Knox County, Illinois - Chapter 4: Geology of Knox County, 1878

Chapter 4: Geology of Knox County

The following chapter is gleaned from a geological survey made by the State geologist, A. H. Worthen, in 1870. Knox county comprises a superficial area of twenty townships, or seven hundred square miles. It is bounded on the north by Henry county, on the east by Stark and Peoria, on the south by Fulton, on the west by Warren and Mercer. The fourth principal meridian passes along its western border; the southeastern part of the county is intersected by Spoon river, which enters it in township 11, range 4, and passes out in township 9, range 2; French and Littler's creeks lie to the east; while Haw and Court creeks, with their branches, the larger of which are Brush, Middle, North and Sugar creeks, lie on the west. In the northeast is Walnut creek, a branch of Spoon river, while in the northwest Cedar, Henderson and Pope creeks have their origin, and run to the westward.

By these and some smaller streams this county is well watered- Springs, though not numerous, are occasionally found along the lower lands. Good wells may generally be found at a depth varying from 15 to 50 feet. A larger portion of the country is prairie, but so numerous are the streams that the prairies are commonly but a few square miles in extent. The soil does not present any material difference from other counties in this portion of the State, and is of the usual dark-colored vegetable loam, with a brown clay sub-soil. That along the water courses is generally of less depth and lighter in color.

Surface Geology

This embraces the usual subdivisions of the quarternary, with the exception of the loess, which was not noticed. The alluvial deposits are not extensive, seldom over a mile or so in wTidth and commonly much less, and comprise the bottom lands found along nearly all the water courses. The soil is dark-colored loam, frequently intermingled with sand and gravel. The drift is spread over the entire surface of the uplands, to a depth of from ten to sixty feet, perhaps occasionally a little more. It comprises a series of yellow and blue clay, here and there mixed with sand and gravel. Bonlders of igneous and metamorphic rocks are not uncommon in it, and may be frequently seen along the courses of the streams. Wells are not usually sunk entirely through this deposit, an abundant supply of good water being found before the coal measures are reached, though occasionally they go deeper, and good water is sometimes found in the coal measures. All the stratified rocks exposed in Knox county belong to the coal measures, and they comprise a series of sandstones, limestones, clays, shales, and seams of coal, and represent the middle and lower part of the series of coal No. 6 of the Illinois section to coal No. 1 inclusive.

The upper seam, No. 6, is found principally in the eastern half of the county. It varies in thickness from four to six feet and affords a good quality of coal. In this and the adjoining counties it has a clay band about a foot and a half to two feet from the bottom and frequently several other clay partitions. In the western half of Victoria township, a coal seam has been extensively worked. Mines have also been opened in sections 5, 17, 18, 19, 29, 30, 31, and 32. In some mines coal runs as thick as six feet. At the mines of P. Peterson, Esq., in the northwest part of the northwest quarter of section 32, and some others in the vicinity, the coal was thicker than in the mines in the northern part of the township. The overlying limestone is here quite hard and durable, and is worked somewhat for building stone. In township 12, range 3, mines have been worked in sections 1, 10, 11, 18, 19, and 20; east of Wataga, township 12, range 2, in sections 13, 15, 22, 23, and 24. Much coal has been taken from this seam in the mines of John A. Lighton, Esq. In section 12 tbe following section was obtained:

In township 11, range 3, there are mines in sections 3, 4 and 5, and the coal is reported to belong to this seam, and to be from 4 to 5 feet thick. In section 15, township 10, range 4, the coal appears along the bluffs a number of feet above the stream. A seam of limestone is worked at this place. This limestone is again exposed and worked in the southeast quarter of section 25, township 9, range 4. It is quite hard at this point and makes a valuable building stone and being 4 feet thick can be quarried more readily than at most other localities in the region where it is thinner. It also forms a good roof for the coal below, there being but 6 inches of shale limestone between. This seam is worked in sections 23, 24, 31, and probably 32 and 33. There is also a mine in 35, township 9, range 3. At this point the coal is found high up in the hill, and is reported to be somewhat rotten.

The mines formerly worked by Messrs. Camp & Powell at-Oneida, section 36, township 13, range 2, also belongs to this seam. The next seam, No. 4, of the Illinois section, usually lies from forty to sixty feet below this one. This coal is seldom less than three or more than four feet in thickness. Mines which appear to be in this seam are worked in 2 and 3, township 13, range 1. In the cannel coal, No. 4 of this section, there are the remains of fishes and plants, some of which are beautifully preserved, though generally quite fragmentary.

The mines along Sugar creek and its branches, in township 12, range 3, may belong to this seam, or perhaps to No. 6. The coal furnished by these mines was reported to be of superior quality, and this would seem to indicate that it belonged to No. 6.

