Miami County, Indiana - Chapter 2: Aboriginal Inhabitants, 1914

Chapter 2: Aboriginal Inhabitants

The Mound Builders - Theories Regardixg Their Antiquity - Thomas' DmsiON of the United States into Districts - Ch.ujacteristics of Each District - Pew Relics in Miami County -

The ^liAMi Tribe^Habits and Customs - Their Domain - Villages IN the Wabash Valley - The Pottawatomi - Character and Traditions - Villages - Policies in Dealing with the Indians.

Before the white man, the Indian ; before tlie Indian, who? The (iiiestion is more easily asked than answered. When the first Europeans came to this country they found here a peculiar race of copper-colored people, to whom they gave the name of "Indians," but after a time some students of archaeology came to the conclusion that this race had its predecessors. Who were they? The archaeologist has given them the name of "Mound Builders," on account of the great number of mounds or earthworks they erected, and which constitute the only data from whidi to write their history. During the last century a great deal of discussion concerning the character and fate of the Mound Builders has been indulged in by antiquarians and archaeologists, but the qu(;stioii seems to be no nearer a positive settlement than when it first came up for consideration. In 1812 the American Antiquarian Society was organized and during the years immediately following made some investigations of the prehistoric relics left by the primitive inhabitants. But the first work of consequence on American archaeology - "Ancient Monuments of the Jlississippi Valley" - compiled by E. G. Squier and E. II. Davis, did not make its appearance until in 1847. The authors, who had made an exhaustive study of the mounds and earthworks in the section indicated, advanced the theory that the jMound Builders were a very ancient race and that they were in no way related to the Indians found here when the continent was discovered by Columbus. Allen Lapham, who in 1855 wrote a treatise on the "Antiquities of Wisconsin," also held to the great age and separate race theory.

hypothesis, and some have gone so far as to arrange the period of human occupancy of the Mississippi valley into four distinct epochs, viz: 1. The :\Iound Builders; 2. The Villagers; 3. The Fishermen; 4. The Indians. This somewhat fanciful theory presupposes four separate races or peoples and is not sustained by any positive evidence. Other writers have contended that the early American aborigines were descendants of the lost tribes of Israel and efforts have been made to substantiate such an assertion. With regard to the :\Iound Builders. Baldwin, in his America," says:

"They were un(iuestionably American aborigines and not immigrants from another continent. That appears to me the most reasonable .suggestion which assumes that the :\Iouud Builders came originally from Mexico and Central America. It explains many facts connected with their remains. In the Great Valley their most populous settlements were at the .south. Coming from Alexico and Central Ainerica, they would begin tlieir settlements on the Gulf Coast, and afterward advance gradually up the river to the Ohio Valley. It seems evident that they came by this route, and their reuuiins show that their only connection with the coast was at the south. Their settlements did not reach the coast at any other point."

On the other hand, McLean says; "From time immemorial, there has been immigration into :\Iexico from the North. One type after another has followed. In some cases different branches of the same family have successively followed one another. Before the Christian era the Nahoa immigration from the North made its appearance. They were the founders of the stone works in Northern Jlexico. Certain eminent scientists have held that the Nahoas belonged to the race that made the mounds of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. Following this people came the Toltecs, and with them the light begins to dawn upon ancient Mexican migration. They were cultivated and constituted a liranch of the Nahoa family. . . .In the light of modern discovery and scientific investigation, we are able to follow the Mound Builders. We first found them in Ohio, engaged in tilling the soil and developing a civilization peculiar to themselves. Driven from their homes, they sought an asylum in the South, and from there they wandered into Mexico, where we begin to learn something definite concerning them."

Here is a fine illustration of "When doctors disagree." Two more widely diverse theories than those advanced by Baldwin and McLean can hardly be imagined, yet they show the vast amount of speculation indulged in by writers upon the subject. There is not, and never has been, a unity of opinion regarding the ]\Iound Builders. While the early writers classed them as a hypothetical people, supposed to have antedated

History Op -Miami County 17

"The period wiicn the Mound Builders tlourisiu'd has Ix'en differently estiniatetl : but there is a growing tendency to reject the assumption of a very great anti(|uity. There is no good reason for assigning any of the remains in the Ohio valley an age antecedent to tiie Christian era, and the final destruction of their towns may well have been but a few generations before the discovery of the continent hy Columbus. Faint traditions of this event were still retained by the tribes who occupied the region at the advent of the whites. Indeed, some plausible attenii)ts have been made to identify their descendants with certain e.xisting tribes."

