled, as one remembers a fading dream. The sharp and hard conflicts of life make heroes, and the fierce struggles of war and bloodshed develop them into self-reliant, stubborn and aggressive men, as fierce and sanguinary as their bitter foes. We are living in the age of invention and machinery. These factors have destroyed the romance of frontier life, and much of the strange, eventful realities of the past are rapidly becoming traditional; the narratives of the generation that settled the Scioto valley, abounding in rich treasures of incident and character, are being swallowed up and forgotten in the surging, eventful present.

The most casual observer cannot but have noticed that notwithstanding the privations and discomforts attending the lives of the early settlers, they manifested a most earnest zeal in education, and that, as soon as a sufficient number of pupils could be collected and a teacher secured, a house was created for the purposes of a school. The period just preceding the Revolution was characterized by its number of literary men and the interest they gave to polite learning; and the patriots who were conspicuous in that struggle for human liberty were men, not only of ability,' but of no ordinary culture. We can readily understand that the influence of their example had its weight in molding public sentiment in other respects besides that of zeal for the patriot cause. To this may be added that, for the most part, the early pioneers were men of character, who endured the dangers and trials of a new country, not solely for their own sakes, but for the sake of their children, and, with a faith in what the future would bring forth, clearly saw the power and value of education. From the beginning they kept their object steadily in view, and made provision for its successful prosecution. The express declaration of the fundamental law of the state enjoins that "The principal of all funds arising from the sale or other distribution of lands or other property, granted or entrusted to the state for educational purposes, shall forever be preserved inviolate and undiminished, and the income arising therefrom shall be. faithfully applied to the specific object of the original grants or appropriations and the General Assembly shall make such provisions by taxation or otherwise, as, from the income arising from the school trust fund, shall secure a thorough and efficient system of common schools throughout the state."

School Lands

The act of Congress providing for the admission of Ohio into the Union offered certain educational propositions to the people. 'These were, first, that section 16 in each township, or, in lieu thereof, other contiguous or equivalent lands, should be granted for the use of schools; second, that thirty-eight sections of land, where salt springs had been found, should be granted to the state, never, however, to be 'sold or leased for a longer period than ten years; and third, that one-twentieth of the proceeds from the sale of public lands in the state should be applied toward the construction of roads from the Atlantic to and through Ohio. These propositions were offered on the condition that the public lands sold by the United States after the 30th of June, 1802, should be exempt from state taxation for five years after sale. The ordinance of 1787 had already provided for the appropriation of section 16 to the support of schools in every township sold by the United States; this, therefore, could not in = be properly made the subject of a new bargain between the United States and Ohio, and, by many, it was thought the salt reservations and one-twentieth of the proceeds of the sale of public lands were inadequate equivalent for the proposed surrender of a right to tax for five years. The convention, however, accepted the propositions of Congress, on their being modified and enlarged as to vest in the state, for the use of schools, section 16 in each township sold by the United States, and three other tracts of land, equal in quantity respectively to one- thirty- sixth of the Virginia military reservation, of the United States military tract and of the Connecticut west reserve; and to give three per cent. of the proceeds of the public lands sold within the state to the construction of roads in Ohio, under the direction of the Legislature. Congress agreed to the proposed modifications, and, in March, 1807, offered to the state, in lieu of the one-thirty-sixth part of the Virginia military reservation, eighteen quarter townships and three sections of land lying between the United States military tract and the Connecticut reserve. On the 14th of January, 1808, the state accepted these lands and released all right and title to the school lands in the Virginia military district, thus providing the bases of the common-school fund of Ohio, never probably conjectured or intended to be sufficient for the purposes of education, but adequate to encourage broader and more liberal views.

In the foregoing it is disclosed how Congress, by a compact with the people, gave them one-thirty-sixth of all of the lands northwest of the Ohio river for school purposes. The lands for this purpose set apart, however, were often appropriated by squatters, and through unwise, careless and sometimes corrupt legislation, these squatters were vested with proprietorship. Caleb Atwater, in his "History of Ohio," in speaking on this subject, says: 'Members of the Legislature not infrequently got acts passed and leases granted, either to themselves, their relatives or to their partisans. One senator contrived to get, by such acts, seven entire sections of land into either his own or his children's possession." From 1803 to 1820 the General Assembly spent a considerable portion of every session in passing acts relating to these lands, without ever advancing the cause of education to any degree.

The Sale Of School Lands

In 1821 the House of Representatives appointed five of its members, Caleb Atwater. Lloyd Talbot, James Shields, Roswell Mills and Josiah Barber, a committee on schools and school lands. This committee subsequently made a report, rehearsing the wrong management of the school-land trust on behalf of the state, warmly advocated the establishment of a system of education and the adoption of measures which would secure for the people the rights which Congress intended they should possess. In compliance with the recommendation of the committee, the governor of the state, in May, 1822, having been authorized by the Legislature, appointed seven commissioners of schools and school lands, viz., Caleb Atwater, Rev. John Collins, Rev. James Hoge, N. Guilford, Ephraim Cutler, Josiah Barber and James M. Bell. The reason why seven persons were appointed was because. there were seven different sorts of school lands in the state, namely: Section 16 in every township of the Congress lands, the Virginia military lands, Symmes' purchase, the Ohio Company's purchase, the refugee lands, the French grant, and the Connecticut western reserve. This commission of seven persons was reduced by various causes to one of three, Messrs. Atwater, Collins

The Legislature of 1822-23 broke up without having taken any definite action upon the report presented by the commission, but, during the summer and autumn of' 1824, the subject of the sale of the school lands was warmly agitated, and the friends of this measure triumphed over the opposition so far as to elect large majorities to both branches of the General Assembly in favor of its being made a law. The quantity of land set apart was ascertained, in 1825, to be a little more than half a million 'acres, valued at less than one million dollars.