South of Spoon river there are a number of mines along Littler's creek in sections 26, 27, 28, 34 and 35, township 9, range 3. A section here gave:

A short distance southwest of Milroy a thin seam was reported. A thin seam was reported somewhere from twenty to forty feet below the one now worked there, which appears to be No. 6. Should this lower seam be No. 4, it is much thinner here than it is usually, and is probably No. 5. It probably underlies township 12, ranges 2, 3 and 4, township 11, range 2, and the southeastern part of range 1, and the northern borders of ranges 3 and 4, perhaps the eastern part of township 10, range 4, and township 9, range 4, and the southern

Abundance of fossil plants were found in some portions of the shale overlying the coal seam of this section, for which there are scientific names; but as there are no English names, we give no list here.

Near the former site of D. E. Hall's mill, section 5, township 13, range 1, there is an outcrop of limestone along Pope creek close to the water's edge. It is supposed there is abed of coal but a few feet below this, but the matter had not been thoroughly tested when I was there. Should it prove to be so, it seems quite probable that it may be the same seam, No. 3 of the general section, and the same as the one formed in the southwestern part of the township 14, range 2 west, in Mercer county. Much of the limestone in this outcrop is highly fossiliferous, and contains many well preserved remains.

The next coal seam, number 2 of the Illinois section, is generally from a foot and a half to" three feet in thickness. This coal is considered fully equal in quality to that of any other seam found in the county. In township 12, range 1, a coal that appears to be the equivalent of this seam is worked in sections 20, 21, 29, 30, 32 and 33. The seam is from two to three feet thick, with from one to three feet of clay shale and a band of limestone above, and a floor of fire-clay. In section 23 and near the south west corner of 16, township 11, range 2 it is again worked. From here along down Court creek to its mouth, and on some of its branches, this seam has been more or less worked in sections 19, 22 and 23, township 11, range 3, also in sections 13and 35. In Truro, township 11, range 4, it appears in or near the bed of Spoon river, and has been worked at various places. From here there are outcrops along the river, at intervals, to near the south line of the county.

West of the river, in township 10, range 3, this seam is worked in sections 8, 16, 19 and 29, also in township 10, range 2, in sections 14, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29, 33 and 34. In section 33, along Hog creek, specimens of cone-in-cone were found in considerable quantities. West of this the coal has been found in sections 10, 14 and 23.

The lower seam, number 1, is not worked to any extent in but one locality in Knox county, on section 21, township 12, range 1. It is here worked by means of a shaft, which is about 30 feet deep. The coal is 6 feet thick, but as much of the roof is not very firm, and the upper part of the coal is of an inferior quality, from 1 to 2 feet of

I, this seam has been found several feet below the bed of the little stream that passes through it. In section 31, township 9, range 2, it crops out in the bed of a small run, and a little coal has been taken out here.

Coal number 2 first outcrops in the bed of Walnut creek, in section 17, township 12, range 5, in Stark county. South of this it is not again exposed, as far as I learned, between that point and section 14, township 11, range 4, in Knox county. From this point, upon Spoon river, with its various windings, it runs to the west for about 5 miles, and south about 9 miles, from whence it passes to the southwest till it leaves the county. From where this coal first appears in Knox county it is occasionally exposed along the river, and near its bed to a point a little beyond, where the river turns south. In the northwest quarter of section 6, township 10, range 4, it lies low in the bed of the river, and is frequently torn up in considerable quantities by the action of the current at high water, and is sometimes worked when the river is very low. Some 2 or 3 miles south, near the bridge, it appears a little above the bed of the river. At Burnett's mill, section 34, township 10, range 3, the coal lies some 10 or more feet above the level of the river; but southwest of this, in section 10, township 9, range 3, it is worked in the bed of the river. In sections 26 and 27, township 9, it again appears.

Economical Geology. Stone Foe Building

Knox county has but a limited supply of good building stone. Some portions, however, have sufficient for their own wants. North of Knoxville, in 'the western half of sections 16 and 21, township

II, range 2, quarries have been opened in a heavy sandstone bed. Some portions of the rock do not appear to be of much value, while others, though soft, form a durable material for the use of the builder. In the northwest quarter of section 16 there is a quarry that affords an entirely -different rock. It is a dark-drab-colored conglomerate, spotted by darker, slate-colored pebbles. By exposure it changes, on its surface, to a lighter and yellowish color that is mellow and pleasing in its effect. It is compact, moderately hard and makes a valuable building stone. The foundation stone of the " fire-proof" building attached to the court-house in Knoxville was obtained from this locality. Sections 27, 33 and 34, township 10, range 2, furnish some building stone. Some of the other localities are section 14, township 10, range 3; section 27, township 10, range 4; and sections 21, 27,

The ledge of limestone, which lies just above coal number 6, and is from 1 to 4 feet thick, has been considerably worked where so ex- , posed as to be readily obtained. One of the largest quarries in this limestone is south of Yates City, in section 25, township 9, range 4. The bed is here 4 feet thick, and yields a hard, dark-drab or grayishcolored compact rock, which readily breaks into good shape for building purposes.