In the early part of the sixteenth century De Soto and the French explorers found in the southern part of the present United States certain ti'ibes who were mound builders, their structures differing; but slightly in character from those for which great antiquity is claimed. The culture of the !\lound Builders was distinctly Indian in character and the relics found in many of the so-called ancient mounds differ but little from those of known Indian origin. As these facts have been developed in the course of investigation, archaeologists have generally come to accept the theory that the Mound Builders were nothing more than the ancestors of the Indians, and i)roliably not so very remote as formerly believed.

Cyrus Thomas, of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, who has made a careful study of the ancient earthworks of the country, divides the mounds of the Uniteil States into eight districts:

I. The Wisconsin district, which embraces the southern half of Wisconsin, the northern portion of Illinois and the northeastern part of Iowa. This district is replete with effigy mounds - that is mounds hearing a resemblance to some beast or bird. These are believed to have been copied from some bird or aniuud that served as a totem for the tribe, though they may have been objects of veneration or worship. Effigy mounds are likewise found in some of the other districts, one of the most notable examples of this class being the "Great Serpent" mound, of Adams county, Ohio. This mound is located on a narrowridge, almost surrounded by three streams of water. It is in the form of a serpent and is 1,348 feet in length. The opened jaws measure seventy-five feet across and immediately in front of the mouth is a circidar or elliptical inclosure with a heap of stones in the center. The body of the serpent is from thirty to fifty feet wide and about eight feet in height at tlie highest part. The state of Ohio reeeiitly purchased the tract of groimd upon which this ancient work is located and converted it into a park, or reserve, in order to protect the mound from the ravages of the curiosity hunter.

2. The Upper Mississippi district, which includes northern and central Illinois, southeastern Iowa and northeastern Missouri. In this district the mounds are generally conical tumuli, located on the ridges of the uplands and possess very little that is of interest to the archaeologist.

3. The Ohio district, which covers the state of Ohio, the eastern part of the state of Indiana and the western part of West Virginia. Fortifications and altar mounds constitute the distinguishing features of this district, though the ordinary conical tumuli are by no means absent. One of the largest known mounds of this character is the famous mound on Grave creek, West Virginia, which is about three hundred feet in diameter at the base and seventy feet high. In the state of Ohio alone about thirteen thousand mounds have been found and many of them explored.

4. The New York district, embracing western New York, the central lake region, and a small section of Pennsylvania. In western New York there are a number of inclosing walls or fortifications.

5. The Appalacliian district, which includes western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, southwestern Virginia and southeastern Kentucky. In the mounds through this district have been found a large number of human skeletons, stone pipes, copper bracelets, mica plates and other relics unlike any found in the other districts.

6. This district includes the middle portion of Mississippi, southeastern ilissouri. northern Arkansas, western Tennessee, western Kentucky, southern Illinois and the Wabash valley in Indiana. The distinguishing feature of this district is the truncated and terraced pyramid mounds, which are found here in larger numbers than in any other part of the country. There are also some inclosures resembling fortifications, ditches or canals, and pottery and stone coffins have been found in several of tlie mounds that have been explored. Near Cahokia, Illinois, is a truncated pyramid five hundred by seven hundred feet at the base and ninety-seven feet in height.

7. The lower ilississippi district, which includes the southern half of Arkansas, the greater part of Louisiana and tlje southern portion of ]\Iississippi. It was in this district that De Soto and the French explorers above mentioned found, upon their early visits to the region, certain Indian tribes who were mound builders. The mounds here are chiefly of the simple, conical type and show no special characteristics.

iiiouiuls and iin-losiiiTs or furtilieatiuus are abundant. There are also a number of effigy mounds, the great eagle mound of Georgia being one of the finest exampli's of this class in the country.

Concerning the structure and purpose of the mouuds, Brinton says: "The mounds or tumuli are of earth, or earth mingled with stones, and are of two general classes, the one with a circular base and conical in shape, the other with a rectangular base and a superstructure in the form of a tnuicated i)yramid. The former are generally found to contain human remains anil are, therefore, held to have been barrows or sepulchral monuments raised over the distinguished dead, or, in some instances, serving as the comnuinal place of interment for a gens or elan. The truncated pyramids, with their flat surfaces, w^ere evidently the sites for buildings, such as tem{)les or council houses, which, being constructed of perishable uuitcrial, have disappeared."