Having now briefly related the facts connected with the school lands, a review will be made of the legislative enactments through which these lands were disposed of. On the 17th of February, 1809, the lands belonging to the Virginia military district were authorized to be leased and the proceeds thereof paid into the state treasury for the future use of the schools. From 1810 up 'to 1824, acts were passed at nearly every session of the Legislature, more fully describing the condition of those leases and providing for the disposition of moneys accruing therefrom. In 1827 a law was enacted directing a vote to be taken in the district as to whether these lands should be sold or not. The vote decided in favor of selling, and on January 28, 1828, the Legislature ordered them to be sold. In 1829 an act authorized the distribution among the several counties, or parts of counties, in said district, of the sum of fifty-four thousand dollars of school moneys, then in the state treasury, Madison county receiving as her share two thousand and seventy-five dollars and thirty-four and one-half cents. This distribution, however, was for some cause postponed by an act passed on January 21, 1830, until May 1, 1830. The manner of apportionment was as follows: The school directors delivered' to the county auditors a list of white children in their respective districts, between the ages of four and sixteen; the county auditors transmitted said lists to the auditor of the state, who dividéd the school fund among the several counties, or parts thereof, according to the foregoing enumeration. From that time up to the present this principle has been carried out, each county receiving annually its quota of moneys derived from this school fund. The reader must bear in mind, however, that the school age was changed whenever the General Assembly saw fit to do So, or considered subs a change necessary or judicious.

Pioneer Schools

In the early development of Madison: county, a great variety of influences were felt in the way of general education. The settlements were, and for years continued to be, sparse. The people, as the pioneers of all new counties are, were poor and lacked the means of remunerating teachers. Their poverty compelled all who were able to labor, and the work of the females was as important and toilsome as that of the men. Added to these discouragements, both teachers and books were scarce. This condition of things continued perhaps for more than.a quarter of a century. Taking these facts into consideration, it is surprising that the pioneers 'had any schools whatever.

The interest awakened in literature and science immediately after the Revolution followed the pioneers to their western homes; but, to make their efforts productive of useful results, time became absolutely necessary. Just as soon as the settlements were prepared for the experiment, schools were opened; but at every step it was the acquisition of knowledge under difficulties. Everything connected with the pioneers was as simple and primitive as were their dwellings, food and clothing. School houses were built in the various neighborhoods as occasion made necessary, not by subscription in money, but by labor. On a given day the neighbors assembled at some place previously agreed upon, and the work was done. Timber was abundant; they were skilled in the use of the ax, and, having cut logs of the required length, out of these the walls were raised. The roof was made of clapboards, kept in place by heavy poles reaching the length of the building. The door was of clapboards and creaked on wooden hinges, the latch of wood and raised by a string. The floor was "puncheon," or trees split in the middle, tolerably true, the edge and face being dressed with an ax. The crevices between the logs forming the walls were filled with "chinks," split sticks of wood, and daubed with mud. The fireplace was equally rude, but of ample dimensions, built on the outside of the house, usually of stone, to the throat of the flue, and the remainder of the chimney of split sticks of wood, daubed with puddled clay within and without. Light was admitted through the door and by means of an opening made by eutting out one of the logs, reaching almost the entire width of the building. This opening was high enough from the floor to prevent the boys from looking out, and in winter was covered with paper, saturated with grease, to keep out the cold, as well as to admit the light.

In the rural districts school ''kept" only in winter. The furniture corresponded with the simplicity of the house. At a proper distance below the windows, auger holes were bored in a slanting direction in one of the logs and.in these strong wooden pins were driven, and on these a huge slab or puncheon was placed, which served as a writing-desk for the whole school. For seats they used the puncheon, or, more commonly, the body of a smooth, straight tree, cut ten to twelve feet in length, and raised to a height of twelve to fifteen inches by means of pins securely inserted. It has been said that not infrequently the pins were of uneven length, and the bench predisposed to "wobble." Many of the pioneer "masters" were natives of Ireland, who had fled from the cruel oppression of the English government prior to and succeeding the struggle for Irish independence in 1798, and here in this land of freedom were putting to good use that education obtained in their native isle. Thus did the oppression of England inure to the benefit of the young republic; and the literary ability of Irishmen, like their military prowess in the Revolutionary war, did much toward founding and building up this great free and enlightened nation. Doctor Johnson's notion that most boys required learning to be thrashed into them was practically carried out in the pioneer school house. The pupils sat with their faces toward the wall, around the room, while the teacher occupied the middle space to superintend each pupil separately. In some rooms a separate bench was furnished for those too young to write. Classes, when reciting, sat on a bench made for that purpose.

