Peoria County, Illinois - Archaeology of the Northwest, 1880 (part 1 of 2)

Archaeology of the Northwest

.-Vncient Work.s - Conjectures - Works of the Mound Builders in Ohio - Difif'irent Forms and Classes - Mounds at GallipoUs, Marietia, and ChiUicotlie - Relics Found - Ancient Fortilications at Circleville and Other Places ^ Pre -historic Remains in Other States - In Iowa - Excavation of Mounds - Elongated and Round Mounds - Their Antiquity - Who Were the Mound Builders?

Scattered all over the great Northwest are the remains of the works of an ancient people, who must have been infinitely more advanced in the arts than the Indian tribes who inhabited the country at the time of the advent of the European. The question as to whether the Indians are the descendants of that people, the Mound Builders, is a subject of antiquarian speculation. One thing, howevei', is certain, that a people once inhabited all this vast region who possessed some considerable knowledge of the arts and even the sciences ; a people of whom the Indians possessed no knowledge, but whose works have survived the mutations of hundreds, and perhaps thousands of years, to attest that they lived, and acted, and passed away. There have been various conjectures of the learned concerning the time wlien, by what people, and even for what purpose, these monuments of human ingenuity were erected. Their origin is deeply involved in the obscurity of remote antiquity. Neither history, nor authentic tradition, afford any ligjrt by which to conduct inquiries concerning them, and it is probable that no certainty upon the subject will ever be attained. Brief mention of some of these ancient works can not fail to interest the reader. Tliey are found distributed over the country generally from the Alleghany Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. They are more numerous and more remarkable, however, in some parts of the country than in others.

Some of the most remarkable foitifications in Ohio are at Worthington, Granville, Athens, Marietta, Gallipolis, Chillicothe, and Circleville ; also, on Paint Creek, IS miles northwest of Chillicothe, and on a plain three miles northeast of the last named city. In some localities there are both mounds and fortifications, while in others there are mounds only. The mounds vary in magnitude, and also somewhat in shape. Some are conical, ending sharply at the summit, and as steep on the sides as the earth could be made to lie. Others are of the same form, except that they present a flat area on the top, like a cone cut off at some distance from its vortex, in a plane coincident with its base, or with the horizon. Others again, are of a semi globular shape. Of this descrijition was that standing in Gallipolis. The largest one near Worthington is of the second kind, and presents on the summit a level area of forty feet in diameter. There is one at Marietta of this kind, but the area on the top does not exceed twenty feet in diameter. Its perpendicular height is about fifty feet, and its circumference at the base twenty rods. Those in Worthington and Gallipolis are each from fifty to a hundred feet in diameter at their bases. A large mound once stood in the heart of the city of Chillicothe, but was leveled forty or fifty years ago to make room for the erection of a block of buildings. and in its destruction a number of relics were exhumed. Several smaller mounds were located in the same vicinity. They are found scattered in profusion in the valleys of the INliamis, Scioto, Hocking and Muskingum rivers, as well as south of the Ohio river. One of the largest is near the Ohio river, 14 miles below Wheeling. This is about 33 rods in circumference, and consequently between ten and eleven rods in diameter at its base.

Its perpendicular heifjht is about seventy feet. On the summit is an area of nearly sixty feet in diameter, in tlu- middle of which is a regular cavity, the ciihical contents of which are about 1:5,000 feet. Witliin a short distance of this mound are five smaller ones, some of which are thirty feet in diameter. Some of the mounds mentioned, and others not referred to, iiave been excavated, either bytiie antiquarian or in the construction of public woiks, and in tlie most of them liuman bones have been discovered. Most of these bones crumble in pieces or resolve i.ito dust shortly after being exposed to the air ; except in some instances, wherein the teeth, jaw, skull, and sometimes a few other bones, by reason of their peculiar solidity, resist the effects of contact with the air. From the fact of the finding human remains in them many have inferred that they were erected as burial places for the dead. In some of them, however, which have iieen examined, no human remains have been discovered, but pieces of pottery, stone hatchets, and other relics, are found in nearly all.

Manj- of these mounds are composed of earth of a different quality from that which is found in their immediate vicinity. This circumstance would seem to indicate that the earth of which they were composed was transported some distance. A striking instance of this difference of composition was first noticed some sixt}' or seventy years ago. in a mound at Franklinton, near the main fork of the Scioto river. This mound was composed altogether of clay, and the brick for the court-house in that town were made of it at that time. In it were likewise found a much greater number of human bones than is usually found in mounds of its size. The characteristics mentioned in connection with the mounds in Oiiio apply to those generally throughout the Northwest.

Not so numerous as the mounds, but more remarkable as involving the principles of science, especially mathematics, are the fortifications, or earlli walls, found in many places. They are commonly supposed to have been forts, or military fortifications. They generally consist of a circular wall, composed of earth, and usually as steep on the sides as the dirt could conveniently be made to lie. Sometimes, thougli rarely, their form is elliptical, or oval, and a few of them are quadrangular or square. In height they are various; some of them are so low as to be scarcely |)ercej)tible : some from twenty to thirty feet in height, while others again are of an intermediate elevation. The wall of the same fort, however, is pretty uniformly of the same height all around. They are likewise equally various in the contents of the ground which they enclose, some containing but a few square rodsof ground, while others contain nearly one hundred acres. The number of their entrances, or gateways, varies in different torts from one to eight or more, in proportion to the magnitude of the enclosure. The walls are mostly single, but in some instances these works have been found to consist of two parallel walls, adjacent to each other. The forts are generally located on comparatively elevated ground, adjoining a river or stream of water. Their situation is usually such as a skillful military engineer or tactician would have selected for military positions. This fact would seem to strengliien the theory that they were designed and constructed for fortifications.

Tiie city of Circles illc, Ohio, is located on the site of one of the most remarkable of these fortifications, and from this circumstance takes its name. There are, or were, indeed, two fort>» at that place, one circular, and the other square.

The square fort adjoins a circular one on the east, communicating with it b_v a gateway'. The circtdar fort consists of two j)arallcl walls, whose tops are, apparently, about three rods apart, the inner circle l)eing forty-seven rods in diameter. Between these two walls is a fosse, excavated sufficiently deep and broad to have afforded earth enough for the construction of the exterior wall alone, and no more. F'rom this circumstance and others, the earth for the construction of the inner wall is supposed to have iieen transported from a distance. The inner wall is composed of clay, anil tiie outer one of dirt and gravel of similar quality with that which composes the neighboring ground, which is another circumstance quite conclusive of the correctness of the conjecture that the material for the inner wall was brought from a distance. There is but one original opening, or passage, into tlie circular fort, and that is on the east side, connecting it witii the square one. The latter lias seven avenues leading into it, exclusive of the one which connects with the circle. There is one at every corner, and one on each side equi-distant from the angular openings. These avenues are each twelve feet wide, and the walls on either hand rise immediately to their usual heiglit, which is about twenty feet. Wlien tlie town of Circleville was originally laid out, the trees growing upon the walls of these fortifications and the mounds enclosed in the squtire one, were apparently of equal size and age, and those lying down in equal stages of decay, with those in the surrounding forest, a circumstance proving the great antiquity of these stupendous remains of former labor and ingenuity. Of course, the progress of modern civilization in the building of a city over these ancient remains, has long since nearly obliterated many of their parts. The above is a description of them as they appeared sixty years ago, when Circleville was a mere village, and before the hand of modern vandalism had marred or obliterated anj^ of the parts. A somewhat minute description of these ancient remains is given, not because they are more remarkable than many others found in different parts of the Northwest, but as an example to show the magnitude of many similar works. Among others in the same State ma)' be mentioned a remarkable mound near Marietta, which is enclosed by a wall embracing an area 230 feet long by 215 wide. This mound is thirty feet higli and elliptical in form. This mound, with tl^.e wall enclosing it, stands apart from two other irregular enclosures, one containing fifty and the other twenty-seven acres. Within the larger of these two enclosures there are four truncated pyramids, three of which have graded passage ways to their summits. The largest pyramid is 188 feet long by 132 feet wide, and is ten feet high. From the southern wall of this enclosure there is a graded passage way 150 feet broad, extending 600 feet to the immediate valley of the Muskingum river. This passage way is guarded by embankments on either side from eight to ten feet high. In the smaller square there are no pyramidal structures, but fronting each gate-way there is a circular mound. The walls of these several enclosures are from twenty to thirty feet broad at the base, and from five to six feet high. Besides these, many similar embankments may be traced in the same vicinity.

Squier and Davis, authors of that most elaborate work, entitled " The Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," estimated that there were in Ross county, Ohio, at least one hundred enclosures and five hundred mounds. They give the probable number in that State at from one thousand to fifteen hundred enclosures, and ten thousand mounds. These estimates are quite likely to be far below the actual number, as their investigations were made many years ago, when large portions of the State were yet covered with forests, and before any general interest had been awakened on the subject of which they treated. Among the remarkable fortifications in Ross county is one at Cedar Bank, on the east side of the Scioto river, about five miles north of Chillicothe. It is a square form, enclosing an area of thirty-two acres. The west side of this enclosure is formed by the high bluff bordering the river at this point. There are two gateways opposite each other, one on the north and the otlier on the south side. Inside of the enclosure, on a line with the gate-ways, there is a mound 215 feet long and 150 feet broad.