While much of the foregoing is not directly applicable to i\riami county, it shows the various theories concerning the aborigines who dwelt or roved about in this country long before the white man even knew of the existence of the continent. At various places in the Wabash valley ajid the valleys of its tributaries - the Sixth district in Thomas" division - there are numerous relies of Jlound Builders, even though iliami county is lacking in works of interest to the archaeological student. With regard to the archaeological reuuiins in iMiami county, State Geologist Thompson, in his report for 1888 (page 188), says:

"The ab<irigines of ^liami coiuity left but few monuments to perpetuate their memory. Occasional mounds are about the only earthworks, and these, or the greater part of them, are in the southern part of the county. As a rule the mounds observed are merely small, conical hillocks, varying in height from two to five feet, and in diameter from twenty to fifty feet.

"Implements of stone are not rare, but they are by no means so plentiful as tiiey are in some other parts of the state. Stone axes of the grooved pattern are sometimes plowed up in the fields, or picked up in other places, and the smooth form of axe, or scraper, peeler or flesher, as it is sometimes teriued, an; fretiuentiy found. Flint arrow and spear lieads of various patterns, including the barbed, stemnu'd, rotary, serrated, triangular and leaf-shaped forms, are common, though not plentiful.

"Pottery has only been found in fragments, and pipes are very rarely found. Perforated and |)olished pieces are rare. The Indian or ]\Iound Builder of ^liami county was an economical kind of citizen, and did not throw his implements of war or the chase away recklessly."

At the time the Western Hemisphere was first visited by Europeans, the continent of North America was peopled by several groups or families of Indians, each of which was distinguished by certain physical and lingviistic characteristics and occupied a well defined territory. In the north were the Eskimo, a people who has never played any important part in history. South of them and west of the Hudson bay were the Athapascan tribes, which were scattered over a wide expanse of territory. Next came the Algoncjuian group, which occupied a great triangle, roughly bounded by the Atlantic coast on the east, a line drawn from the northernmost point of Labrador in a southwesterly direction to the Rocky mountains, and a line from the Rocky mountains to the Pamlico sound, on the coast of North Carolina. South of the Algonquian and east of the Mississippi river was the Muskhogean family, which included the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw and some other tribes. Directly west of this group, on the west side of the Mississippi, were the Caddoan tribes. The restless, hardy and warlike Siouan tribes occupied the upper Missouri valley, and in the western part of what is now the United States was the Shoshonean family. Along the St. Lawrence river and the shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, in the very heart of the Algonquian country, were the brave, warlike Iroquoian tribes, who were doubtless the most intellectual of all the North American Indians.

ilost of the Indian history of the nation centers about the Algonquian family, which was not only the most numerous, but also inhabited the largest scope of territory, and was so located that its tribes were the first to come in contact with the white men. This great family consisted of several hundred tribes, the most prominent of which were the Miami, Pottawatomi, Delaware, Shawnee, Chippewa and Ottawa. Among the Iro(iui)is the principal tribes were the Oneida, Onondaga. Seneca, Mohawk and Cayuga. The Algonquian invasion of Iroquois territory at an early date led to a confederacy being formed by these tribes, which became known as the "Five Nations," and which was a powerful factor in most of the early treaties made lietween the Indians and the whites. Subsequently the Tuscarora, another Iroquois tribe, was taken into the confederacy, which then took the name of the "Six Nations."

The tribes that played the most conspicuous part in the region including Miami county were the Miami and Pottawatomi, both belonging to the great Algonquian family. Of all the tribes that inhabited the central part of the United States, the Miami was the most powerful and influential. The tribal name is said to mean "People of the peninsula," and is pi-obably of Chippewa origin, as in early times that tribe and the Miami were closely related. As a tribe they have been variously designated as the Omes, Omamees and Auniianiis by the French, and the Twightwees, Tweetwees or Twa Twas, by the English, though the name "Miami" tinally came into general use. In the Jesuit Relations for 1658 Gabriel Druillettes refers to these Indians as the ' ' Omamik, ' ' and says they then inhabited the country about the mouth of the Green bay, in Wisconsin. Ten years later Perrot found at least part of the tribe "living in a fortified village on the headwaters of the Fox river, with some of the Mascoutens, " and Baequeville de la Potherie says that in 1667 "this tribe, with the ;\Iascoutens, Kiekapoo and part of the Illinois, settled in the .Mississippi valley, sixty leagues from their former habitation," but he neglects to inform his readers where that former habitation was.