A Primitive Curriculum

The books were as primitive as the surroundings. The New Testament was a common reading book; the "English Reader" was occasionally found, and sometimes the "Columbian Orator." No one book was common in all the families. The reading class recited paragraphs alternately, and the book in use was made common property, passing from hand to hand during recitation. It was not unusual for the teacher to assist a pupil in one of his "sums," discipline a refractory pupil, and hear the reading class, while the reading was going on. Deibold's, Smiley's and Pike's arithmetics were commonly used, with the examples for practice almost exclusively in pounds, shillings and pence, and a marked absence of clear rules and definitions for the solving of the different divisions. Webster's "American Speller" was the 'ordinary spelling-book, which afterward made way for Webster's "Blementary Speller." This latter book maintained its popularity for half a century. The spelling class closed the labors of the day. All who could spell entered the "big class," and the rivalry was sharp as to who should rank first as good spellers. The members of the class were numbered in the order in which they stood in line, and retained the number until a "miss" sent someone above them. Spelling-matches were frequeni, and contributed largely to the making of good spellers. Grammar was not often taught, partly for the reason that the books were hard to get, and partly because some of the teachers were not proficient in this branch of learning. When the science was taught the text-book was the earlier and larger edition of Murray, which, by the close of the first quarter of the century, was largely superseded by "Kirkham," which, though of little real merit, stimulated a taste for grammar. The boys and girls went to the same school, but sat on opposite benches. It occasionally happened that teachers were employed who had learned that an elephant may be led by a hare, or more probably were blessed with gentle natures, and these won the hearts and. lifelong affection of their pupils by their pleasant and loving ways; but these were exceptions. The standard of excellence was often measured by the teacher's ability and swift readiness to thrash the pupils on any provocation. Disobedience and ignorance were equally causes for the use of the "hickory." "Like master, like boys." The characteristics of the one tended to develop a corresponding spirit in the other, and the cruelty of the one, with the absence, too frequently, of all just discrimination in the use of the rod, excited animosities which lasted through life. There were few boys of that day who did not cherish the purpose to "whale" the 'master' on sight at some future day.

The schools were supported by subscription, the charge being from one to three dollars per term of three months, during winter, to begin at eight o'clock in the morning, with an hour or an hour and a half recess at noon, and to close at five o'clock. One-half of Saturdays, or alternate Saturdays, made part of the term. Writing was taught to all the larger pupils, and the only pen used was the goose or turkey quill, made into a pen by the skillful hand of the teacher. Mending the pens was an essential part of the work. Copybooks were made of sheets of foolscap paper stitched together, and copies were "set" by the teacher during recess, which were commonly taken from the maxims in use from time immemorial. Sometimes the teacher was partly paid in produce of other commodities, which were the equivalent to him of money, while his support was often obtained by "boarding around." Money was scarce, and to make change it was usual to halve and quarter pieces of silver coin with an ax or chisel.

The introduction of schools in one settlement was an incentive to their speedy adoption in all. The above description applies to all the earliest school houses erected. The building of saw-mills and the opening up of wagon roads brought about a better order of things, and plank, weather-boarding and glass took the place of clapboards, puncheon floors and log benches. For a more detailed history of the pioneer schools in the different localities of Madison county, the reader is referred to the chapters relating to London and the several townships, where the subject is fully written up from the

The gradual development and progress of education in Ohio was encouraged and fostered by state laws that were the germs from which came forth the present commonschool system. Believing that a brief synopsis of these enactments will be of value in this article, the following facts have been culled from the Ohio statutes, which will no doubt assist the reader in understanding more thoroughly the history of the schools in the Scioto valley up to the adoption of the new constitution. On the 2nd of January, 1806, three trustees and a treasurer were authorized to be elected in each township, for the purpose of taking charge of the school lands or the money arising therefrom, and applying the same to the benefit of the schools in said township. In 1810 this act was more fully defined, and, in 1814, every person of school age was entitled to his or her share of said school fund, even when attending a school outside his own township. In 1815 these moneys were distributed according to the time of school attendance, an account of which each teacher was required to supply to the trustees, and the apportionment was made accordingly. No act of any importance was then passed until. January 22, 1821, when a vote was ordered to be taken in every township for the pur- pose of deciding, for or against, organizing the same into school districts; also, for the election of a school committee of three persons, and a collector, who was also treasurer in said district.' These committees were authorized to erect school houses in their respective districts, on land donated or purchased for that purpose, said schdols to be paid for by donations and subscriptions, together with the taxes raised for such purpose. By the terms of this act, all lands located in said districts, liable to state or county taxation, were also liable to taxation for erecting school houses and for educating the children of those unable to pay for schooling. Parents and guardians were assessed in proportion to the number of childten sent to school by them, but: those unable to pay had their assessment' remitted, and such deficiency was paid out of the fund raised by taxation. Of course, the moneys accruing from the school lands went into the school fund held by the treasurer of each district.

'The first general school law, passed on February 5, 1825, provided "that a fund shall: hereafter be annually raised among the several counties in the state, in the manner pointed out by this act, for the use of common schools, for the instruction of youth of every class and grade without distinction, in reading, writing, aritmetic and other necessary branches of a common education." This was' in harmony with the constitution, which asserted that schools and the means of instruction should forever be encouraged by legislative provision. This act provided for a general tax to be levied for the fostering of common schools' throughout the state, which was to be collected annually and used for general educational purposes. Three school directors were to be elected annually in each district, to transact the business of said schools, erect buildings, employ teachers, receive and expend all moneys derived from any source, etc. The court of common pleas in each county was authorized to appoint annually three suitable persons to be called examiners of common schools, whose duty it was to examine teachers for qualification and grant certificates; also, to visit and examine the schools throughout the county. If any district neglected to keep a school therein for the space of three years, its proportion of the school fund was divided among the other districts in said township that employed teachers. The school fund of each county was taken charge of by the auditor, who distributed the same between the several townships. In 1827 this act was amended. The directors were instructed to appoint a treasurer for each school district. Fines imposed by any justice of the peace, for offenses' committed in any given district, were to be paid to the treasurer, to be used for the Support of education in said district. Taxes were levied to build new houses and repair old ones. Every householder, whose tax was less than one dollar, had to pay that amount or give two days toward the building or repairing of school houses. The number of examiners was increased, but at no time were they to exceed the number of townships in the county.