When this work first attracted the attention of Mr. E. G. Squier, Dr. Davis, and others engaged in archaeological research, it was in the midst of a dense forest of heav}' timber. Trees of the largest growth stood on the embankments, and covered the entire area of ground enclosed. About a mile and a half below, on the same side of the Scioto, are other fortifications, both circular and square, even more remarkable than the one last desci'ibed, on account of the forms and combinations which they exhibit. Another fortification in this county, in the form of a parallelogram, 2,800 feet long by 1,800

A scries of tlie most wonderful and most gifjantic of these pre-liistoric works, is to he found in the Licking Valley, near Newark. Thev cover an area of two-square miles. Tiie works are of sucli vast magnitude that even with our labor-saving implements to construct them, would require tlie labor of thousands of men continued for many months, -- Fort Ancient," as it is called, in Warren county. Ohio, has nearly four miles of embankment, from eighteen to twenty feet high.

Mounds and fortifications similar to those in Ohio are found in all the Slates of the Northwest, and indeed, througliout the entire valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries. In tlie vallev of the Wabash^ in Indiana, are many interesting remains of the works of tlie Mound Builders. Near Kahokia. Illinois, there is a mound 2,000 feet in circumference, ami iiinetv feet high. Many lemarkable objects of interest to the antiquary are fonml ill Wisconsin. Scattered ovei her undulating plains are earth-works, modeled after tlie forms of men and animals. At Aztalan, in Jefferson county, is an ancient fortification 5-50 yards long and 275 yards wide. Tlie walls are from four to five feet high, and more than twenty feet in thickness at tiie base. Near tlie Blue Mounds, in that State, tiiere is another work, in form resembling a man in a recumbent position. It is one hundred ami twenty feet long and thirty feet across the trunk. At Prairievilie there is still anotlier resembiing a turtle in sliape which is fifty-six feet in length. At Cass- \ille there is one whicli is said to resemble tlie extinct mastodon. In some instances these animal resemblances and forms are much defaced by time, while in other cases they are distinctly visible. Fragments of ancient pottery are found scattered about most of tlieni.

Scattered over the surface of Iowa, also, are to be found many of these monuments of a pre-historic race. Tlie mounds especially are nuuieroiis. appearing most in that portion of the State east of tlie Des Moines river, but in a few instances west of it. Groups of mounds are found along Iowa river, in Johnson county, presenting tiie same geneml appearance with those in the States east of the Mi.ssissippi. Near the mouth of this river, in Louisa county, are the remains of an ancient fortification, willi a number of moiiiKls ill the same vicinity, wiiicli have attracted tlic attention of tlie curious. In the vicinity of Ottuniwa. Wapello county, are a large number of mounds, several of which have been examined. There is a chain of them in this last naine<l county, coniincncing near the mouth of Sugar Creek, a small tributary of the Des Moines, and extending twelve miles northward, with distances between them in some instances as great as two miles. Two of tliein were excavated several years ago. One of them was about 45 feet in diameter, and situated npim the highest ground in the vicinity. The other was directly north about oiic-fouitli of a mile. Its diaiucter at the base was about 75 feet. In the center of this last named niouiid, was fouml. at the depth of bnir feet, a layer of stone, with the appearance of having been subjected to the action of fire. There were also found a mass of charcoal, a bed of ashes, and calcined human bones. A number of relics were also foun<l in the smaller mound first mentioned. These examinations were made by several geiitleiiieii of Ottiuiiwa.

.Ml'. F. C. Roberts, in a Fort .Madison paper, writes of the examination of u mound situated about six miles north of that city, a few years ago. It is located on the brow of a hill, is of an elliptical shape, and small in size, being only about 30 feet long, and 15 feet wide ; its height was about six feet. The mound contained a number of separate compartments, constructed ivs follows: First, there was a fioor made of limestone, which must have been lirouglit a distance of several miles, as none nearer could have been obtained. This Mimm- was laid regular an<l sinoulh, the best sUuie only being used. Above the fioor, with an intervening .>ipacc of about twenty inches, there was a roof, also made of limestone. The sides of this vault, if it may so be called, seemed to have once had stone walls, but they were more or less caved in. It was also thought that tlie roof had originally been much higher. The compartments were made by partitions or walls of stone. Each compartment was occupied by a human skeleton, and articles of flint and stone, as well as some bones of animals. All the skeletons of human origin were placed in a sitting position, with the knees drawn up, and the head inclined forward between them. The arms were placed by the side, and sometimes clasped around the knees. Besides the human bones, there were those of some large birds and of some animal. Some of these were charred, and were found in connection with charcoal and ashes. There were numerous flint weapons, and small three cornered stones.

In Cla3'ton and other counties in the northeastern part of the State, the Mound Builders have left numerous monuments of their existence in that region in pre-historic times. The researches of Hon. Samuel Murdock, of Clayton county, have been extensive and successful in giving to the scientific and antiquarian world much information in relation to these works of an ancient people who once occupied our continent. He has collected a vast number of relics from the mounds in that portion of the State. After long and thorough investigation, he gives it as his opinion that in Clayton county alone there are not less than one hundred thousand artificial mounds, including the two classes, the round and the elongated, the latter ranging from one hundred to six hundred feet in length. All of them, so far as examinations have been made, contain more or less skeletons. One which was examined near Clayton was estimated to have contained over one hundred bodies. From investigations made, the inference is drawn that the elongated mounds are of greater antiquity than the round ones. The skeletons found in the former are in a more advanced state of decay, and in some of them there is scarcely any trace of bones. In nearly all the round mounds skeletons were found in a remarkably good state of preservation, and can be obtained by the thousand. These facts indicate most conclusively that the elongated mounds were the work of an older race of tlie Mound Builders, and that they were erected ages before the round ones were. The fact that human remains have been found in nearly all of both classes favors the theory that they were erected as receptacles for the dead.

While workman were excavating a mound for the foundation of a warehouse in the city of McGregor, in the Summer of 1874, human bones were found, and also a stone ax weighing thirteen pounds. It was embedded twenty feet below the original surface.

As stated, the work of the JNIound Builders was not confined to that portion of the State embracing the jNIississippi drainage. Similar remains, though not so numerous, are observed on the western slope of the water-shed between the two great rivers bordei'ing the State. Some five miles below Denison, Crawford county, in the valley of Boyer river, there is a semi-circular group of artificial mounds. They are situated on a plateau, rising above the first, or lower bottom, and are about nine in number, each rising to a height of from five to six feet above the general level of the ground. Another similar group is located on a second bottom, at the mouth of Paradise creek, iu the same county. Human remains have been found in some of them.

Galena Mounds

On the top of the high bluffs that skirt the west bank of the Mississippi, about two and a half miles from Galena, are a number of these silent monuments of a pre-historic age. The spot is one of surpassing beauty. From that point may be obtained a view of a portion of three States, - Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin. A hundred feet below, at the foot of the perpendicular cliffs, the trains of the Illinois Central Railroad thunder around the curve, the portage is in full view, and the "Father of Waters," with its numerous bayous and islands, sketches a grand panorama for miles above and below. Here, probably thousands of years ago, a race of men now extinct, and unknown even in the traditions of the Indians who inhabited that section for centuries before the discovery of

America l)y Columbus, built these strangely wonderful and enigmatical mounds. At this point these mounds are circular and conical in form. Tlie largest one is at least forty feet in diameter at the base, and not less than fifteen feet high, even yet, after it lias been beaten l)y tiie storms of many centuries. On its top stands the large stump of an oak tree that was cut down about fifty years ago, and its annual rings indicate a growth of at least two luindred years.

One of the most singular eartii-works in Illinois was found on the top of a ridge near the east bank of the Sinsinawa creek in the lead region. It resemlded some huge animal, the head, eai-s, nose, legs and tail, and general outline of which being as perfect as if made b}- men versed in modern art. Tlie ridge on whicii it was situated stands on tiie prairie, 300 yards wide, 100 feet in height, and rounded on the top by a deep deposit of clay. Centrally, along the line of its summit, and thrown up in the form of an emliankment three feet higli, extended the outline of a quadruped measuring 250 feet from the tip of the nose to the end of tiie tail, and having a width of 18 feet at the center of the body. The head was 3o feet in length, the ears 10 feet, legs 60 and tail 7."). The curvature in both the fore and hind legs was natural to an animal lying on its side. The general outline of the figure most nearly resembled tlie extinct animal known to geologists as the Megatherium. The question naturally arises. By wliom and for what purpose was tiiis earth figure raised '.' Some have conjectured tiiat numbers of this now extinct animal lived and roamed over the prairies of Illinois wlien the Mound Builders first made their appearance on the upper part of the Mississippi Valley, and that their wonder and admiration, excited by the colo.ssal dimensions of these liuge creatures, found some expression in the erection of this figure. The bones of some similar gigantic animals were exliumed on this stream about three miles from tiie same place.

Lauge Cities

Mr. Breckenridge, who examined the antiquities of the Western countr}- in 1817, speaking of the mounds in the American Bottom, says: "The great number and extremel}' large size of some of them maj' be regarded as furnishing, with other circumstances, evidences of their antiquity. I have .sometimes been induced to tliink that at the period wiieii they were constructed there was a population here as numerous as tiiat wiiich once animated the liorders of the Nile or Eupiirates, or of Mexico. The most numerous, as well as considerable, of these remains are found in )»recisely those parts of the country where the traces of a numerous population niigiit be looked for, namely, from the mouth of the Ohio on the east side of the Mississippi, to the Illinois river, and on the west fiom the St. Francis to the Missouri. I am perfectly satisfied tliat cities similar to tiiose of ancient Mexico, of several hundred thousand souls, have existed in tiiis country.