The fact that a few years later the Miami Indians were known to be scattered over a large territory compels the belief that the Indians mentioned by these early French writers were merely subordinate ti-ibes and did not include the main body. The French divided the tribe into six bands, viz: the Piankeshaw, the Wea, the Atchatchakangoueu, the Kelatika, the Mengakonkia and the Pepicokia. The last four have disappeared, or have been absorbed by other tribes, and the Piankeshaw and Wea came to be recognized as separate and independent tribes. The Eel Rivers, an ofif-slioot of the Miami, lived for some time on a reservation near Thorntown, Boone cou-nty, but subsequently joined the main body of the Miamis on the Wabash river.

Early writers describe the Miami men as "of medium height, well built, heads rather round than oblong, countenances agreeable rather than sedate or morose, swift on foot and excessively fond of racing." The dress of the men consisted chiefly of the loin cloth, but the women wore gowns made of dressed deerskins. The French explorers found the women to be "distinguished for their polite manners, mild, affable and sedate character, and their respect for and obedience to their chiefs, who had greater authority than those of any other Algonquian tribe."

While they depended largely upon the chase for their food supply, they also raised maize, or Indian corn, and some other vegetables. The women s\nin thread of buffalo hair and this thread was used to make bags in which to carry their supply of dried meat. The principal form of dwelling was the wigwam, composed of skins stretched over a framework of poles, tliough many lived in huts roofed with rush mats. They worshiped the sun and thunder, hul they did not have a multitude of minor deities as did the Huron. Ottawa and some other tribes. Usually the dead were buried in hollow logs. Occasionally, as in the case of some warrior of distinction, a solid log was split in halves and hollowed out for a coffin, and sometimes l)odies were buried in the ground in a recumbent position, without a coffin of any kind.

Morgan divides the tribe into ten geutes, viz.: 1. Mowhawa (wolf), 2. Mongwa (loon), 3. Kendawa (eagle), 4. Alipakosca (buzzard), 5. Kanozawa (panther), 6. Pilawa (turkey), 7. Ahseponua (raccoon), 8. Monnato (snow), 9. Kulswa (the sun), 10. Nape (water). Chauvignerie, writing in 1737, says the principal totems were the elk and the crane, and toward the close of the eighteenth century the chief totem was the turtle. It was used in signing at the great conference in 1793 and also at the treaty of Greenville. None of these totems are mentioned by Morgan in his list.

About 1671 or 1672 the Miamis separated from the Mascoutens and settled about the south end of Lake Michigan, establishing their principal villages at Chicago, on the St. Joseph river and where the city of Kalamazoo, Michigan, now stands. Missions were established in these Indian settlements bj' Father Allouez before the year 1700. Early in the eighteenth century a Miami village was established at Detroit, but the village of Ke-ki-on-ga, at the head of the Maumee river, where the city of Fort Wayne is now located, continued to be the headquarters of the tribe. Other villages were Chi-ea-gou, Ko-ko-mo and Little Turtle's village on the Mississinewa river. Not long after the village was established at Detroit, a Wea village - called by the French Ouiatenon - was founded by that tribe on the Wabash river, not far from the present city of Lafayette.

Margry says Cadillac reported from Detroit that about 1695, or perhaps a little earlier, the Sioux made a treacherous attack upon the Miamis and killed about three thousand of them, men, women and ehildi'en being slaughtered without discrimination. A few years later came the Kickapoo, Pottawatomi and other northern tribes and forced the Miami back to the Wabash river. The tribe then made new settlements on the Miami river, in Ohio, extending as far east as the Scioto river, and they held this country until after the treaty of 1763, when the.y removed back to Indiana. ]Miami traditions tell of a confederacy that claimed dominion over the territory now comprising the western part of Ohio, all of Indiana, a large part of Illinois, the southern part of Slichigan and part of the state of Wisconsin. It is believed by most historians that the alliance of the Miami with some of the other tribes inhabiting the Ohio valley was formed about the time of the invasion by the northern tribes, and the "Great Miami Confederacy" became to the Indians of the West what the "Six Nations" were to the East - a power that was not easily overcome and a potent factor in dictating the terms of treaties. For many years the headquarters of this confederacy were at Ke-ki-on-ga (Fort Wayne), whither all the .subordinate chiefs came to present their grievances and receive their instructions. When oiu' is familiar with the various c-haiiires made l)y the Miami Iiuliaiis ill their place of resideiiee. the speech of Little Turtle (ile-she-ke-iio- (juah), the great Miami chief, at the council of Greenville, in 1795, is better understood. At that council General Wayne proposed that the Indians reliiuiuish all claim to the lands east of a line running from the miiutli of the Kentucky river northward thr()u<rii Fort Recovery, Ohio. To tliis proposal Little Turtle replied for his people as follows:

"I liojie \-on will listen to what I now say to you. "^'ou have pointed out to us the boundary line between the Indians and the United States. I now take the liberty to inform you that the line, as you would have it, cuts off from us a large section of country which we have occupied and enjoyed from a time the oldest of us cannot remember, and no one - white man or Indian - has ever disputed our rights to these lands, or offered to disturb us in our possession. It is well known by all my brothers present that my forefather kindled the first fire at Detroit; thence he extended his lines to the headwaters of the Scioto ; thence to its mouth ; thence down the Ohio river to the mouth of the Wabash, and from there to Chicago and over Lake Michigan. These are the boundaries within which the prints of my ancestors' houses are ever.ywhere to be seen."

After the return of the tribe to Indiana, following the treaty of 1763, the .Miamis established several new villages, the most important of which was the Osage village, situated on the west bank of the ilississinewa river about a mile above its mouth. This village was so called from an Osage Indian, whose name appears in treaties as "Osage the Neutral." The site of this village was included in the reservation granted to John B. Richardville in 1838.

Across the river from this village and extending back perhaps a mile from the stream was another village, the name of which appears to have been lost. Possibly it was merely a straggling extension of the Osage village. The site is now occupied by what is known as the ' ' Goodenough Farm."

Seek's village, the Indian name of which was Maconsaw, was situated on the Eel river, about three miles from where Columl)ia City, Whitley (;ounty, now stands, and was named after a Miami Chief. The village and its accompanying reservation were ceded to the United States in 1838.

Choppatee's village, named for the chief who inhabited it, was on the west bank of the St. Joseph river, a few miles from Fort Wayne, and Meshingomesia's village was on the northwest side of the Mississinewa river, in what is now Liberty township, Wabash county. A reservation

Niconzah's village, also called Squirrel village, was on Big Pipe creek, not far from the present town of Bunker Hill. Other village chiefs were Chapine and White Loon, near the present town of Roanoke, Huntington county ; Black Loon and Big Majenica, near Andrews ; La Gros, near the town of Lagi-o, which bears his name ; Allolah, south of the present city of Wabash; Joe Russiaville aud IMississinewa, west of La Fontaine; and Shepoconah, or the Deaf Man, near the line that now separates Miami and Wabash counties, in Wabash county.

Near the site where the battle of Tippecanoe was fought in 1811. the Miamis established a village at an early date. Afterward this village was occupied by the Shawnees. While the latter were there the village was attacked and destroyed by Wilkinson in 1791, at which time it consisted of 120 houses. Some years later the village was rebuilt by the Pottawatomi Indians, who in 1808 invited Tecumseh and his brother to make it their headquarters, when the place took the name of Prophet's Town. After its destruction by General Harrison in November, 1811, it was never again rebuilt.

In 1846, after several treaties, the majority of the Miamis iu Indiana removed to a reservation in Kansas, in which state there is also a i\liami county named for this once powerful tribe. By the treaties of 1854 and 1867 their lands in Kansas were taken from them and they were confederated with the remnants of the Piankeshaw, Wea, Peoria and Kaskaskia tribes in the Indian Territory. By the consolidation and intermarriage of these tribes the identity of the Miami has been almost completely lost.

When the white men began to establish settlements iu central Indiana they found all the region north of the Wabash river inhabited by the Pottawatomi Indians. Originally this tribe was one of the most numerous of the Algonquian family. The name "" Pottawatomi" signifies "People of the place of fire," aud the Jesuit Relations state that until about 1670 the tribe was known as the "Nation of fire." In early times the Pottawatomi, Chippewa and Ottawa were closely allied, if they were not in fact one tribe, and they were known as the "Three fires." Their tribal traditions say they lived together about the upper end of Lake Huron. After their separation the principal branches of the Pottawatomi were those on the St. Joseph and Huron rivers, in Michigan, and on the Wabash river in Indiana.