Limestone Foe Lime

This is rarely found in any abundance. In township 12, range 2, near the center of section 24, considerable quantities of limestone are found, which is manufactured into lime, yielding a fair article. Elsewhere the manufacture has been attempted only on a small scale. For the most part Knox county has to depend upon localities more favored in this respect for its supply of lime.

Coal

The best and largest quantity is furnished by the upper seam, number 6. This is principally worked in township 12, ranges 2, 3 and 4, and in townships 9 and 10, range 4. This seam is from 4 to 6 feet thick, and at many of the mines it is comparatively free from foreign substances, and hence requires but little sorting. " Horsebacks" or slips, which in some places greatly injure this seam, are not so numerous in this county as elsewhere. The coal is somewhat lighter than that from seam number 4, and is preferred by blacksmiths.

Number 4 furnishes the northwestern part of the county with a good supply of coal of a fair quality, and the mines in this seam are among the best in the county. Nearly all the coal obtained in township 11, range 2, is probably from this seam, and also that from township 9, range 3. It is also worked in some other places, and affords a coal of good quality, and harder than that from number 6. It does not kindle as easily, but lasts longer, and for some purposes is preferred.

The remaining portions of the county are furnished by mines, which probably are in coal number 2. At most places where worked this coal is of excellent quality, and usually pretty free from admixture with other substances. It is largely used for, and well adapted to,

From this it will be seen that Knox county is abundantly supplied with good coal, there being but three townships in which coal is not mined now, viz., township 13, ranges 2, 3 and 4; and in two of them it has been worked formerly, and probably not less than two workable seams may be found in every part of these townships.

Chapter Zoology And Botany

Many of the various species of animals that roamed the native prairies of Knox count}', or made their homes in the wild forests within its borders, and lived undisturbed and free from the haunt of the hound or the crack of the hunter's rifle, are gone from this section forever. Not even a specimen is preserved in taxidermy. The buffalo which grazed upon the verdant prairies has been driven westward. With or before it went the beaver, elk, badger, panther, black wolf and black bear. Some animals that were quite numerous have become very rare, such as the gray fox, the catamount, otter, lynx, and the beautiful Virginia deer.

There still remain many of the different species, mostly inhabiting the country adjacent to Spoon river and a few of the other larger streams. These are, however, fast disappearing, and ere long will be known only in history, as are the deer, the beaver, and the bison. Among those still to be found here are the gray wolf, which is numerous in some parts, the opossum, raccoon, mink, muskrat, the common weasel, the small brown weasel, skunk, woodchuck, or Maryland marmot, prairie mole, common shrew mole, meadow and deer mouse, and the gray rabbit. Of squirrels there are the gray timber squirrel, the fox, chipmunk, the large, gray prairie squirrel, the striped and the spotted prairie squirrel, and the beautiful flying squirrel. The dark brown and the reddish bat are common. Other small animals have been found here which have strayed from other localities.

Of the 5,000 existing species of birds many have sojourned in this county, some temporarily, and others for a considerable time. Many migratory species come only at long intervals, and therefore but little is known of them.

There are certainly no more beautiful ornaments for parlor or drawing-room than a well preserved collection of stuffed birds; and it is a matter of great wonder that more of the schools of the county have not turned their attention in this direction. There is not a more fascinating study than that afforded by our feathered friends. Their free movement through seemingly boundless space, the joyous songs of many, and the characteristic tones of all, their brilliant colors, their lively manners, and their wonderful instincts, have from the earliest ages made a strong impression on men's minds, and in the infancy of intellect gave rise to many peculiar and mysterious associations. Hence the flight of birds was made the foundation of a peculiar art of divination. Religion borrowed many symbols from them and poetry many of its ornaments. Birds avail themselves of their powers of wing to seek situations adapted for them in respect to temperature and supply of food. The arrival of summer birds is always a welcome sign of advancing spring, and is associated with all that is cheerful and delightful. Some birds come almost at the same date annually; others are more influenced by the character of the season, as mild or severe.

A collection of bird's eggs make a beautiful ornament also, and are easy of access, require but little care, and will create a lively interest in the study of birds and their habits. The following list is as nearly correct as can be compiled from the available information upon the subject:

Perchers. - This order of birds is by far the most numerous, and includes nearly all those which are attractive either in plumage or in song. The ruby-throated humming-bird, with its exquisite plumage and almost ethereal existence, is at the head of the list. This is the humming-bird which is always the delight of the children, and is the only one found in Illinois. The chimney swallow, easily known from other swallows by its very long wings and forked tail, and which is a true swift, is quite numerous. Of the whippoorwill family there are two representatives, - the whippoorwill proper, whose note enlivens the forests at night, and the night-hawk. The belted king-fisher, so well known to the school boy, is the only member of its family in this region. At the head of the fly-catchers is the king-bird, the crested fly-catcher and the wood pewee.