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish the places of sepulture raised l)y the .Mound Builders from the more modern graves of the Indians. Tiie tombs of the former were in general larger than those of tlie latter, and were used as recejitacles for a greater number of i)odies, and contain relics of art, evincing a higher degree of civilization than that attained by the Indians. The ancient earthworks of the .Monnd-Bnilders have occasionally been appropriated as burial places by the Indians, but the skeletons of the latter may be distinguished from the osteological remains of the former by their greater stature.

The fact that their works extend into Mexico and Peru has induced the belief that it was their posterity that dwelt in these countries when they were first visited by the Spaniards. The Mexican and Peruvian works, with the exception of their greater magnitude, are similar. Relics common to all of them have been occasionall}' found, and it is lielieved that the religious uses which they subserved were the .same.

The Northwest Territory

of men who lived far back in the centuries, whose annals have not come down to us in any written language, we can say now that the most learned have only been able to conjecture as to the remoteness of their antiquity. The evidences that they are of very ^reat age are abundant and conclusive, 6m< Jioio many hundreds or thousands of years? This is the problem that many an antiquary would freely give years of study and inves tigation to solve. The length of time which elapsed during wiiich these works were in progress is another of the unsolved questions connected witls them, and yet there is abundant evideiice that some of them are much older than others ; that the process of their construction extends over a large duration of time - a time during which the Mound Builders themselves passed through the changes which mark the monuments that they have left behind them. It is a well known fact that the manners and customs of rude nations isolated from intercourse and commerce with the world, pass through the process of change and development very slowly. The semi-civilized nations of eastern lands, after the lapse of thousands of years, still cling to the manners and customs, and the superstitions of their ancestors, who lived at the early dawn of our historic jjeriod. They use the same rude implements of husbandry, the same utensils in the household, the same arms in warfare, and practice the same style of dress - ali with but little change or modification. The changes are only sufficiently marked to be perceptible after many generations have passed away. Situated as the Mound Builders were, we can but infer that they too passed slowly tlirough the processes of change, and the works which they have left behind them thorougiily attest the truth of this proposition. Their older works appear to be more elaborate and more intricate, showing that the earlier workers were possessed of a higher decree of attainment in the meciianical arts than those whose worl:^ are more recent. The inference is that proliablj- after long ages, tliey gradually retrograded, and were finally subdued or driven southward into Mexico and Central America, by the ancestors of the; Indians, who came upon them from the northwest, as the Goths and Vandals invaded and subverted the Roman Empire. This final subjugation may have resulted after centuries of warfare, during which time these fortifications were constructed as defences against the enem}-. That they were for military purposes is scarcely susceptible of a doubt. This implies a state of warfare, and war implies an enem3^ The struggle ended in the final subjugation of that people to whom we apply the name of Mound Builders - their conquerors and successors being a race of people in whom we recognize to this day, traces of the Asiatic tyjie.

We, another race of people, aftc.-r the laipse of other ages, tread to-day, in our turn, on the ruin?; of at least a limited civilization - a civilization older than that of the Aztecs, whom Cortez found in Mexico. 'liiis great Mississippi valley was once a populous empire, millions of whose subjects repose in the sepulchers scattered in our valleys and over our prairies. While we bow at the shrine of a more intelligent Deity, and strive to build up a truer and better civilization, let us still remember that we tread on classic "-round.

Chapter Tx Western And Northwestern States

Legislation in Re.;ar<l to Ohio - Admission as a Slate - Df scriplion - Climate anil Soil - Origin of Name - Seat of Government - Legislation in Kegard to Indiana - Description - L<5>t Kiver - Wyandot Cave - Seat of Government - Intcni»l Improvements - Vincennes - Illinois - Physical Features - Productions - Towns and Cities - " Lovers Leap" - " buffalo Rock " - "Cave in the Rock " - Michigan - The lluundaiy Question - Admission a- a Slate - Description - History - Towns and Cities - Wi-,c>nsin - Description - Climate and Pri>duclions - Objects of Interest - Towns and Cities - Sketch of Milwaukee - Minnesota - Description - Lakes - Climate and Productions - Natural Scenery - Red Pipe Stone - Historical Sketch - Towns and Ciiies - Nebraska - Description - Towns and Cities - Missouri - Organic Legislation - The " Missouri Compromise " - Description - Early Settlement - St. Louis.

Ohio

Ohio was the first State formed out of the territoiy northwest of the river Ohio, and was ceded to the United States by tlie General Assemlily of Vir rinia in 1783, and accepte'l by the Congress of the United States, Afarch 1, 1784. This territory was dividt'<l into two separate governments by act of Congress of May 7, 1800. Ohio remained a Territorial government until under an act of Congress, approved A}iril 30. 1SU2, it iidopfed a State constitution, and was allowetl one representtitive in Congress. On the (irst of November of the same year the constitution was presented in Corfgress. The people having, on November '29, 1802, complied with the act of Congress of April 30, 1802, whereby the State became one of the United States, an act was passed and approved February \'.K 1803, for the due execution of the laws of the United States within tiiat Slate.

The State embraces an area of about 3it,(i64 square miles, or 2o..'>76,9G0 acres. There are no mountiiins, but tlie central portion of the Stale is elevated about 1,000 f.^et above the level of the sea, while other portions are from GOO to sOO feet in elevation. A belt of highhmds north of the middle of the State sei)arates the rivers Howing north into Lake Erie from those flowing soutii into the Oliio river. The middle portion of the State in great part is an elevated plain with occasional patclns of mai-sii land. .\ huge proportion of the .Slate when first settled Wiis covered witii forests, but in the central part there was some prairie. Botilders are found scattered over the surface, as they are generally throughout the Northwest.

The bituminous coal-field of the State extends over an urea embracing nearly 12,000 scpiare miles. It occupies the eastern and southeastern parts, with its nortliern bouiulary running near Wooster, Newaik, and Lancaster. There are also fretiuent beds of limestone, as well as sandstone well suited for heavy masonry. Tlie most important of the oilier mineral productions is iron, whicii it possesses in great abundance. This is found running througii the counties of Lawrence, Gallia, Jackson, Meigs, Vinton. Athens, and Hocking, in a bed 100 miles long l)y 12 wide. For fine castings it is not surpassed by tiiat found in any other part of the United States. Salt springs are also fretiuent.

Tlie great river of tlic State is the ( lliio, which forms its .soutlicrn boundary, and receives the tributary volniuf of waters flowing from the Muskingum, .Scioto, and Sliami, as well as tiiose of many smaller streams. Ti»e interif)r rivers mentioned vary in length from 110 to 200 miles. The Ohio is navigable by steamboats of the first-class during one-half the year to Pittsburgh. The Muskingum is navigable by means of dams and locks to Zanesville, 70 miles from its mouth, ami al times 30 niilcs farther up to Coshocton. On the northern slope of the State, beginning at the norlh>vest, are the Maumee,

Sandusky, Huron, and Cuj-ahoga, all flowing into Lake Erie, and all flowing their entire course within the State, except the IMaumee, which rises in Indiana. The last-named river is navigable for lake steamers a distance of 18 miles. Lake Erie coasts the State about 150 miles the north and northeast, affording several good harbors.

The climate in the southern part of the Stale is mild, while in the north the temperature is equally as rigorous as in the same latitude near the Atlantic. Great droughts have occasionally prevailed, but the State is regarded as one of the most productive in the Union. Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, and barley, are the leading cereals. All the fruits of the temperate latitudes are generally abundant. The forest trees are of many kinds, incUuling the several varieties of oak, hickory, sugar maple, beech, poplar, ash, sycamoi'c, paw-paw, buckeye, dogwood, cherry, elm, and hackberry.

The State receives its name from that of the river which forms its soutliern boundar}'. It is of Indian or aboriginal origin. It is not easy to determine its real signification in tlie Indian language, but some writers have claimed that it means handsome or beautiful. This opinion would seem to be somewhat jdausible from the fact that the early French explorers called it La Belle Riviere, or the Beautiful River, having probably learned the signification of the Indian name, and therefore gave it a French name with the same signification.

Oliio was first partially settled by a few French emigrants on the Ohio river, while they poss.^ssed Canada and Louisiana, about the middle of the last century. But these settlements were very inconsiderable until the years 1787 and 1788, when the Ohio Company and others from New England made the settlement at Marietta., The early inhabitants were mucli annoyed by the incursions of tlie Indians, who had successively defeated Gen. Harmar and Gen. St. Clair, in 1791 and 179i', but were themselves utterly routed by Gen. Wayne in August, 1794. Fort Sandusky, in the war of 1812, was suc- ,cessfully defended by Maj. Croghan, then but 21 years of age, with 160 men against the attack of Gen. Proctor, with 500 British regulars and as many Indians. Cincinnati was laid out as early as 1788, but there were only a few settlers until after Wayne's victory. It then improved rapidly, having in 1818 a population of upward of 9,000. Chillicothe was laid out in 1796, and in 1818 had a pojuilation of 2,600. Columbus, the present capital, was laid out early in the year 1812, and in 1818 contained about 1,500 inhabitants. Cleveland was laid out in 1796, and about the same time a number of settlements were made along the Miami. Until the legislature met in Columbus, in December, 1816, Cincinnati and Chillicothe had alternately enjoyed the distinction of being both the Territorial and State capitals. In 181-t the first State-house, a plain brick building, was erected at Columbus, the permanent seat of the State Government. In February, 1852, it was entirely consumed by fire, and was succeeded l)y the jjrescnt fine State capitol, whicii had been commenced prior to the destruction of the old one. The convention whicii formed the first constitution of the State was held in Chillicothe, in November, 1802.