Morgan divides the Pottawatomi into fifteen gentes, to wit: 1. Moah (wolf), 2. Mko (bear), 3. Muk (beaver), 4. Misshawa (elk), 5. Maak (loon), 6. Knou (eagle), 7. Nma (sturgeon), 8. Nmapena (carp),

History Ok .Miami County 25

9. IMfrozcwa (bald eaglcj, 10. Clickwa (thunder), 11- Wabozo (rabbit), 12. Kakatrslu' (crow), l\i. Wakeshi (fox), 14. Penna (turkey), 15. Mketashslickakah (hawk).

Till' Pnttawatoiui have been described as "the most docile and affectionate toward the French of all the savages of the West." They were naturally polite, more kindly disposed toward' the early missionaries and the religion they taught them than any of the western triin'S, though some wi'iters say they were filthy in their habits, low in their nature, lazy, and would rather fish and hunt than tn till the soil. In their religion they had twci spii'its - Kitchemontlo, llie good spirit, and JIatchemondo, the evil .spirit - though Schoolcraft thinks these spirits were the result of the teaching of the missionaries. He says that in early times the Pottawatomi worshipped the sun and practiced polygamy. When starting to battle the tribe appealed to the two spirits, asking Kitchemondo to give them the victory and Matchemondo to confuse their enemies.

Prior to the peace of 17G;!, the Pottawatomi sided with the French. They were with Pontiae in the uprising of that year and at the beginning of the Revolutionary war they cast their lot with the British. At the treaty of (ireenville, August 3, 1795, they served notice ui)on the Miami tribe that they intended to "move down upon the Wabash," which they did, in spite of the protests of the ]\Iiamis, "who claimed all that territory. About the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Pottawatomi were in possession of the country around the head of Lake ]\Iichigan. extending from the Milwaukee river, in Wisconsin, to the Grand river, in .Michigan; thence across Michigan to Lake Erie; thence southwest, over a large part of Illinois, and all that part of Indiana lying north of the Wabash river. Within this teriitory they had about fifty villages.

Ashkum, a Pottawatomi chief, had his village on the north side of the Eel river, not far from the present town of Denver, in Miami county. The village of JMetea, a chief distinguished for his bravery and oratory, was situated on the St. Joseph river, at the mouth of Cedar creek, near the village of Cedarville, in Allen county. JMetea was one of the leaders of the i)ai-ty that nuissacred the families of the garrison and settlers about old Fort Dearborn (where the city of Chicago now stands) as they were retreating to Detroit at the beginning of the War of 1812. His band of wari'iors also haiTassed the troops that were marching to the relief of Fort Wayne, in the fall of 1812, and in one of the engagements he was shot in the arm by Gt'ueral Harrison. At the treaty council in October, l.S2fi, he was one of the Pottawatonu Indians who imiiressed his hearers li\' his elo(|uence, but the following year he died in a drunken

The Pottawatomi took part in more than forty treaties with the United States. The last important treaty was that of February 27, 1837, soon after which the tribe left Indiana and took up their residence on a new reservation in Kansas. Although the tribe was one of the strongest of the Algonquian tribes numerically, it is probable that it never numbered more than 3,000 or 4,000 warriors. In 1908 it had dwindled until the number in the United States was 2,522. Of these 1,768 lived in Oklahoma, 676 of what was left of the "Prairie baud" lived in Kansas, and 78 of the same band lived in Michigan.

There is something pathetic in the manner in which the North American Indians were dispossessed of the lands where they and their ancestors had lived for generations before the coming of the white man, and it may be worth while to note the policies adopted by European nations to get possession of these lands. As eai-ly as 1529, Cortez, captain-general of New Spain, was directed by the Spanish government to "give his principal care to the conversion of the natives," and directed that "none shall be given to the Spaniards as slaves or servants." Bishop Ramirez, acting governor under Cortez, tried to carry out this royal edict, as well as the instructions of his church, but without avail. Indians were enslaved, treated with great cruelty and made to work in the mines, and their lands were taken ruthlessly and without promise of compensation. This was especially true in the conquests of Mexico and Central America, and a similar policy prevailed among the Spaniards to some extent in the southern part of the United States.