Of the sub-order of singers there are the folio win a-: The robin, the wood thrush, Wilson's thrush, the blue-bird, the ruby-crowned and the golden-crested wren, tit-lark, the black and the white creeper, blue yellow-backed warbler, yellow-breasted chat, worm-eating warbler, blue- winged .yellow warbler, Tennessee warbler, and goldencrowned thrush. Shrike family. - This family is represented by the great northern shrike, red- eyed fly-catcher, white-eyed fly-catcher, the blue-headed and the yellow-throated fly-catcher. Swallow family . - This family of birds are very numerous in Knox county. Among them are the barn swallow, white-bellied swallow, bank swallow, cliff swallow, and purple martin. Wax-wing family. - The cedar bird is the representative of the wax-wing in America. Mocking-Sird family. - The genera of this family are the cat-bird, brown thrush, the house and the winter wren. F inch and Sparrow family. - The snow bunting and Smith's bunting appear only in winter. The purple iinch, the yellow bird and the lark finch inhabit this count}\ Of the passerine genus of this family are the Savannah sparrow, the field and the chipping sparrow, the black snowbird, the tree sparrow, the song sparrow, the swamp and the foxcolored sparrow, the black-throated bunting, the rose-breasted grosbeak and the ground robin. Titmouse family - are represented by the chickadee and the tufted titmouse. Creeper family. - There are two specimens of this family, - the white-bellied nut-hatch and the American creeper. Skylark family. - This melodious family is represented here by only the common skylark of the prairie. Blackbird family. - -The rusty blackbird, the crow blackbird, the cow-bird, the red-winged blackbird, the meadow lark, the orchard and the Baltimore orioles of this family, are the most beautiful and brilliant of birds that inhabit this region. Grow family. - The blue-jay and the common crow comprise the species of this family.

Birds of Prey. - This order of birds comprises all those, with few exceptions, which pursue and capture birds and other animals for food. They are mostly of large size, the females are larger than the males, they live in pairs, and choose their mates for life. Most raptorial birds have disappeared. Among them are the golden eagle, which was always rare but now no longer seen here; the bald eagle, or properly the white-headed eagle, once quite common, now very scarce, no longer breeds here, but strays from the heavy timber on the Illinois river. Some well preserved specimens of this genus are in the county. This eagle enjoys the honor of standing as our national emblem. Benjamin Franklin lamented the selection of this bird as emblematical of the Union, for its great cowardice. It has the ability of ascending in circular sweeps without any apparent motion of the wings or the tail, and it often rises in this manner until it disappears from view; when at an immense height, and as if observing an object on the ground, it sometimes closes it wings, and glides toward the earth with such velocity that the eye can scarcely follow it, causing a loud rustling sound like a violent gust of wind among the branches of the forest. The Hawk family are eight or nine species, some but seldom seen, others common. The turkey-buzzard has almost, if not quite, disappeared. Of the owl genera are several species, though all are but seldom seen because of£their nocturnal habits. Among them are the barn owl, the screech owl, the long and the short-eared owl, the barred owl, and the snowy owl, the latter being the rarest.

Climbers. - But few of this order remain in the county, the most common of which are the woodpeckers. Of the various kinds there are the golden-winged, the pileated, the hairy, the downy, the yellow-bellied, red-bellied and the red-headed. At an early day the Carolina parrot was often seen, but has now entirely deserted this section. The yellow and black-billed cuckoos are occasionally seen.

S or ateliers. - This order contains but few genera in this county. The wild turkey, the choicest of game, has almost entirely disappeared, and was the only one of its family that ever sojourned here. In an earl}- day they were in abundance. Grouse family. - The chiefest among this family is the prairie chicken, which, if not carefully protected, must ere long follow the wild turkey, never to return. The ruffled grouse, wrongfully called " pheasant," has of late made its appearance. It is quite fond of cultivated fields, and, if properly protected and encouraged until it becomes firmly settled, will make a fine addition to the game, and fill the place of the prairie chicken. Partridge family. - The fate of that excellent bird, the quail, is only a question of a short time. The Dove family. - The wild pigeons continue to make their semi-annual visits, but not in such vast numbers as years ago. Acres of forest were often so filled at night with these birds that the breaking of boughs and the flying of pigeons made a noise that could be heard for miles, and the shot of a sportsman's gun could not be heard at a distance of ten feet. Highly interesting is the description by Audubon of the enormous flights which he observed on the Ohio in the fall of 1813; they obscured the daylight and lasted three days without interruption. According to a very moderate estimate of his, each flight contained the stupendous number of one billion, one hundred and fifteen thousand million, one hundred and thirty-six thousand pigeons. These flights caused a general commotion among the entire rural population. Desirous of booty and anxious lest their crops should be spoiled, the farmers, arming themselves with rifles, clubs, poles, torches and iron pots filled with sulphur, proceed to the resting-places of the birds. The work of slaughter beinoaccomplished, everybody sat down among mountains of dead pigeons, plucking and salting the birds which they selected, abandoning the rest to the foxes, wolves, raccoons, opossums and hogs, whole herds of which were driven to the battle field. The plaintive notes of the Carolina dove, commonly known as the turtle-dove, are still heard.