Indiana

Indiana was formed out of a part of the Northwestern Territory which was ceded to the United States by Virginia. It received a separate Territorial form of government by act of Congress of May 7, 1800. and William Henry Harrison was appointed Governor. At this time it included all the territory west to the Mississijjpi river, including all now embraced in the States of Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and that part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi. Tlie seat of the territorial government was established at Vincenues. By act of January 11, 1805, it was divided into two separate governments, and that of Michigan created. Again, Februar}' 8, 1809, that of Illinois was created. On the I9th of April, 1816. Congress passed an act to enable the people of Indiana to form a constitution and State government. On the "29111 of June of the same year the people formed a constitution, and on the 11th of December, 1816, an act of Congress was approved admitting the State into the Union. The laws of the United States were extended to the State by an act of March 3, IMIT.

Indiana is 278 miles in its greatest length from north to south, and about 144 miles in width, and includes an area of :'):j,809 square miles, or -21,637.760 acres. It has no mountains or great elevations, but portions south of White river are somewhat liilly. North of the White and Wabasli rivers the country is generally level or sliglitly undulating. The rivers are generally bordeied by rich alluvial bottom lands, sometimes extending for several miles in width. Some of the southeastern counties in places present a rocky surface. The eastern part is generally heavily timbered, wliile the western is chielly prairie. The State has a gradual inclination toward the Ohio, and most of the streams flow into that river. Lake Michigan borders the State on the northwest for a distance of about 40 miles, while the Oiiio forms the entire southern boundary. In tiie northern part there are some small lakes. The Wabash is the largest interior river, and with its tributaries drains nearly three-fourths of the State. At high water it is navigable by steaml)oats as far as Covington. White river is its principal tributary. It rises in two branches in the eastern part of tlie State, the two branches uniting about 30 miles from the Waiiash. The Maumee is formed by the St. Joseph's and .'^t. .Mary's in the northeastern part of the State, and passes off into Ohio. The Kankakee, one of the sources of the Illinois, drains the northwestern part of the State. Among other streams are tlie Tippecanoe, Mississiniwa, Whitewater, Flat Rock, and the Blue rivers.

The State yields an abundance of coal, the great deposit being in the southwestern portion, and embracing an area of nearly 8,000 scjuare miles, or some twenty-two counties, in most of which it is profitably mined. There are also iron. zinc, gyjisum. ami lime and sandstone. Many ijuarries of stone yield excellent building material.

Indiana is not without its natural wonders which have attracted the attention of the curious. Among these is Lost river, in Orange county. Tiiis stream is about fifty feet in width. It sinks many feet under ground, and tiien rises to the surface at a distance of 11 miles. Then there is Wyandot Cave, in ('rawford county. In beauty and magnificence it almost rivals the celebrated Mammoth Cave in Kentucky. It has been explored a distance of over 20 miles. Its greatest width is about 300 feet, and its greatest luiglit 245 feet. Among it,s interior wonders are " Bandit's Hall," *' Pluto's Uavine." " Monument Mountain, ' " Lucifer's Gorge," and " Calypso's Island." The interior is brilliantly sparrccl with pendant stalactites.

The climate is milder tiian in the same latitude on the Atlantic coast, but somewlnit 8ul)ject to sudden changes, '{'he soil is generally productive, and in the river bottoms very deep, well adapted to Indian corn and other kinds of grain. The alluvial bottom lands of the Wabash and its triliutaries are especially noted for their fertilit}'. The productions are the various kinds of grain, vegetables, and fruits common in temperate latitudes.

Indiana has a large variety of forest trees. Among those indigenous to the State are several kinds of oak, poplar, ash, walnut, hickory, elm, cherry, maple, buckeye, beech, locust, sycamore, cottonwood, hackberry, mulberry, and some sassafras.

Indianapolis is the capital, and is situated on tlie west fork of White river, in Marion county. The site was selected for the capital in 1820, while the whole country for forty miles in every direction was covered with a dense forest. Previous to 1825 the State capital was at Corydon, but in that year the public offices were removed to Indianapolis. The State-house was erected at a cost of f 60, 000, and at that time was considered an elegant building. It is now unsuited for the purposes of a great State lilve Indiana, and will soon give place to a larger and more elegant structure. Indianapolis in 1840 had a population of 2.692; in 1850 it had 8,900 Tin 1860 it had 18,611 ; and in 1870 it had 48,244.

In works of internal improvement Indiana stands among the leading States of the Mississippi valley. Railroads radiate in all directions from Indianapolis, and there is scarcely a place in the State of any considerable importance that is not connected, directly or indirectly, with the larger cities. Among her early improvements were the Wabash and Erie Canal, connecting Evansville with Toledo, and the Whitewater Canal, connecting Cambridge City with Lawrenceburg, on the Ohio. Of the Wabash and Erie Canal, 379 miles are within the limits of Indiana. The Whitewater Canal is 74 miles long. Indianapolis is the largest and most important city in the State, and among tlie principal cities may be mentioned New Albany, Evansville, Fort Wayne, La Fayette, Terre Haute, Madison, Laporte, Jeffersonville, Logansport, Crawfordsville, Lawrenceburg, South Bend and Michigan City. Corydon, the former State capital, is 115 miles south of Indianapolis, in Harrison county. When the seat of government was removed from this place to Indianapolis, in 1824, it remained stationary for a long time, but within a few years it has become more flourishing. Vincennes, the ancient seat of the Territorial government, is on the left bank of the Wabash river, 120 miles south of Indianapolis. It is the oldest town in the State, and possesses mucli historic interest, being first settled by the French about the year 1735. Many of the present inhabitants are of French descent. The seat of government was removed from Vincennes to Coiydon in 181-3.

Colored Aggregate

Illinois was the third State admitted to the Union from the Northwestern Territorj^. It was set off from Indiana Territory as a separate and distinct territorial dependency, under act of Congress approved February 3, 1809, and admitted as a sovereign and independent State under act of Congress approved December 3, 1818.

Physical Features

The extreme length of Illinois from north to south is about 380 miles, and its greatest width about 200 miles. It embraces an area of 55,409 square miles, or 35,459,- 200 acres. The surface of the State is generally level, with a general inclination from north to south, as indicated liy the course of its rivers. There are some elevated bluffs along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers, and a small tract of hilly country in the southern part of the State. The northwest part also contains a considerable amount of broken land. Some of the prairies are large, Ijut in the early settlement of the State there were many small prairies, skirted with fine groves of timber. The prairies are generally undulating, and in their native state were clothed in a great variety of beautiful wild flowers. The State is well supplied with minerals of great economic value. The region of Galena, in the nortlnvest part, has for nianj' years yielded vast quantities of lead. The coal fields cover an area of 44,000 square miles. Tiiere are salt springs in Gallatin, Jackson and Vermillion counties; and medicinal springs, chiefly sulphur and chalybeate, have been found in several places. Excellent building stone for heavy masonry, are quarried at Joliet, Lemont, Quincy, and other places.

Illinois possesses prel'niinent facilities for water transportation, the Mississippi river forming the entire western boundary, and the Oi>io tiie entire soutliern, wliile Lake Michigan bounds it on tiie northeast GO miles. The Illinois river is navigal)le for steamboats 28G miles. Rock river, though having obstructions near its mouth, has in times of high water been navigated for a considerable distance. Kaskaskia, Sangamon and Spoon rivers have also been navigated by steamboat, but the construction of railroads has in a great measure superseded the necessity of this means of transportation. Among the rivers are tlie upper portion of tlie Wabash, which receives from this State the waters of the Vermillion, Embarras and Little Wabash. Tlie principal tributaries, or sources, of the Illinois river are Kaskaskia, Des Plaines and Fox rivers. Lake Peoria is an expansion of the Illinois river, near the middle of the State. Lake Pishtoka, in the northeast part, is a lake of some importance.

Illinois, extending through five degrees of latitude, presents considerable variety of climate. Peaclies and some other fruits, which do not succeed so well in the northern part, rarely fail to yield abundantly in the soutliern part. The State has immense agricultural capabilities, unsurpassed, indeed, by any other State in the Union, unless it may be the younger State of Iowa. Among its agricultural staples are Indian corn, wheat, oats, rye, potatoes, butter and cheese. Stock raising on the prairies of Illinois, has. for many years, been carried on extensively. All the fruits and vegetables cuinnion to tiie latitudes in whicli it is situated are successfully and abundantly produced.

Timl)er is plentiful, but not very equally diffused. The bottom lands are supplied with fine growths of black and white walnut, ash, hackberry, elm, sugar maple, honey locust, sycamore, cottonwood, hickory, and several species of oak. Some of these also grow on the uplands, and in addition white oak, and other valuable kinds of timber. Wiiite and yellow poplar flourish in the southern part, and cypress on the Ohio bottom lands.

As we have seen, Illinois did not become a member of the Federal Union until 1818, yet settlements were made within its limits about tlie same time that William I'enn colonized Penn.sylvania, in the latter part of the seventeenth century. These settlements, like other French colonies, failed to increase very rapidly, and it was not until after the close of the Revolution, tiiat extensive colonization commenced.