Color Line Rigidly Drawn

In February, 1829, a law was enacted providing more fully for general education, but the children of black or mulatto persons were not permitted to attend these schools, nor were such persons compelled to pay taxes toward the support of the same. The official term of the examiners was designated as two years, and their number to be not less than five in each county, nor more than one in each township thereof. Whenever the regular school fund ran short, the teachers, if not paid by voluntary subscription, were to be paid by those sending children to said schools. Often the regular fund did not pay for more than three months' schooling annually, so that even then the schools, though slowly improving, were anything but tiourishing. The act of 1830 did not materially improve them, and, in March, 1831, the following clause appears in a law relative to raising the school fund. It says a general fund shall be raised "for the instruction of the white youth of every class and grade," so that, although Ohio was a free state, a black man was debarred from the educational advantages accorded to his white brother ; and, though his body was not kept in slavery, his mind was kept in ignorance, as far as the state laws had the power to do so. With all this injustice, however, the property of negroes was exempt from taxation for school purposes, which was at least a small grain of justice to the despised race. The school age was changed so as to include those between four and twenty-one years, and the clause relating to the number of examiners was changed to read, 'not less than five in each county, nor' more than two in each township."

' On the 2nd of March, 1831, an act was passed authorizing the establishment of a fund to be designated "the common-school fund," the income to be used for the support of common schools. All moneys arising from the sale of school lands were to be put into this fund, and the state guaranteed a certain interest on all such moneys paid into the state treasury. The county auditors were authorized' to draw said interest and distribute it among the several districts in their' respective counties, 'to which said lands originally belonged. Donations and bequests were also put into this fund' and 'used for the same general purpose. These moneys, however, were to be funded annually, until January 1, 1835, after which date the interest was to be divided among the' several counties in proportion to the AE of white males over iwenty=0 one years oe age residing therein.

Up to this time women were not eligible as school teachers, for it is found that an act was passed on December 23, 1831, allowing directors to 'employ female teachers; but' the directors had to signify in writing to the school examiners that it was the desire of the inhabitants of said district to employ "a female teacher for instructing 'their children in spelling, reading and writing only." The exaniiners were then empowered to give the lady a "special certificate" to teach those branches. It is unnecessary here co comment on this injustice, it being taken for granted that. the most illiberal men will 'agree that this discrimination against women was a4 grievous wrong and wholly unworthy of this great commonwealth. In 1833 other provisions and amendments were made 'to the school 'laws, the object of which was to increase their influences, but no material changes were made in former laws. ;

State Superintendent Of -Schools

- The office of state superintendent of schools was created on March 7,. 1837, and was made permanent a year from that date. The superintendent was elected by the General Assembly for a term of five years, but on the 28rd of March, 1840, the office was abolished and the: secretary 'of state: was required to perform the duties thereof. In 1888 a fund of two hundred thousand doliars was provided for, to be annually distributed among the several counties, according to the number of white youth, unmarried, between the ages of four and twenty-one. It was known as: the state common-school fund; was reduced on March 7,'1842, to one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, and again raised to 'three hundred thousand dollars on the 24th of March, 1851. By article 6 of the new constitution, it was declared that the principal of all funds accruing from school lands, donations or bequests, "shall forever be preserved inviolate and undiminished." It was enacted by the law of 1838 that the township clerk should be superintendent of schools within his township, and this law remained in force until the reorganization of the school laws under the new constitution of 1853. By this same law, the county auditor was endowed with the position of superintendent of schools throughout the county. The number of-school examiners was reduced to three members for each county, who were appointed by the court of common pleas.

On the 16th of March, 1839, an act was passed providing for the establishment of night schools in towns wherein male youth over twelve years of age, who could not attend school in the daytime, might be instructed. This law also declared that pupils could not attend German schools, and at the same time receive their quota of school money. Subsequently the German language was introduced into the schools as a part of the regular studies.

Schools For Colored Youth

On the 24th of February, 1848, a law was pussed authorizing the establishment of separate schools for colored children. This law was amended in 1849, and was 'thought by many to be contrary to the spirit of the constitution, but the supreme court declared it constitutional. Separate school districts were authorized to be organized and managed by directors chosen from the adult male colored taxpayers, whose property was alone chargeable for the support of said schools. Colored -children were not really debarred under the constitution at that time from attending the schools of white children, but it amounted to about the same thing, as the objection of any parent or guardian whose children attended said school might operate to prevent the attendance of colored vouth. Thus the law existed until 1853, when the schools of colored children were nlaced upon the same basis as those for white. By the law of 1853, boards of education were directed, when the colored youth in any school district numbered more than thirty, to establish a school for them. This law was so amended in 1864 that two or more districts could unite for the same purpose. Much trouble has been caused in different towns by the colored people insisting on sending their children to the schools for whites. In some places little or no opposition has been manifested, while in others a bitter struggle resulted. In the country districts, white and colored children usually attend the snme school and seem to work harmoniously together.

Later Government Of Schools

The school laws of 1853 made ample prevision for the education of every class and grade of youth within the state. In the preceding pages it has been pointed out that those who participated in'the organization of the Northwest Territory, and subsequently the state, recognized religion, morality and knowledge as necessary to good government and happiness of mankind. The gradual development of education from its earliest inception in the state up to its present permanent foundation, through the law of 1858, 'also has been pointed out. Under the latter law, the state was divided inte school districts as follows: City districts of the first class, city districts of the second class, village districts, special districts and township districts. To administer the affairs of the districts, and to look after and promote the educational interests therein, the law has provided for the establishment of boards of education in each district. These boards could acquire real or personal property for the use of their districts, and were required - to establish schools for free education of the youth of school age. and could establish schools of a higher grade than the primary schools. They were to determine the studies to be pursued and the text-books to be used in the schools under their eontrol; to appoint superintendents of schools, teachers and other employees, and fix their salaries. They were authorized to make such rules and regulations as they might deem expedient and necessary for the government of the board, their appointees and pupils.