county iii large numbers, have almost disappeared. They are* migratory, and in their usual season would appear coming from the north or south, as winter passes into summer or summer into winter.

Diver family. - The great northern diver, or loon, sometimes visits this section, but inhabits the frigid zone. Gull family. - Of this family are Wilson's tern and the silvery gull. Pelican family. - The rough-billed pelican was the only genus of this family that ever stopped in Knox county, and it has now altogether ceased to make its visits here. C ormorant family . - The double-crested cormorant, or sea raven, has been seen here. Duck family. - This family of migratory birds visited the ponds and streams of this county in large numbers before it became so thickly settled, both on their northern and southern passage. There are the wood duck, the big black-headed duck, the ring-necked duck, the red-head, the canvas-back, the dipper, the sheldrake or goosander, the fish duck, the red-breasted and the hooded merganser, the mallard and the pintail, the green-winged and the blue-winged teal, the spoonbill and the gadwall, the baldpate, the American swan, the trumpeter swan and the white-fronted goose, - all of which often swam upon the waters of Knox.

Waders. - Probably less is known of this order of birds than of any other, because of their slyness and solitary habits. They frequented the marshes, but cultivation has drained their favorite haunts. Crane family. - The whooping crane, always rare, is now never seen. The sandhill cranes stop on their journeys north and south. Heron family. - The great blue heron or crane, least bittern, the green heron, night heron and the American bittern, compose those of this family visiting this region. Ibis family. - The glossy ibis has been seen5;here. Plover family. - The golden plover, the killdeer and the king plover comprise this family known here. Plialarope family. - The Wilson's and the red phalarope have frequented the swamps of this county. Snipe family. - Various birds of this family have been common in and around the swamps of this county. Among them were Wilson's snipe, gray or red-breasted snipe, the least and the semi-palmated sandpiper, the willett, the tell-tale, the yellow-leg, the solitary sandpiper, the spotted sandpiper, the field plover, long-billed curlew, the common rail, the clapper rail or mud hen, and the coot.

Reptiles. - All of the species of this class that ever inhabited this region are still to be found here except the poisonous snakes. The rattlesnake, of the genus crotalus, is of a yellowish brown color, and has a series of horny joints at the end of the tail, which make a rattling sound. These were the most venomous of all snakes found here, and were numerous in the early settlement. There are two kinds, the bandy or striped and the prairie rattlesnake, the latter being still occasionally found. The copperhead was always rare. Among the harmless snakes are the water-snake, the garter-snake, the bullsnake, the milk-snake, the black-snake and the blue racer.

Many reptiles found here are erroneously called lizards, but are salamanders and other like innocent creatures. Lizards are never found in this county. Among the tortoises or turtles are found the map turtle, the snapping and the soft-shelled turtle. Of the batrachian, or naked reptiles, there are a few, and, though loathsome to sight and touch, are harmless. The toad, the bull-frog, the leopard frog, the tree toad, with some tailed batrachia, comprise the most of this order.

Although fishes are the lowest class of vertebrates, their varied forms and colors, which often rival those of precious stones and burnished gold, the wonderful power and velocity of some, the wholesome food furnished by manj^, and the exciting sport of their capture, combine to render fishes subjects of great interest to the casual observer, as well as to the amateur and professional naturalist. The number of known species of fishes is about ten thousand. The waters of Knox county are not as prolific of fish as many other streams in this latitude, yet they are not barren of the finny tribe, and the sportsman often returns home heavily laden with choice fish. Sickle-hacked family. - This family furnishes the game fish, and are never caught larger than four pounds in weight. The various genera found here are the black bass, goggle-eye, the croppy, or big black sun-fish, and the two common sun-fish. Pike family. - There is but one species of this family, the pickerel, which is caught weighing from five to twenty-five pounds. Sucker family. - Of this tribe are the buffalo, red-horse, white sucker, two species of blacksuckers, mullet ranick. Fish of this family are found in all the streams of the county. They abound wherever there is water. Catfish family. - Of this voracious family the channel cat-fish, the mud cat-fish and two species of the small cat-fish inhabit the waters of this county, and are caught ranging in weight from one to thirty pounds. Besides these varieties there are the chub, silver-sides and fresh- water herring, and large numbers of other species denominated minnows, which are found in the smallest spring branches, as well as the larger streams.