Springfield, tlie capital of Illinois, was laid out in 1822. It is situated three miles south of tiie Sangamon river, in Sangamon county, and is surrounded b}- rich and extensive prairies, which have been transformed into splendid farms. Large quantities of bituminous coal are mined in this vicinity. This city will ever be memorable as the home of Abraham Lincoln, and as the place where his remains are entombed. In 1840 it had a population of 2,579 ; in 1850 it liad 4,533 ; in 1860 it had 7,002 ; and in 1870 it had 17,364. Since the last date the population has increased rapidly. A new and magnificent State capitol has been erected, and Springfield ma}* now be regarded as one of the flourishing cities of Illinois.

Chicago, on the site of old Fort Dearborn, is now the largest interior city of the United States. It stands on tlie shore of Lake Michigan, with the Chicago river flowing tlirough it. As the great commercial emporium of the Northwest, a special account of this city will be given elsewhere. Among other large and thriving cities are Peoria, Quincy, Galena, Belleville, Alton, Rockford, Bloomington, Ottawa, Aurora, Lincoln, Rock Island, Galesburg, Joliet and Jacksonville.

The internal improvements of Illinois are on a grand scale. The railroads traverse almost every county, connecting her towns and cities with her great commercial city on the lake, and with the markets of the East. Besides these, she has her great canal, from Chicago to Peru, uniting the waters of Lake Michigan with the Mississippi river. This canal is 100 miles long.

A few striking features of the natural scenery of this State may be mentioned. Along the Mississippi are bold and picturesque bluffs, rising from one to three hundred feet. " Starved Rock " and " Lover's Leap " are eminences on Illinois river, the former being a perpendicular mass of limestone, eight miles below Ottawa, and rising 150 feet above the river. It is so called from an incident in Indian warfare. A band of Illinois Indians took refuge on this eminence from the Pottawatomies, but being surrounded by the latter, they all died, it is said not of starvation, but of thirst. Nearly opposite " Lover's Leap " is " Buffalo Rock," 100 feet high. Here the Indians formerly drove the Buffalo, and with shouts caused them to crowd each other over the precipice. On the banks of the Ohio, in Hardin count}-, is " Cave in the Rock," the entrance to which is but little above the water. The cave ascends gradually from the entrance to the extreme limit, back 180 feet. In 1797 it was the rendezvous of a band of robbers, who sallied forth to rob boatmen and emigrants. Other outlaws have since made it their abode.

Aggregate

Michigan was formed out of a part of the territory ceded to the United States by the State of Virginia. It was detached from Indiana Territory, and became a separate Territorial government under an act of Congress approved January 11, 1805. It remained for more than thirty years under a territorial form of government, but embraced a vast region not now included in the State. During this time tliere was considerable legislation in regard to its boundaries, the most important of which was the adjustment of the boundary line between Michigan and the State of Ohio, in 1836. In January,

1833, a memorial of the Legislative Council of the Territory was presented to Congress, prayinp: f<jr admission into the Union as a State. The prayer of the memorial was not granted at that time, partly on account of the disputed boundary question. Finally, on the 1.5th of .Tune, 183G, an act was passed " to establish the nnrtliern Ijoundarv of the Stat© of Oliio, and to provide for the admission of the State of Michigan into the Union, upon conditions therein expressed." One of the conditions was, that if a convention of delegates elected by the people of .Michigan for the purpose of giving their assent to the boundaries, as declared and establislied by the act of June l"»th, 1836, should first give their assent, then Michigan was to be declared one of the States of the Union. This condition having been complied with. Congress, on the 26th of January, 1837. passed an act declaring Michigan one of the United States, and admitting it into the Union upon an equal footing with the original States.

Michigan occupies two peninsulas, the southern one h'ing between Lakes Erie, St. Clair and Huron on the east, and Lake Michigan on the west ; and the northern one between Lakes Michigan and Huron on the south, and Lake Superior on the north. The northern peninsula is about 320 miles in extreme length, from southeast to northwest, and 130 miles in its greatest width. The southern peninsula is about 283 miles from north to s'>uth, and 210 miles from east to west in its greatest width. Tiie joint area of the two peninsulas is .50.243 square miles, or 35,595,520 acres. The northern peninsula embraces about two-fifths of the total area.

The southern peninsula is generally an undulating plain, with a few slight elevations. The shores of Lake Huron are often characterized by steep bluffs, while those of Lake Michigan are coasted by shifting sand-hills, rising from one liundred to two hundred feet in height. In the soutiiern part of this peninsula are large districts covered with thinly scattered trees, called "oak openings."'

Tiie northern peninsula is in striking contrast with the southern, both as to soil and surface. It is rugged, with streams abounding in water-falls. The Wisconsin, or Porcupine Mountains, form the water-shed l)etween Lakes Michigan and Superior, and attain an elevation of 2,000 feet in the northwestern portion of the peninsula. The shores of Lake Supeiior are composed of sandstone rock, which in places is wfprn by the winds and waves into many strange and fanciful shapes, resembling the ruins of castles, and forming the celebrated " Pictured Rocks." The northern peninsula of Michigan possesses probably the richest copper mines in the world, occupying a belt one hundred and twenty miles in length by from two to six miles in width. It is rich in minerals, but rigorous in climate and sterile in soil. Coal is plentiful at Corunna, one hundred miles from Detroit.

The State is so surrounded and intersected by lakes as to fairly entitle it to the soubriquet of "The Lake State," There are a number of small lakes in the interior of the State, which add to the general variety of scenery, but are not important to navigation. The Straits of Mackinaw(formerly written Michilimackinac) divide the southern from the northern peninsula, and connect the watei-s of Lakes Michigan and Huron by a navigable channel. There are a numlier of small rivers, the most important in the southern peninsula being St. Joseph's, Kalamazoo, Grainl, Muskegon and Manistee, all eni[>tying into Lake .Michigan ; and An .^able and Saginaw, fiowing into Lake Huron, and the Huron and Raisin discharging their waters into Lake Erie. The principal rivers of the northern peninsula are the Menomonee, Montreal and (Ontonagon. The shores around the lakes are indented by numerous bays. Several small islands belong to Michigan, the most imortant of which is Fsle Royale, noted for its copper mines.

The climate of Michigan is generally rigorous, except in proximity to the lakes, where the fruits of the temperate zone succeed admirably. The northern peninsula is favorable for Winter wheat, but Indian corn does not succeed well. In the southern peninsula, Indian corn is produced al>undantly, as well aa the Winter grains. This part of the State is pre-eminently agricultural.

Portions of the northern peninsula are heavily timbered with white pine, spruce, hemlock, birch, aspen, maple, ash and elm, and vast quantities of lumber are manufactured at the fine mill-sites afforded by the rapid streams. Timber is plentiful also in the southern peninsula, and consists chiefly of several species of oak, hickory, ash, basswood, maple, elm, linden, locust, dogwood, poplar, beech, sycamore, cottonwood, black and white walnut, cherry, pine, tamarack, cypress, cedar and chestnut.

Northern Michigan abounds in picturesque scenery, among which may be mentioned the "Pictured Rocks," composed of sandstone of various colors. The}^ extend for about twelve miles, and rise 300 feet above the water. Sometimes cascades shoot over the precipice, so that vessels can sail between them and the natural wall of the rock. This portion-of the State every season attracts large numbers of excursionists and pleasureseekers, on account of its charming and interesting scenery.

The State is named for the lake which forms a part of its boundary, and signifies in the Indian language, " Great Water." The first Avhite settlements were bj- the French, near Detroit and at Mackinaw, in the latter half of the seventeenth century ; but these colonies did not progress rapidly. This territory, with other French possessions in North America, came into possession of Great Britain at the peace of 17153. It remained under the dominion of Great Britain until the American Revolution, when it became the possession of the United States. The British, however, did not surrender Detroit until 1796. This region was chiefly the scene of the exploits of the celebrated chief Pontiac, after the expulsion of the French. During the war of 1812, Michigan became the theater of several of the battles and many of the incidents connected with that war. At Frenchtown, in this State, January 22, 1813, occurred a cruel massacre by the savages of a party of American prisoners of war. Gen. Harrison soon after drove the enemy out of the Territory, and removed the seat of war into Canada, where he fought and gained the battle of the Thames.

Lansing, the capital of Michigan, is situated on Grand river, in Ingham countj% one hundred and ten miles northwest of Detroit. It was selected for the seat of government in 1847, at which time it was surrounded bj' an almost unbroken wilderness. The river here affords excellent water power. A new and handsome State capitol has just been completed.

Detroit, situated on the river from which it takes its name, eighteen miles from the head of Lake Erie, is the largest citj- in the State. It was the capital until the removal of the seat of government to Lansing, in 18.50. Historically it is one of the most interesting cities in the West. The French had here a military post as early as 1670. Three Indian tribes, the Hurons, Pottawattamies and Ottawas, had their villages in the vicinity. With other French possessions, it passed into the hands of the British at the peace of 1763, and twenty years later it came under the jurisdiction of the United States, although, as stated above, it was not surrendered until 1796. June 11th, 1^05, it was almost totally destroyed b}' fire. Gen. Wm. Hull, first governor of the Territory of Michigan, then projected the city on a new plan. On the 18th of August, 1812, this same Gen. Hull suri'cndered it into the hands of the British, but the latter evacuated it September 29th of the same year. In 1870 the population was 79,577, and since then has rapidly increased.