The state commissioner of common schools was elected by the people, and his official term was three years. He was required to superintend and encourage teachers' institutes, confer with boards of education, or other school officers, counsel teachers, visit schools and deliver lectures calculated to promote popular education. He was to have supervision over the school funds, and had power by law to require proper returns to be made by the officers who had duties to perform pertaining to schools or school funds. It was his duty to give instructions for the organization and government of schools. and to distribute the school laws and other documents for the use of school officers. He was required by law to appoint a board of state examiners, consisting of three persons, who held their office for two years. This board was authorized to issue life certificates to such teachers as may be found, upon examination, to have attained "eminent professional experience and ability." 'These certificates were valid in any school district in the state, and superseded the necessity of all other examinations by the county or local _boards of examiners. Each applicant for a state certificate was required to pay a fee of three dollars.

There was in each county in the state a board of examiners appointed by the probate judge, their official term being three years. The law provided that "ft shall be the duty of the examiners to fix upon the time of holding the meetings for the examination of teachers, in such places in their respective counties as will, in their opinion, best accommodate the greatest number of candidates for examination, notice of all such meetings being published in some newspaper of general circulation in their respective counties, and at such meetings any two of said board shall be competent to examine applicants and grant certificates; and as a condition of examination, each applicant for a certificate shall pay the board of examiners a fee of fifty cents." The fees thus received were set apart as a fund for the support of teachers' institutes. In city districts of the first and second class and village districts, having a population of not less than two thousand five hundred, the examiners were appointed by the boards of education. The fees charged were the same as those of the county boards, and were appropriated for the same purpose.

District School Directors

There were in the different districts, sub-districts, in which the people elected, annuaily, a local director, whose term of office continued for three years. From this it will be seen that each sub-district had a board consisting of three directors. 'These directors chose one of their number as clerk, who presided at the meetings of local directors, and kept a record thereof. He also kept a record of the proceedings of the annual school meetings of the sub-district. The board of education of each township district consisted of the township clerk and the local directors who had been appointed clerks of the sub-districts. The law provided that "in every district in the state there shall be taken, between the first Monday in September and the first Monday in October, in each year, an enumeration of all unmarried youth, noting race and sex, between six and twenty-one years of age, resident within the district, and not temporarily there, designating also the number between sixteen and twenty-one years of age, the number residing in the Western reserve, the Virginia military districts, the United States military district, and in any origianl surveyed township or fractional townships to which belongs section 16, or other land in lieu thereof, or any other lands for the use of schools or any interest in the proceeds of such land: Provided, that, in addition to the classified return of ali the youth residing in the district, that the aggregate number of youth in the district resident of any adjoining county shall be separately given, if any such there be, and the name of the county in which they reside." The clerk of each board of education was required to transmit to the county auditor an abstract of the returns of enumeration made to him, on or before the second Monday of October.

The county auditor was required to transmit to the state commissioner, on or before the 5th day of November, a.duly certified akstract of the enumeration returns made to him by clerks of school districts. The law provided that "the auditor of state shall, annually, apportion to the common-school funds among the different counties upon the enumeration and returns made to him by the state commissioner of common schools, and certify the amount so apportioned to the county auditor of each county, stating from what sources the same is derived, which said sum the several county treasurers shall retain in their respective treasuries from the state funds; and the county auditors shall, annually, and immediately after their annual settlement with the county treas- of each year, and close on the 31st day of August of the suceeeding year. A school week should consist of five days, and a school month of four school weeks. The law also provided, in relation to common schools, "That they shall be free to all youth between six and twenty-one years of age who are children, wards or apprentices of actual residents of the school district, and no pupil shall be suspended therefrom except for such time as may be necessary to convene the board of education of the district, or local director of the sub-district, nor be expelled unless by a vote of two-thirds of said board of local directors, after the parent or guardian of the offending pupil shall have been notified of the proposed expulsion, and permitted to be heard against the same; and no scholar shall be suspended or expelled from the privilege of schools beyond the current term: Provided, that each board of education shall have power to admit other persons, not under six years of age, upon such terms, or upon the payment of such tuition as they prescribe; and.boards of education of city, village or special districts shall also have power to admit, without charge -or tuition, persons within the school age who are members of the family of any freeholder whose residence is not within such districts, if any part of such freeholder's homestead is within such district; and provided further, that the several boards of education shall make such assignments of the youth of their respective districts to the schools established by them as will, in their opinion, best promote the interests of education in their districts; and provided further, that nothing contained in this section shall supersede or modify the provisions of section 31 of an act entitled an act for the reorganization, supervision and maintenance of common schools, passed March 14, 1853, as amended March 18, 1864." Provision was made by law for the establishment and maintenance of teachers' institutes, which were established for the professional improvement of teachers. At each session competent instructors and lecturers were employed to assist the state commissioner, who was required by law to superintend and encourage such institutes. They were either county, city or joint institutes of two or more counties, and the examination fees paid by teachers to boards of. examiners were devoted to the payment of the expenses incurred by these institutes.

It is said that a state consists of men, and history 'shows that no art or science, wealth or power, will compensate for the want of moral or intellectual stability in the minds of a nation. Hence, it is admitted that the strength and perpetuity of this republic must consist in the morality and intelligence of the people. Every youth in Ohio, under twenty-one years of age, may have the benefit of a public education, and since the system of graded and high schools has been adopted, may obtain a common knowledge from the alphabet to the classics. The enumerated branches of study in the public schools of Ohio are thirty-four, including mathematics and astronomy, French, German and the classics. Thus the state, which was in the heart of the wilderness but a little more than one hundred years ago, now presents to the world not merely an an unrivaled development of material prosperity, but an unsurpassed system of popular education.