Botany

There are probably over 500 species of plants growing spontaneously within the bounds of Knox county, but we will not attempt to give a complete list of the herbaceous plants, or indeed name any of the mosses, mushrooms, etc.

Trees And Shrubs

While Nature has not given a great quantity of these, she has furnished a liberal variety. In this respect Knox county is in advance of most of the Northern States. No one or two species of tree monopolizes the ground in the forest, as they do in many sections of the United States. Some of the less hardy shrubs, like the wild prairie flowers, are slowly disappearing before the encroachments of civilization, yet we shall endeavor to enumerate them all, as well as the trees.

Oak Family. - The White Oak is king of the forest trees in this country in respect to grandeur, strength and general utility, and in early day afforded " mast," a first-class feed, for hogs running at large. Those which wintered in the wild woods were often fat enough for market in the spring, although not fed a grain by human hand. The Burr Oak is a fine tree, with a rich and beautifully cut foliage. The wood is valuable, and the acorns are sweet. They are buried in deep, mossy cups, whence the tree is also called " overcup oak." The Swamp White Oak is a tall tree and grows in low grounds. The Yellow Chestnut Oak is a tree of medium height and has leaves like those of the chestnut. The Laurel Oak is a very common tree on gentle slopes of ground, having the leaves undivided and somewhat like laurel leaves in appearance: whence the name. In the days before the railroads brought pine so plentifully into this prairie country, the people found this one of the best trees for making shingles: whence it is also called " shingle oak." Barren Oak, or " black jack," is scarce, being found mostly in sandy barrens. It seldom exceeds 25 feet in height. Leaves, wedge-shaped and three-lobed. Black Oak, or "yellow oak," has the inner bark yellower than the other oaks have, and is valuable for dyeing and tanning. Externally the bark is very rough and almost black. The tree is large and quite common. Red'Oak is a tall, handsome tree on northern hill-sides andin shady woods. The acorn cup is fiat and saucer-shaoed. Swamp; Spanish Oak, or "pin oak," is found, but is scarce. The tree is much like red oak, but is not so tall. All the white-barked oaks decay on the outside first, and all the black-barked varieties decay first on the inside. Hence rails made of any of the black oaks have a hard exterior and seem sound long after all the inside is rotten, thus being very deceptive; but white-oak rails last many years longer in the fence. The up-land black oaks make a hotter fire than any other kind of wood. The Hazel-nut and two species of Iron-wood belong also to the oak family, botanically speaking. The iron-wood, which is also called " American hornbeam," " blue beech," and " water beech," is a beautiful tree, but is scarce. The more common species have the seeds of the appearance of hops.

Birch Family. - The Red Birch is the only member of this family found in Knox county. The outer bark peels itself off horizontally around the trunk and limbs, like that of the cherry.

Willow Family. - The Prairie Willow is small, and was very common before the white man's plow deprived it of its native home. The Glaucous Willow grows 8 to 10 feet high, and is common. The Black Willow grows 15 to 25 feet high, twigs brittle at the base, bark of the trunk somewhat black, and the leaves pointed at each end. Common. The Long-leaved Willow occurs, growing generally as a small shrub. The Shining Willow, and possibly one or two other species, can be found. To the Willow Family belong also the Quaking Asp, or Aspen, the Cotton- wood, the Silverleaf Poplar, Lombardy Poplar, and Balm-of-Gilead, all of which grow spontaneously in this county, although the last three have been introduced by the settlers. Of the Aspen there are two kinds, - the American and the Largetoothed. The poplars and the Balm-of-Gilead have a great tendency to sprout from the roots. The Lombardy poplar does not prosper well in this windy country. It grows too tall.

Walnut Family. - The Black Walnut is a large, noble and most valuable tree, too well known to need description. It is yet "- common " in this county. A few Butternuts, or " white walnut," are also found. The wood is of a lighter color and more brittle than that of black walnut. It is now being used for veneering. Of the Shellbark Hickory there are two kinds, - one with a scaly bark and furnishing most of our hickory-nuts in the market, and the other with a smoother bark and lighter heart-wood, and bearing the largest kind of hickory-nut. The Bitter-nut Hickory is very common.

Plane-tree Family. - The only representative in America is the Button-wood, or " sycamore," a large, coarse, white-barked tree common in river " bottoms," but is of little value. A few grow within the limits of Knox countv.

Nettle Family. - At the head of this family stands the American or White Elm. Although so common in the forest, it promises to become one of the most popular ornamental or shade trees. The Red

Elm ("slippery-elm") is scarce. Called "red" on account of having red heart-wood, while the white elm has white heart-wood. The Hackberry is a beautiful tree, of full forest height, hardy and tough. The Mulberry is very scarce.