Wisconsin wiis formed out of a portion of the Territory- of Micliisjan, but was originally a part of the Northwestern Territor}- ceded by the State of Virginia to the United States. On the 12th of December, 1832, a resolution passed the house of representatives directing a committee to inquire into the expediency of creating a Territorial government for Wisconsin out of a part of Michigan. On the 20th of April, 1836. an act was passed and approved estal)lishing a Territorial government. On the 20tli of June, 1838, an act was passed and approved to divide tlie Territory of Wisconsin, and to establish the Territorial government of Iowa. June 12, 1838, an act was passed designating the boundary line between the State of Michigan and the Territory of Wisconsin. On the Gth of August, 1840, an act was passed and approved to enable the people to form a constitution and State government. On the 21st of .lantuxry, 1847, the people adopted a constitution, and on the 3d of March of the same year an act of Congress was passed and approved for the admission of the State into the Union. By act of May '29. 1848, the State was declared admitted into the Union, to be entitled to three representatives in Congress after March 3, 1849.

The extreme lengtii of Wisconsin from north to south is about 28,5 miles, and its greatest breadth from east to west is aliout 2,").") miles. It includes an area of about .')3,- 924 square miles, or :'.4,"ill.3(;0 acres. It is generally of an cleviitcd rolling surface, with a large proportion of jjiairie. There are no mountains, pioi)erly so called, though the descent toward Lake Superior is quite abrupt, and the rivers full of rapids and falls, which afford valuable mill-sites. The great lakes, Superior and Michii,'an. lave the northern and eastern borders, besides which there are a nnmlier of smaller lakes, the most imjiortant of which is Lake Winnebago, soutiieast of tiie middle of the State. It is 28 miles long and 10 miles wide, and communicates with (ireen Hay through the Fox or Neenah river. In the n^rth\v(-^ ti-rn part are nnmerous small lakes, with clear water, gravelly or rocky bottoms, and liold picturesque shores. The rivers generally How in a southwest direction and discharge their waters into the Mississippi, which flows along the .southwest ixirder of the State more than 200 miles. The most important interior river is the Wisconsin, which has a course of about 2()(l miles almost directly south, wlien it changes its ('ourse west warilly, and tlows about 100 miles further to its junction with the Mi8sissip|)i. At favoral)le stages it is navigable for steaml)oats 180 miles. Tiie Had Axe, Black, Chippewa, and St. Croix rivers are imjiortant streams for floating timber and lumber from the |(ine region in the northwest part of the State. The streams flowing int(» Lake Superior are small, iuit rapid, afl'ording excellent mill-sites.

The climate is severe and the Winters long, but the State is free from the unhealthy changes which are common farther south. The south and middle portions form a line agricultural region. Wheat is the great staple production, though all kinds of small grain and Indian corn are raised successfully. Large j)ortioiis of the State are well adapted to grazing and the dairy. The northern part of the State, about the head-waters of the Bhick and Chippewa rivers, and the sources of the rivers emptying into Lake Superior, has but limited agricultural capabilities, as in that region are many ponds and marshes, and also large quantities of boulders scattered over the surface.

There are many objects of interest to the tourist and the lover of the picturesque. The rivers abound in rapids and falls. In St. Louis river there is a series of cascades which have a descent of 820 feet in 16 miles. The Menomonee river at Quinnesec Falls dashes down over a perpendicular ledge of rocks 40 feet, and has a fall of 134 feet in a mile and a half. Among other noted falls are the St. Croix, Chippewa and Big Bull Falls in the Wisconsin river. Along the rivers are many grand views of bluffs, rising from 150 to HOO feet, and at one place in Richland county on the Wisconsin, where it passes through a narrow gorge, the cliffs have an elevation of from 400 to 500 feet. On the Mississippi, in La Crosse county, the rocks rise 500 feet perpendicularly above the water.

The great lead region extends into the southwestern part of Wisconsin. The deposit here is intermingled to some extent with copper and zinc, together with some silver. Copper is found in a number of places, and also some iron ore. The iron ores of the Lake Superior region extend into Wisconsin. Beautiful varieties of marble are found on the Menomonee river and in other localities.

On the upper Wisconsin river, and other tributaries of the Mississijipi, north of the Wisconsin, are vast forests of pine, and immense quantities are annually floated down the Mississippi to supply the markets in other States. Among other forest trees are spruce, tamarack, cedar, hemlock, oak of several varieties, birch, aspen, basswood, hickory, elm, ash. poplar, svcamore and sugar-maple.

Madison, the capital of the State, is situated on an istlimus between Lakes Mendota and Monona, 80 miles west of Milwaukee, and 132 miles northwest of Chicago. When the place was selected for the seat of government in 1836, there were no buildings except a solitary log cabin. The State capitol is a fine looking stone building erected at a cost of 8500,000, and stands on an elevation seventy feet above the lakes. The city overlooks a charming -country, diversified by a pleasing variety of scenery. It has steadily and rapidl}' increased in population. -

The great city of Wisconsin is Milwaukee (called at an early day "Milwacky") and next to Chicago, may be regarded as the commercial metropolis of the Northwest. It is situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan, about 90 miles north of Chicago. Milwaukee river empties into the lake at this point. The citj^ is situated on both sides of the river, and has one of the best harbors on the whole chain of lakes. The fine water power of the Milwaukee river is an important element in its prosperity. Being a port of entry, the goverinnent has expended large sums in the improvements of its harbor, and in the erection of pulilic Ijuildings.

In 1805 Jacques Vieau, a half-breed trader whose house was at Green Bay, visited the country at the mouth of tlie Milwaukee river for the purpose of trading with the Indians. This he did annually until in September, 1818, when he brought with him a young man named Solomon Juneau, who became his son-in-law. The 3-oung man established friendly relations with the Indians, and in 1822 erected a block-house on the site of the present city of Milwaukee. He remained for eight years the only permanent white resident, being visited occasionally by fur traders to whom he sold goods. In 1836, the village which has grown to be a large city, began to appear. Juneau died in 1856, at the age of 64 years, having lived to see the place he founded grow to a prosperous and flourishing city. In 1836 the j)opulation was 275; in 1840, it was 1,810 ; in 1850, it was 19,873 ; in 1860, it was 45,286 ; in 1870, it was 71,640 ; and at the present time (1880) t is estimated at 123,000.

Amonpr other important towns and cities of Wisconsin are Racine, Janesville, Oshkosh, Fond du Lac, Wateitown, Sheboygan, Beloit, Kenosha, La Crosse, Wauwatosa, -. Portage City, Platteville, Sheboygan Falls, Beaver Dam, Whitewater, Port -""n Bay, Mineral Point, Shullsburg, Monroe, Prescott, and Hudson.

Year

The eastern portion of Minnesota formed a part of the territory surrendered by the French to Great Britain at the peace of 17G3, and subsequently by the latter to the United States at the close of the Revolution. The western portion is a part of the territory known as the Louisiana Purchase, ceded by France to the United States in 1803. It received a Territorial form of government under an act of Congress which became a law March .3, 1849, and was admitted into the Union as a State May 11, 1853.

The extreme length of Minnesota, north and south, is about 380 miles, and in width is about 300 miles. It embraces' an area of 81,259 square miles, or .')2.00.'),760 acres. The face of the country generally presents the appearance of an undulating plain, although it is the most elevated tract of country between the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay. There are no mountains, but the summits of the water-sheds rise to a height of nearly two tliousand feet above the level of the sea.

Minnesota is one of the best watered States in the I'nion. being drained by many rivers and dotted over with innumerable small lakes and some of considerable size. The great Mississippi has its liumi)le origin as a mere rivulet in Lake Itiu;ca. Tliis diminutive stream, here but a few feet in width, first meanders in a northeasterly direction, receiving tribute as it passes from a number of other small lakes, when it changes its course to the south, and after meandering a length of six hundred miles in Minnesota, dashes its waters over the falls of St. Anthony, tlien flows along the b(udor of tiie State two hundred miles further, and thence grandly piu'sues its course to the Gulf of Mexico. Several tributaries of the Mississippi drain tiie southeastern portion of the .Stale. Tiie Red liiver of the North drains the northern part, passing off into Hudson's liay. It is the outlet of a number of lakes, among which are Traverse, Otter Tail, and Red. This river also forms the west boundary of the State for ai)out two hundred miles. That portion of the State sloping toward Lake Superior is drained by the St. Louis and its triliutaries. St. Peters, or Minnesota river, has a total lengtli of over four hundred miles wiiliin the State. Its principal branch is Blue Earth or ^Llnkato river, which flows nearly north. The St. Peters, Crow Wing and Crow rivers are tributaries of the Missi.ssijipi from the west.

Eart of the northern. Among other lakes of considerable size are Rainy. Ueil I^ake, akc Cass, and Leech Lake. Devil Lake in the northwest part is about forty miles long and fifteen miles wide, and is said to have no visible outlet. Lake Pepin is an expansion of the Mississippi in the northeastern part of the State, and is a beautiful sheet of water. The State abounds in small lakes which are mostly clear and beautiful. Owing to the multitude of lakes Minnesota seldom suffers from inundations, as they tend to check the sudden rise and violence of the streams.

The climate of the northern part of Minnesota is severe, but in the southern part is not so rigorous as to prevent fair crops of Indian corn from being produced some seasons. Wheat and other Winter grains succeed admirably in nearl}^ all parts. In the valleys of the rivers the soil is excellent, and even the valley of the Red River of the North is regarded as a fine agricultural region. Wheat is the great staple and the facilities for manufacturing flour are unsurpassed, as the water-power is practically unlimited.

A portion of the State is heavily timbered with pine, and one of the great industries is the manufacture of lumber. Extensive forests of pine grow on the Rum, St. Croix, and Pine rivers, and on the shores of the Mississippi, below Pokegamin Falls. Taken, as a whole, however, Minnesota can not be called a well-wooded country. The river bottoms furnish some very good growths of oak, aspen, soft maple, basswood, ash, birch, white walnut, linden, and elm. In the swamps or marshy places are found tamarack, cedar, and cypress.