Schools Under The New Laws

A little more than a year ago (1913) our Legislature and our enthusiastic governor gave us a legal survey of all schools outside of the cities, and we have all found out what many already knew, namely, that most township and village schools were without any system; and in these everything unsanitary, unattractive and retrogressive were found that everywhere goes with a lack of system. The report of the school survey commis- sion is full of the shortcomings of our schools and gives the school air a bad perfume - some Say a worse one than it deserves. Be that as it may, it tells too much truth for such a state as Ohio. What now would be the results if the state, through its department of public instruction, were to get out a volume of the many, many virtues and gracious centers of learning and refinement found in all corners of our state - ihe high and consolidated schools; the modern single room schools; the model teachers; and all those with the best equipment and physical conditions - libraries, pictures on the walls, clean rooms and premises - and God's out of doors? The message of these must of necessity be ¢urried in print or by messenger to the teacher and boards who have been laggards. Laws will not create school spirit nor make good teachers; the inspired word and the gentle touch of spirit with spirit will give us both.

Briefly, the new laws provide for a well-defined school administration, for standardizing the schools, for training the teachers, and for very much more money from the state treasury for schools. Much more is provided in these laws along other lines.

The administration is planned in a superintendent for each county and a local superintendent in each rural and village district, or a superintendent for a combination of these rural and village districts. The county superintendent is the state representative in each county. He will be the head of all school work in his county, if he is big enough, and if he is not, he will be sand on the machinery. He will of necessity be the county director of the teacher training schools in connection with the first grade high schools, and to do this effectively must be the peer of any teacher in the county, or his leadership will take the schools downhill. He is the clerk of the board of county school examiners; he will provide a manual of courses of study to the districts of the county, which will outline a minimum of work; he nominates the local gor accuaculs in most cases and does much in directing the teachers' institute work.

In short, he is the legal leader of the county school forces. Will he lead educationally? We all pray for an affirmative answer - and will get this answer where the county board of education, unafraid and in its own best judgment - elects the right man - an educator who is well qualified for the work and who has shown unmistakable qualities of leadership.

College diplomas and high school certificates are not the most important qualifications of the new educational county official. The new school code of Ohio makes radical and sweeping changes in the organization and administration of the rural and village schools. The county superintendent has many problems to solve - problems more delicate, more important and more difficult that confront the city superintendent. It has been no easy task to install this new school machinery successfully from the outset. Judging from the duties laid down in the new code, this official must possess, in a high degree, organizing, administrative and executive ability.

Among the duties of the county superintendent under the new code are the following: He shall be in all respects the executive officer of the county board of education; he shall act as secretary of the county board of education; he shall conduct a county convention of school board members; he shall prepare a minimum course of study which shall be a guide for the local boards of education; he shall nominate the district superintendents; he shall hold monthly meetings with the district superintendents and advise with them on matters of school efficiency; he shall visit and inspect the 'schools under his supervision; he shall have direct supervision over the training of teachers in the county normal training schools; he shall be a member of the county school examiners and act as its secretary; he shall make reports to the county auditor, to the county board of education, and to the state superintendent of public instruction; he shall lead in managing the county institute. These are only some of the duties of this county school official - the county superintendent, and it is very evident from these and other duties not enumerated that he should be a man of high qualifications - a man of wide range of experience and a high order of executive and administrative ability.

Centralization Of Rural Schools

The new code places great emphasis on the centralization of rural schools. It has been demonstrated in Ohio that this form of school organization affords the best opportunity for the ideal rural school - the best opportunity for the successful teaching of agriculture and domestic science - the best opportunity for the development of the rural spirit and country life - the best opportunity to give the youth of the rural districts that kind of an education which will fit them best for their life work.

But the people of Ohio are a conservative people. There are many "stand-patters" in education, and a campaign must be waged in every township to educate the people up to a higher standard and to this more improved form of rural school organization. The new school code'makes ample provision for the centralization of schools, but without able leadership very little can be accomplished.. The county superintendent should not only possess strong executive and administrative experience and ability, but he should be a strong and prudent leader in all educational reforms and improvement.

The Rural High School

The people are coming to realize more and more that equality of opportunity for the people of the rura! districts means the improvement and development of. the rural high school. The new code provides for this improvement.

The new code recognizes the fact that the rural high school must be made the equal in all respects to the city high school. Its aim is to make the rural high school a social and educational center for the best development of the whole rural community life. The rural high school is to become the crowning feature of our modern rural school system. The improvement and enrichment of the rural high school is one of the many good features of the new code. A good high-school education today is more essential than a common-school education was in the days of the fathers.

A close analysis of the new code shows that the standards now set for rural and village schools are higher than those for the city schools. Dean H. G. Williams, of Ohio University, writes: '"Ohio's greatest need within the next few months is for educational leaders. No state in the Union has swung more rapidly into the progressive educational column than Ohio, and we have today a new school code which will tend to revolutionize educational policies and practices."

Resume Of Changes In School System

The rural school came into Ohio from New England, first establishing itself in the Western reserve. Only the more densely populated and progressive communities . were blessed with schools during the first quarter of the past century. The school houses were very remotely placed, and the schools served very large areas.. School teachers were even more scarce, and often suitable ones could not be found. It frequently happened that a student in college found it very convenient to replenish his dwindling funds by dropping out of college for a term during the winter time and go to one of the back districts of Ohio and teach a six or even ten weeks' term of school. That young people appreciated the opportunities that thus occasionally came to them is attested by the fact that these early schools often numbered from seventy-five to one hundred pupils.

Before 1852 only four branches were required to be taught in Ohio schools, namely: reading, writing, arithmetic and spelling. The men teachers were required to take examination in reading, writing and arithmetic; but the lady teachers were -let off a little easier, and for some reason - the reader may speculate - they were permitted to substitute orthography for arithmetic. Evidence of proficiency in these branches usually secured the coveted license to teach, and these permits were from six months to eighteen months in length. After the year above mentioned two more subjects were added to the list of requirements; they were English grammar and geography. The additions have continued from time to time until today the teacher is required to pass an examination in ten subjects before being permitted to teach in the rural schools.