Rose Family. - The Crab-apple, Wild Plum, Wild Black Cherry and Red Haw (two species) are abundant, - the cherry on high land and the rest along the streams. There are also found the Chokecherry, Nine-bark (a shrub), Black Raspberry, Blackberry (and possibly the Dewberry), Chokeberry, two species of wild rose (Early an d Dwarf), and a very few June-berry. The Blackberry has been very abundant, but its ground the farmer finds more valuable for corn. The other berries are very scarce. The Dwarf Wild Rose used to ornament the prairies, especially their margins, but there is scarcely any room left now-a-days for the modest little thing by the rough hand of agriculture.

Maple Family. - The White Maple, commonly called "soft maple," is by far the most abundant, especially as a shade-tree in the towns and villages; but is soft and brittle and the limbs are easily broken off by the wind, so that it is now about to be abandoned as a shade or ornamental tree. As an example of the adaptability of the prairie to the growth of timber, we may refer to the fact that the first settlers here 30 to 40 years ago planted the common locust ; and after it grew up 20 to 35 feet high the worms and the winds made an unsightly tree of it, and the white maple (acer dasycarpum) was next resorted to, which has already attained the height of 40 and 50 feet, with top and trunk in due proportion. Box Elder and Sugar Maple (both members of this family) and white elm are now being substituted, thus making the third crop of good sized forest trees raised on this prairie within the short space of civilized life here. The Sugar, or " hard," Maple makes the most beautiful and durable shade-tree, as well as ornamental tree, but it is of slow growth. Indeed, durability and slowness of growth necessarily go together. Box Elder is of a scrubby form, and the least esteemed of the three most popular shade trees. As members of this family there are also the Bladder-nut, a beautiful little bush, and the Buckeye, a tree of heavy foliage, soft wood, and large, poisonous nuts, and growing only in the river bottoms. Like the currant, it sheds its leaves in August.

Linden Family. - Bass-wood everybody knows. It is also called " white- wood," "linden," and "lime-tree," and in the Southern States is known only by the name of " lin," from its old European name lindy

Rue family. - The Prickly Ash used to be a common bush or shrub, but is now fast disappearing. It is characterized by a very rank and pungent odor and taste, is covered with short briers or thorns, and bears a small, brown berry. The Hop-tree, or " wafer ash," is a small tree sometimes met with.

Cashew Family, or Sumachs. - The Smooth Sumach is by far the most abundant, growing even as weeds upon prairie farms. The Fragrant Sumach and the Poison Ivy are said also to be found in Knox county.

Buck-thorn Family. - Red-root, or ISTew Jersey Tea, was abundant in the margin of the uncultivated prairies, but is pretty well destroyed at the present day. A decoction of its leaves has been employed as a substitute for China tea. Possibly a species of common Buck-thorn may be found in this county.

Staff -tree Family. - Burning-bush (" waahoo ") is a beautiful bush, sometimes cultivated for the fine show of odd-shaped crimson berries it displays after the leaves have fallen off. The Climbing Bittersweet is also to be found in this county; but at the most is exceedingly rare.

Pulse Family. - Trees and plants of this family are characterized by bearing pods of seeds like beans. The Red-bud is a shrubby kind of tree, and, contrary to waahoo, displays a red top in early spring, before leaves appear on it or any other tree. The color is a beautiful crimson, and is made by the buds and flowers. The Honey Locust is famous for its large thorns and long pods, the inner border of the latter containing a large quantity of a sweet substance which tastes something like honey. A species or variety is said to occur which has but few thorns, if any. A few specimens of the Kentucky Coffee-tree grow in this county. The seeds of this tree are of the size of gumdrops, and have a hard, glossy, beautiful shell. A small shrub often called " swamp locust " is probably False Indigo.

Dogwood Family.- - Four species of Dogwood flourish here, the most abundant of which is the Panicled Cornel, bearing white berries about the size of peas.

Olive Family. - It would sound more natural to Westerners to call this the Ash family, as the ash is the principal representative here. The White Ash is the most prevalent kind, and is valuable on account of its strength, hardness, durability and freedom from warping, as well as its quality for making a blazing fire. The Blue Ash is about as good. Distinguished from the White by having square twigs. Perhaps two other species of ash can be found in the county, - the Green and the Swamp.