Minnesota presents to the tourist many natural objects of interest, especiallj' in her grand and beautiful scenery along the Mississippi and around her lakes. St. Anthony's Falls are celebrated, not so much for their magnitude as a cataract, as for their geological interest and the wild scenery connected with them. Like Niagara, the falls are divided by an island, with the larger volume of water passing on the west side. This west division is 310 yards wide. The greatest perpendicular fall of water is but IG^ feet, but including the rapids the descent is 58 feet in 260 rods. The rivers of Minnesota have numerous picturesque falls and rapids, and are in many places bordered with perpendicular bluffs of limestone and sandstone.

So far as revealed by geological examination, Minnesota possesses no great mineral or metallic wealth. There is, however, a rich deposit of iron ore in that jiart of the State bordering on Lake Superior. A thin vein of lead was discovered by the geological corps of Prof. Owen on Waraju river, and some copper was found, but not " in place," having probably been carried thither by the drift. Stone suitable for Iniilding purposes exists in great abundance. In the southwest part of the State is a singular deposit known as " red pipestone." Of this the Indians made their pipes, and the place of its deposit was held in great sacredness by them. It is said that different tribes at enmity with each other, met here on terms of amity and smoked the pipe of peace. Longfellow has rendered this locality celebrated in "Hiawatha." It was here -

On the great Red Pipe-stone Quarry, Gitche Manito, the mighty, He the Master of Life, descending, On the red crags of the quarry, Stood erect, and called the nations. Called the tribes of men together."

The first white men who are said to have visited the country now embraced in Minnesota, were two fur traders in the year 1654. They returned to Montreal two years afterward and gave a glowing account of the country. This was followed by the visits of trappers and missionaries, and to the latter we are indebted for the first printed accounts of Minnesota. In 1805 an exploring expedition under Pike traversed the country. A military post was established at Fort Snelling in 1819. Excepting a British settlement at Pembina, which was not then known to be within the limits of the United States, no settlements were formed in Minnesota until after 1840.

sippi, 2070 miles from its mouth, and nine miles by land below the Falls of St. Anthony. The first settlement was made about the year 1840. The population has increased rapidly, and as a manufacturing, commercial and business place it has assumed considerable importance. Minneapolis, a few miles above St. Paul, is a rapidly growing city, and is noted for its great water power and manufacturing resources. Among other important towns are Stillwater, Red Wing, St. Antiiony, Fort Snelling, and Mankato.

Nebraska is formed out of a part of the territory ceded to the United States by France by the treaty of April .30, 1804. It was erected into a separate Territory May 30, 1854, the limits subsequently being greatly reduced by the formation of Dakota Territory in 1861, a right reserved in the act creating the Territory* of Nebraska. It was admitted into the Union as a State, March 1, 1867.

Nebraska is in its extreme length from east to west about 412 miles, and in breadth from north to south about 208 miles, embracing an area of 75,905 square miles, or 48,636,800 acres. The greater portion of the State is an elevated undulating prairie with a general inclination toward the Missouri river. There are no mountains or very high hills. The soil is variou.s. but generallv fertile, except in the western portion near the base of the Rocky Mountains. Tiie bottom lands along tlie rivers are not surpassed in fertility by any in the United States, while the higher undulating prairie is e(iiuilly productive witii that of other Western States. When the prairies are once broken they are easy of cultivation, the soil being light and mellow. The staple productions are wheat, Indian corn, oats, and other cereals common to the latitude. The climate is mild, as coini>are(l witli that of the same latitude on the Atlantic. The Summers are sometimes very warm, and the extreme western part is occasionally deficient in rain. Taken as a whole, however, this is destined to become one of the foremost agricultural States in the Union.

Nebraska is deficient in native timber, but the older settled portions are dotted over with groves of artificial or cultivated timber, which is so rapid in its growth as to require but a few years to produee enoiigli for the ordinary wants of the settler. The rivers and streams are generally liordered with groves of native trees, including oak, walnut, hickory, Cottonwood and willow. Along the Missouri river in places are some heavy growths of Cottonwood.

The .Missouri river forms the entire eastern boundary, and is navigable for steamboats througlioiit the whole extent of that boundary and for iiundreds of miles above. Among the imporlaiit interior rivers are the Platte, the Niobrara, the Republiean Fork of the Kansas, the Klkliorn, the Loup Fork of the Platte, the Big Hliie and the Nemaha. Th(!se rivers are so distributed, as, with their numeioiis tributaries, to afford admirable drainage to all parts of the State, aiul as a consequence it is free from marshes, conducing to the I'Xeellent liealtli for which Nebraska is noted.

been discovered in the southeastern part, in a vein sufficiently thick for mining. Near Lincoln are some salt springs of sufficient magnitude to yield large quantities of salt. On Platte river and other streams both limestone and sandstone are obtained of suitable quality for building material.

Rapid progress has been made in the construction of railroads in Nebraska. Among them are the "Union Pacific and its branches, the Burlington & Missouri River and its branches, and otliers, affording railroad advantages to a large portion of the State, and connecting tlie principal towns with the main lines, east, west and south.

Lincoln, the capital of Nebraska, is in Lancaster county, in the southeastern part of the State. Here are most of the State institutions. It is a thriving young city and is in the midst of a fine agricultural portion of the State. Near it, on a little stream known as Salt Creek, are a number of salt springs, and considerable quantities of salt have been manufactured. Railroads connect it with all the great markets of the countr3\

Omaha is the leading commercial city of the State, and is located on the west bank of the Missouri river in Douglas county. It is eighteen miles by land above the mouth of the Platte river. The principal portion of the city is situated on gently rising slopes extending from the river to the bluffs. The elevations are crowned with fine residences, and command pleasant views of the river and valley, with the city of Council Bluffs, Iowa, in the distance. Since the completion of the Union Pacific Railroad it has grown in population and wealth very rapidly. A costly iron railroad liridge spans the Missouri river at this point. As a produce, shipping and general commercial point it is rapidly growing into prominence. It was the first capital of the Territory and State, and takes its name from a tribe of Indians.

Missouri was formed out of a part of the teri'itory ceded by France to the United States in 1803. By an act approved March 26, 1804, the French, or Louisiana purchase, was divided, that part embracing the present State of Missouri being at first designated as the District of Louisiana. The name was changed to Territory of Louisiana, by an act passed March 3, 1805, and again by an act of June 4, 1812, Louisiana Territory was changed to jMissouri Territory. By an act passed March 2, 1819, the southern portion was detached and organized as the Territory of Arkansas. During the same year the people of the Territory of Missouri, through their Legislative Council and House of Representatives, memorialized Congress for admission into the Union as a State. On the 6th of March following an act was passed to authorize the people of the Territory to form a State constitution. Missouri being the first State formed wholly out of a territory west of the Mississippi, the question of the extension of slavery came up and gave rise to a stormy debate in Congress while the Missouri bill, as it was called, was pending. The propriety and expediency of extending that institution to the new States west of the Mississippi was powerfully and earnestly contested, and resulted in a compromise restricting slavery to certain limits, and prohibited the extension of slavery to certain territory. The bill, however, of Marcli Oth, passed without restrictions. The people on the 19th of July, 1820, adopted their constitution, which was laid before Congress November IGth of the same year. The Senate passed a joint resolution declaring the admission of the State of Missouri into the Union. This was referred to a select committee in the House of Representatives, and on the 10th of Februar}-, 1821, Mr. Clay made a report. The House rejected the resolution, and on motion of Mr. Clay a committee on the part of the House was appointed to join a committee on the part of the Senate to consider the subject and report. On the 26th of Februarv Mr. Clay, from the joint committee, reported a " Resolution providing for the admission of the State of Missouri into the Union, on a certain condition."' This resolution was passed and approved March 2, 1821. The condition was tiiat Missouri, by its legislature, should assent to a condition that a part of the State constitution should never be construed to authorize the passage of a law by which any citizen of either of the States in the Union should be e.\cluded from the enjoyment of any of the i)riviliges and immunities to which such citizen is entitled under the Constitution of the United States. What was known as the " Missouri Compromise," was embraced in tiie act of the previous session, .which authorized the people of the State of Missouri to form a State constitution, and consisted of a compromise section in the bill by which slavery was to be forever prohibited in that part of the territory west ot the Mississippi (except the State of Missouri), lying north of thirty -six degrees and thirty minutes north latitude. Thus, after fierce and stormj' debates, running through two sessions of Congress, Mi.ssouri came into the Union, and the exciting question of slavery was supposed also to have been settled. On the lOth of August, 1821, President Monroe issued his proclamation declaring the admission of Missouri completed, according to law.

Missouri in its greatest length from east to west is about 285 miles, and in width from north lo soutli, 280 miles. It embraces an area of 67,380 square miles, or 43,123,200 acres. That portion of it north of the Missour* river is mostly undulating prairie and timber land, while that portion south of the Missouri river is characterized b}- a great variety of surface. In the southeast part, near the Mississippi, is an extensive area of marshy land. The region forming the outskirts of the Ozark Mountains is hilly and broken. West of tlie Osage river is a vast expanse of prairie. The geological features of Missouri are exceedingly interesting. Coal, iron and several kinds of stone and marble foi- building jmriioses exist in great abundance. A vast region, in the vicinity of Iron Mountain and I'ilot Knob, jjroduces iron of the best ciuality, and exists in inexhaustible quantity. It is also found in other parts of the State. There is al.-^o lead, which has been mined in considerable quantities. Copper is found tinoughout the mineral region, but is found combineil with other minerals. Silver is also combined with lead ore. The bituminous coal deposits are mainly on both sides of the Missouri river, below the inoiitli of tlie Osage, and extending forty miles up that river. Cannel-coal is found in Callaway county.