Rural Population Dwindling

Between 1870 and 1880 improvement in the rural schools of Ohio consisted mainly in these five things: the building of more school houses, of Better school houses, raising the educational requirements of the teachers, paying better wages, and enforcing attendance on the part of the children. By 1885 or 1890 the rural school had reached its - greatest efficiency and enjoyed the splendor of its sentimental glory. Soon thereafter the rural exodus began. Some rural communities in Ohio, between 1890 and 1910 lost one-third of their populations. The number of one-room school houses, which, before 1890, existed in about the right ratio to population to best serve the rural communities of the state, became 'too numerous in 1910, not because there had been so many new school houses built, but because there were fewer families and, therefore, fewer children in the rural districts of the state to make use of them. So it has come to pass that the rural schools, and the system of rural education generally, became a burden to the rural people when considered from the standpoint of efficiency. The Ohio state school survey was the outcome of an effort to seek a remedy from these various ills of our rural school system.

In the meantime, however, there were isolated efforts towards a. solution of the great rural education problems. The most common method of bettering the rural schools of the state, and one which reached, in some parts, where strong educators were placed in control, a high degree of development, is the system of township supervision of the one-room elementary rural schools in connection with a township high school. In this system the civil township, usually including a village, is the school-administration unit, which is still quite common in New England, but which has quite disappeared in all other parts of the country in favor of the county unit. Ohio is the latest state to follow the accepted order of the great states of the famous American corn belt.

~The county board of education at its first meeting in May, 1915, divided Madison county into supervision districts. It was decided that the three village districts, Plain City, West Jefferson and Mt. Sterling, should remain as separate supervisory districts. The remainder of the county was divided into four districts as follows: Rurai district No. 1, Darby, Canaan and Jefferson townships; No. 2, Pike, Monroe, Somerford and Deer Creek townships; No. 3, Fairfield, Oak Run, Pleasant and East Range townships; No. 4, Union, Paint, West Range and Stokes townships. It is estimated that this will save the county about five thousand dollars in cost of supervision and will enable the school boards to pay their teachers better salaries. The salaries of the teachers vary in the different townships from forty-five to seventy-two dollars per month.

The new high school building at London, the county seat, was formally opened in May, 1913. The chief speaker of the occasion was Prof. Edward E. Sparks, a former graduate of that high school, who {fs now president of Pennsylvania University. The class of 1913 had the honor of being the first to graduate from the new building.

The London high school stands on the accredited list and ranks among the best and _ largest schools in the state. Superintendent W. H. Rice is the head of the efficient faculty ; Mrs. Lester Bidwell, English department ; Miss Grace Thurness, German aud senior mathematical department; Miss Marie Bowers, Latin department; Miss Marguerite Bange, history pen ap Miss Beulah Wells, mathematical department; Mr. Garrison, commercial department ; Mr. M. C. Wagner, scientific department.

The first year in the new high school building aroused in the students a new spirit of loyalty, pride and admiration. They realized the advantage afforded by the building in each of the different departments. The gymnasium was a source of physical development and pleasure to both boys and girls, Basketball. was most popular and several very interesting and closely contested games were played. The senior girls' basketball team holds the girls' championship in the high school. The auditorium, with its finely equipped stage, has been of great benefit, rendering the presentation of the senior play «i simpler matter.

The students of science have been greatly benefited. The laboratories are completely equipped and have made it possible for each student to perform the different experiments individually. Those who are taking the commercial course have had the advantage of using the most complete and up-to-date desks in this part of the state. The work in each department is made exceedingly interesting by its head. The following sketches, one by. Mrs. Minnie Creath Bidwell, on "The Study of English,' and one by Miss Marguerite Bange, on ''The Study of History,' give an idea of the work done in these two departments and are illustrative of the high standard of the work in all departments.

English

"The problem of teaching English to high-school pupils is not an easy task, but one that yields genuine pleasure and constant enlightenment.

"The child's school life should be like his play, the outpouring of his whole being. Especially should this be so when he is occupied with those studies which involve the art side of human nature; and where can a finer opportunity for art work be found than in our prescribed course in English? It is the duty and the pleasure of the English teacher to bring the average boy and girl to look upon the art of composition as a natural mode of self-expression. All children love to express themselves, though they do not always like to express what other people think they should. But give them subjects which appeal to their inner beings, and they will cheerfully study all the rules which underlie narration, description and exposition, in order, as effectively as possible, to tell the stories they enjoy, describe the things they like, explain the games they know, and argue the points of their beliefs. No boy needs to be compelled to memorize the rules of baseball if he loves our national game. Just so no boy needs to be compelled to write a composition or orally discuss a subject if the assignment be something in which he is really interested. Meet the boy on his own ground and he will do the rest.

"Most of our 'classics' which now form an important part of our English course are admirably adapted for the development of literary appreciation, if the children are not forced to toil over unimportant details. But if, on the other hand, they are led to enjoy the story, to feel the chivalry of 'Ivanhoe,' to learn the great moral and religious lesson of 'Sir Launful,' to suffer and be redeemed with the 'Ancient Mariner, new worlds will open before them. The writer has often watched with great pleasure the growing interest of her pupils in the character study in 'Silas Marner,' their love of the beautiful and the exciting in 'The Lady of the Lake,' and their appreciation of the nineteenth-century ideals of beauty, love and morality found in the 'Idylis of the King.'