Herbaceous Plants

-We will name only about 200 of the most common, growing spontaneously, and give them, as nearly as we can conveniently estimate, in the order of their abundance, the more common first:

Growing Wild. - Besides several species each of grass, sedge, ferns, aster, golden-rod, wild sunflower, evening primrose, cone-flower, fleabane, cinquefoil, tick trefoil, violet, crowfoot, milk-weed, cress, loosestrife, and beggar's-lice, there are the sneeze-weed, wood sorrel, wild bergamot, strawberry, wild cranesbill, boneset, spring beauty, clearweed, arrow-head, tick-seed, blue cardinal flower, May apple, self-heal, scouring rush, spider-wort, ginseng, sweet William (two species), meadow parsnip (two or three species), cow-bane, wild onion, lousewort, vetchling, ditch stone-crop, cardinal flower, milk-vetch, threeseeded mercury, pepper- root, wild mint, spotted touch-me-not, soft rush (and probably one or two other species of rush), rue anemone, liver-leaf, marsh marigold, early meadow rue, blood-root, Indian turnip, mitre-wort, white and purple trilliums, cat-tail flag, cup-plant, everlasting, avens, bell-flower, ox-eye, blue-joint grass, white lettuce, hawk-weed, lobelia (medical), gentian, yellow adder's-tongue, harbinger of spring, skull-cap, hare-bell, stone-root, groundsel, catch-fly, false Solomon's seal, Gerardia (two species), dodder, wild senna, wood sage, American pennyroyal, wood nettle, black snake-root, water plantain, rattle- snake master, Dutchman's breeches, button snake-root, Solomon's seal, blue cohosh, Seneca snake-root, bastard toad-flax,

Growing in Cultivated and Waste Places. - Blue-grass, white clover, dandelion, water smart- weed, hog- weed (" rag- weed "), plantain, door- weed ("goose-grass," two species), sneeze- weed, wire-grass, panic-grass (several species), fox-tail grass, hair-grass ("tickle-grass"), spear-grass, shepherd's purse, green pig- weed, Spanish needle (three species), chick-weed, purslane, common smart-weed, May-weed, goosefoot (" lamb's-quarter"), ground ivy, blue vervain, hedge mustard, yarrow, nightshade, cinquefoil (two species), mild water-pepper, mallow, burdock, white pig-weed (" tumble-weed "), wild sunflower (several species), mother-wort, black mustard, chenopodium urbicum and murale. Euphorbia maculata, orchard grass, wood sorrel, polygonum Pennsylvanicum, clear- weed, wild pepper-grass, black bindweed, barnyard grass, biennial wormwood, sow thistle (?) (two species), scurvy grass, convolvulus bindweed (three species?), catnip, cockle-bur, common thistle, three-seeded mercury, toad-flax, false red- top (grass), fescue (grass), jimson-weed, red-top (grass), red clover, bouncing Bet, curled dock ("yellow dock"), mullein, great rag-weed ("horse- weed"), white vervain, timothy, cirsium altissimum, Indian mallow, ground cherry, hemp, fetid marigold, cud-weed, bugle-weed, wire-grass (two species), swamp milk- weed, horse-tail, green milk- weed, morning-glory, speedwell, silk-weed, hop, scrophularia nodosa, verbena Aubletia hoary vervain, climbing false buckwheat, wild balsam-apple, sida, hedge nettle, fire-weed, tansy, chess, wild rye, buckwheat, white sweet clover, asparagus, white mustard, poke, prince's feather (polygonum orientale).

All plants growing in cultivated and waste grounds, except four or five repeated in each of the above lists, may be considered as introduced by Anglo-Saxon civilization. While the wild plants in the woods are supposed to be the same now as originally, the prairie has changed its grassy clothing for cultivated crops and hundreds of different weeds. Before settlement by the whites the prairie was mostly covered by one kind of grass. Several other kinds could be found, especialty in places here and there, notably the blue-joint, which grew the tallest of any. Along the sloughs and in other wet places there was the slough grass and several species of golden rod, aster and wild sunflower. All other kinds of weeds were scarce. Here and there were patches of rosin weed. But the golden-rod, aster, and sunflower made beautiful yellow stripes across the prairies in low places, which were peculiarly charming. In the earliest stages of the growth of prairie grass it was interspersed with little flowers - the violet, straw- berr y-blossom and others of the most delicate structure. Soon these disappeared, and taller flowers, displaying more lively colors, took their place, and still later, a series of still higher, but less delicately formed flowers appeared. While the grass was green the prairies were adorned with every imaginable variety of color. In the summer the plants grew taller and the colors more lively; in autumn another generation of flowers came. A poetess writes in the Knoxville Journal of March 7, 1850, as follows:

The original prairie grass can scarcely be found anywhere now. It cannot stand close pasturage. The blue or June grass bears pasturage the best of any; but where live stock are kept off this grass, it will be eradicated by other kinds of grass. A curious fact similar to this, and of interest to botanists, is the eradication of the May-weed along the road-sides by hog-weed, smart-weed and Spanish needles. Possibly this has been aided by the greater amount of wet weather for a few years past.

The most troublesome weeds which are on the increase at the present time are the common and the tall thistle, Indian mallow, toadflax, wild lettuce or sow thistle, and jimson-weed. Clear-weed and mercury are becoming abundant in the gardens and door-yards where shade trees are plentiful, but they are not troublesome.