Missouri possesses the advantages of two of the greatest navigable rivers in tlic United States - the Mi.s.sissippi, which forms her entire eastern boundary, and the Missouri, which (lows along her northwestern border nearly two hundred miles, and cro.sses the Slate in a sonlli -easterly coinse to its junction with the .Mississijipi. As liotii of these rivers are navigable for the largest steanu-rs, the State has easy and ready commercial intercourse to tlie (iiilf of Mexico and the Rocky Mountains, as well as up the Oiiio to I'iltsburg. Resides the Missouri, the State lias several important interior rivers, to- wit: Grand river and Chariton, tributaries of the .Missouri river from the north, and the ( ).sage and (lasconade from the south; also. Salt river and Maramec, tributaries of the Mississippi. Tlie St. Francis and White river drain the south -eastern

Missouri as a State has manj- material resources, fitting her for becoming one of the most wealthy and populous States in the Union. The soil is generally excellent, producing the finest crops, while those portions not so well adapted to agriculture are rich in minerals. The greater portion of the State is well timbered. In the river bottoms are heavy growths of oak, elm, ash, hickory, cottonwood, sugar, and white and black walnut. On the uplands also are found a great variety of trees. Various fruits, including apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries and strawberries, are produced in tlie greatest abundance. Among the staple productions are Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hemp and tobacco. A great variety of other crops are also raised.

The State has an uneven and varialile climate - the Winters being very cold and the Summers excessively hot. Cliills and fever are common to some extent along the rivers.

The earliest settlement in Missouri seems to have been by the French, about the year 1719. About that time they built what was called Fort Orleans, near Jefferson City, and the next year worked the lead mines to some extent. Ste. Genevieve was settled in 1755, also by the French, and is the oldest town in the State. Missouri's greatest commercial metropolis, St. Louis, was first settled in 1764, the earliest settlers being mostly French.

Jefferson City, the capital of the State, is situated on the right bank of the Missouri river, in Cole county. It is 128 miles by land, and 155 miles by water from St. Louis. The location being elevated, commands a fine view of the river, with the pleasant and picturesque scenery which is presented at tliis point on the Missouri.

St. Louis, the great commercial city of Missouri, as well as of a large portion of the West, is situated on the right bank of the Mississippi, 20 miles below the mouth of the Missouri, and 174 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. It is 744 miles below the Falls of St. Anthony, and 1,194 miles above New Orleans. The city enjoj's many natural advantages as a commercial emporium, being situated nearly midway between the two oceans, and centrally in tlie finest agricultural region on the globe. Witli two of tlie greatest navigable rivers on the continent, affording her water highways to the ocean, to many of the large inland cities of the country, and to the great agricultural and mineral districts away up in the Yellow Stone regions, St. Louis is surely and rapidly going forward to a grand future. Her already great and constantly improving system of railways is tending every year to open up to her larger fields of business and commercial intercourse. Of late years a strong rivalry has sprung up between St. Louis and Chicago in regard to population, etc., each claiming to be the tliird city in the Union. The increase of St. Louis since the close of the war of the rebellion has been great, the ascendancy being at an annual rate of about ten per cent. At this rate of increase she is fast earning the soubriquet of the " Future Great City."

The site on which St. Louis stands was selected February 15, 1764, by Laclede, as a post possessing peculiar advantages for collecting and trading in furs, as well as for defense against the Indians. For many years it was but a frontier village, the principal trade of which was in furs, Buffalo robes, and other collections of trappers and hunters. A great part of the population was absent during the hunting and trapping seasons, so that the infancy of this city was almost a struggle for existence. As late as 1820 the population was only 4,598. The first brick house was erected in 1813. In 1822 St. Louis was chartered as a city, under the title given by Laclede in honor of Louis XV of France. In 1830 the population was 6,694, an increase of only 2,096 in ten years. In 1840 tlie population had reached 16,469 ; in 1850 it was 77,950, including 2,650 slaves ; in 1860 the population was 160,77:'.; and in 1870 it was 312,963.

Kansas City, one of the rajiidly advancing young cities of tlie State, is situated on the Missouri river just below the mouth of the Kansas. In 1870 the population was

The Northttest Territory

St. Joseph is one of the flourishing cities, and is situated on the left, or east bank of the Missouri river, -JQG miles by water from St. Louis. It was laid out in 1848, and became an important point of departure for overland emigration to California and Oregon. In 1870 the population was 19,5(30, but has rapidlj- increased since then.

Among the important and thriving towns and cities are Hannibal, Springfield, Boonville, Lexington, Chillicothe, Independence, Palmyra, Canton, Iron Mount and Moberly.

Sketch Of Chicago

First White Visitors - The Name - Jean Baptiste - John Kinzie - Fort Dearborn - Evacuation - The Massacre - Heroic Women - Capt. lleald - Capt. Wells - Scalping the Wounded - Fort Dearborn Re-built - Illinois and Michigan Canal - Chicago Laid Out - Removal of Indians - City Organization - Pioneer Religious Societies - Public Improvements.

The history of so great a city as Chicago, like that of London, or Paris, or New York, by reason of its commercial, financial and other relations to the world at large, is a history of world-wide interest. Not that Chicago may yet be compared in size, population or wealth with tlie great cities named, would we mention it in connection with them, and yet, {.onsiduring its age, it is greater than either of them. In its ratio of increase in population, commerce, and general progress, it is to-day outstripjiing tliem. In what civilized part of the globe is Chicago not iieard of, read of, and known '.' If, so many centuries after the founding of Rome, mankind still feel interested in the mythical story of Romulus and Uemiis, may not the present and future generations read with interest tlic more authentic story of tiie foiiiiding of a great modern city?

The Jesuit missionary and cxiilorer, Mar(iui'tte, lirst visited the place where Chicago is located, in lG7ii. Again, in tiie winter of Ui74-'>, he cami>etl near the site of tlie present city, from I)eceml)er until near the close of March. Upon his arrival, in December, the Chicago river was frozen over, and the ground covered with snow. The name is of Indian origin, and was applicil to the river. Hy the Krencii voijitffeum it is variously spelled, the majority rendering it Chiragou. The place is nientioned by Herrot in 1770.

of the little stream known as Chicago river, and engaged in trading with the Indians. Here for eight years, almost alone, he maintained trade and intercourse with the savages, until, in 1804, Fort Dearborn was erected, and a trading post was established by John Kinzie, who became the successor of Jean Baptiste. Fort Dearborn, as first constructed, was a very rude and primitive stockade, which cost the government only al)0ut fifty dollars. It stood on the south bank of Chicago river, half a mile from the lake. The few soldiers sent to erect and garrison it were in charge of Major Whistler. For a time, being unable to procure grain for bread, the soldiers were obliged to subsist in part upon acorns. The original settler, Jean Baptiste, or as his full name was written, Jean Baptiste Point au Sable, sold his cabin to Mr. Kinzie, and the latter erected on the site the building known to the earl}- settlers as the " Kinzie House." This became a resort for the officers and others connected with the garrison, In 1812 the garrison had a force of 54 men, under the command of Capt. Nathan Heald, with Lieutenant Lenai L. Helm and Ensign Ronan. Dr. Voorhees was surgeon. The only white residents, except the officers and soldiers, at that time, were Mr. Kinzie and his family, the wives of Capt. Heald and Lieut. Helm, and a few Canadians, with their families. Nearly up to this time the most friendly relations had been maintained with the Indians - the principal tribes b}' whom they were surrounded being the Pottawatomies and Winnebagoes. The battle of Tippecanoe had been fought the 3-ear before, and the influence of Tecumseh began to be observable in the conduct of the Indians. They were also aware of the difficulties between the United States and Great Britain, and had yielded to the influences brought to bear by the latter. In April of this year, suspicious parties of Winnebagoes began to hover about the fort, remaining in the vicinity for several days. The inhabitants became alarmed, and the families took refuge in the fort. On the 7th of August a Pottawattamie chief appeared at the fort with an order or dispatch from Gen. Hull, at Detroit, directing Capt. Heald to evacuate Fort Dearborn, and distribute all the government property to the neighboring Indians. The chief who brought the dispatch advised Capt. Heald to make no distribution to the Indians. He told him it would be better to leave the fort and stores as they were, and that while the Indians were distributing the stores among themselves, the whites might escape to Fort Wayne. On the 12th of August Capt. Heald held a council with the Indians, but the other officers refused to join him. They feared treachery on the part of the Indians, and indeed had been informed that their intention was to murder the white people. In the council Capt. Heald had taken the precaution to open a port-hole displaying a cannon directed upon the council, and probably by that means kept the Indians from molesting him at that time. Acting under tlie advice of Mr. Kinzie, he withheld the ammunition and arms from the Indians, throwing them, together with the liquors, into the Chicago river. On that day Black Partridge, a friendly chief, said to Capt. Heald : " Linden birds have been singing in my ears to-day ; be careful on the march you are going to take." On the 13th the Indians discovered the powder floating on the surface of the water, a discovery which had the effect to exasperate them the more, and they began to indulge in threats. Meantime preparations were made to leave the fort.