"Some one has said, 'Literature. is the expression of life in words of truth and beauty; it is the written record of man's spirit, of his thoughts, emotions, aspirations; it is the history and the only history of the human soul. Its object, aside from the. delight it gives us, is to know the soul of man rather than his actions; and since it preserves to the race the ideals upon which all civilization is founded, it is one of the most important and delightful subjects than can occupy the human mind.' -

"Such being the purpose of the study of English, the appeal which it makes to pupils and to teachers is the strongest than can delight the mind."

"""Study the past, if you would divine the future.' In this command of the famous Chinese philosopher, Confucius, is summed up the principle which for centuries has prompted the policies of the Chinese nation - a principle which has given them a civilization rich in culture and traditions, but nevertheless, a civilization which has, within itself, no germ of development. In the study of history, the adverse criticism is made that the past is studied to the neglect of the movement of our own times.

"This may be true. However, we all interpret the present in terms of the past, and it is by the knowledge and light of a former age that we are enabled to interpret the trend of the present. Without the past there could be no present, for the present in itself is wholly an evolution of the past. Given certain conditions, human nature is invariable, and the adage, 'History repeats itself, must have justification for its existence.

"The teachings of John Ball live over again in the present-day Socialists and the jingle which held thousands to his belief might pass for the creation of some Debs of our own day.

"Then, too, many pessimists of our own time see in the fate of the Roman empire a sinister prophecy for the United States. Surely we should profit by the experience of an age long past. To quote Fuller: 'History maketh a young man to be old without wrinkles or gray hairs, privileging him with the experience of age, without either the infirmities or inconveniences thereof.'

"It is therefore the aim of the history department of the high school to make the lives of the people of yesterday, whose tombs have long been covered by the dust of ages, stand forth free from the marks of Time and see. them as they were living, breathing human _ beings, who lived and loved, struggled and fought, suffered and died - maybe for a principle, and more often not. The words of the historical enthusiast, It is delightful to. transport one's self into the spirit of the past, to see how a wise man has thought before us, and to what a glorious height we have at last reached.'.

The Duty Of The Student

"Nor is it sufficient merely to know just what act a certain man _performed - in short, what were the events of his life. This process creates absolutely no human sympathy, nor does it incline one's mind to a broad toleration in the passing of judgment. The student must learn to place himself in the time. when these people lived - to see the events through their. eyes - to work under the same handicaps with them; in short, he must feel the spirit of the time in which his character lived, else his vision is astigmatized and as a result his judgment biased.

"Wor the student to know merely that Philip II. carried on his persecutions with a relentless severity almost without parallel in Christian history and that the defeat of the Spanish Armada marks the beginning of the decline of Spanish prestige is not sufficient. Before passing judgment upon Philip, he must know what motive impelled that grim-visaged fanatic to pursue the course which he did. He must also see how this policy reacted upon Spain and he must see the relationship existing between Philip's narrow-mindedness and Spain's decline. Also he must realize the age which could produce a Philip II. It is in this way only, that the student's history will be of profit to him. Because he has seen the effect of the narrow-mindedness of one individual upon the history of a whole nation, he may thus be enabled to profit by experience. The student should be taught that he may say with Shelley, 'I know the past and thence I will essay to glean a warning for the future, so that man may profit by his errors and derive experience from his folly.'

"The history course in our high school is necessarily somewhat limited. However, in the course as it stands, we seek to give the student the broadest and most comprehensive view of the ages past, and particularly that history which will prove most useful to the student himself.

"Many children, of necessity, are not able to pursue their high school course beyond the first year; many more find it impossible to enter upon their third year of work. Largely for this reason, English history, which is, broadly speaking, our own history previous to 1776, is taught in the first year of the high-school course. In the second year, our historical attention is centered upon the study of general history, while an advanced course is elective to fourth-year students.

Reason For Unhampered Growth

steady growth of the parliamentary system, and in particular, the steady growth of the power of the people, vested on that wonderful organization - the House of Commons - runs like a clear strong thread through the entire fabric of English history. We seek for the reason for this steady, unhampered growth of democracy in England and we find it in the fact of England's insular position and in the fact that she was more free from invasion; more free from neighborhood turmoil and boundary strife than her contemporaries across 'the ditch,' as Napoleon called it. _. "In second-year history work, or general history, the work of necessity cannot be so intensive. It must be extensive and comprehensive. To traverse in nine months' time the growth covered by the human race in seven thousand years and to trace the growth of humanity from its infancy when it made mud houses and ate out of bakedmud or clay dishes on the banks of the Nile or the Tigris or the Euphrates, to its pres- - ent maturity when it plays with its own complicated inventions on the banks of a Panama canal or the ties of a Trans-Siberian canal or the ties of a Trans-Siberian railway or at the sluice gates of an Assouan dam - to traverse this. distance is a task worthy of the effort. To trace the rise of nations to their heights of power, their subsequent decline and fall - the growth of the new from the ashes of the old@is an occupation, fascinating withal, yet not less difficult because it is fascinating.

"Our interest most naturally is centered upon those countries which have touched most vitally our own lives - Greece, with her culture; Rome, with her laws; Italy, with her renaissance; Germany, with her Reformation; France, with her political revolution; England, with her parliamentary growth, and Spain, with her ever-present example of the deadening influence of a restrictive policy. All these things claim some of our attention; when any one of them might justly claim our whole thought. We deal with them all to the best of our ability in the attempt to feel that without that past there could be no present, as, without the child there can be no man.

"The realm of history is so broad; there is so much of great importance that can be touched upon only lightly and the architecture, art and culture of these nations must of necessity be studied in. connection with other courses. The best aim of our education is to obtain a clear sense of relative value, to create a broad human understanding and to inspire a deep. lasting hata of the Good, the True and the Beautiful."