The French had no settled policy in dealing with the Indians. The Jesuit fathers were interested in their conversion to the Christian faith and the other early French immigrants were chiefly interested in the fur trade. They made little or no effort to cultivate the land or to dispossess the Indians, but the two peoples lived as neighbors, the Indians peaceably permitting the French to dwell among them and allowing them sufficient land for their needs, and the French always recognizing the rights of the natives as the original owners.

In the English policy the Indian was not entirely forgotten, as may be seen in the early charters, but no provision was made for the education, support or conversion of the natives. Charters granted by the English kings generally authorized the colonists "if God shall grant it, to vanquish and captivate them ; and the captives to put to death, or, according to their discretion, to save." (Lord Baltimore's charter to Maryland.)

Cyrus Thomas, of the United States Bureau of Ethiicrfogj", says: "Frequent and bloody wars, iu wliich the whites were not always the aggressors, unavoidably ensued. European policy, numbers and skill prevailed. As the white poi)uliition advanced, that of the Indians receded. The country in the immediate neighborhood of agriculturists became unfit for them. The game fled to thicker and more unbroken forests, and the Indians followed. . . . Tliat law which regulates, and ought to regulate in general, the relations between the conquerer and the coucjuered, was inapplicable to a people under such circumstances. ' '

The Indians were therefore treated by the English colonists as mere occupants, or tenants. In lime of peace they were protected, to some extent at least, in the possession of their lands, but were not regarded as capable of transferring their title to others - the crown grants did that - and in war they were expelled, when their lands were "taken by conquest"' without renuineration or recourse.

In some degree, the United States inherited, or copied tlic English policy. Article IX of the Articles of Confederation gave congress the sole right to deal with the Indians and Indian affairs, under certain restrictions. Aiid by the act of March 1, 17SJ3, entitled "An act to regulate trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes," it was provided:

"That no purchase or gi'ant of lands, or any title or claim thereto, from any Indians, or nation or tribe of Indians, within the bounds of the United States, shall be of any validity, in law or ('(|uity, unless the same be made by treaty or convention entered into pursuant to the constitution.

Under this policy treaty followed treaty, each crowding the Indian farther toward the setting sun. After the treaties with the Miami and I'ottawatomi tribes in Indiana, as they left their cabins and favorite hunting grounds along the Wabash, the Kankakee, the Tippecanoe and tile ]Mississinewa, they cast longing looks backward toward the land which had so long been their home, and sorrowfully bade adieu to the scenes of llieir childhood forever. About all they have left are tlie names of the streams and towns, which the white man has adopted. And

Indian Chiefs And Treaties

Early Miami Chiefs - Little Turtle - John B. Richardville - Legend OF How HE Became Chief - His Characteristics - Tribal Organization - War Chiefs - Shepoconaii - Fr.\ncis Godfroy - How he WAS Chosen War Chief - His Family - His Death and Will- Gabriel Godfroy - Pottawatomi Chiefs - Treaties with the Pottawatomi - Treaties with the Miamis - Pull Text of the Great Treaty of 1838 - Schedule of Indian Land Grants - Treaty op 1840 - The White Man in Possession.

Little is known of the ;\lianii chiefs prior to July 3, 1748. On that date a treaty was concluded at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, between the chiefs of several tribes on one side and commissioners appointed by the English colonial autliorities on the other. In this treaty, which was merely one of peace and friendship, the name of A-gue-naek-gue appears as principal chief of the Miamis. At that time he lived at Turtle village, a few miles northeast of the present city of Fort Wayne. Two other .Miami chiefs from the Wabash country also signed the treaty, which lasted until after the establishment of the United States government.

Aguenackgue married a ]\Iohican woman, according to the Indian custom, and one of their sous was ]\Ie-she-ke-no-quah, or Little Turtle, who was born at Turtle village about 1747, and who became principal chief of the Miami nation upon the death of his father. About the time he succeeded to the chieftainship his tribe was regarded as the leading one in the West. His people were brave and fearless, were considered more intelligent than those of the surrounding tribes, lived in better habitations, possessed a greater degree of self respect, and were more careful in their dress and habits. To be the principal chief of this great tribe, one must have both physical and intellectual powers of a high order.

Little Turtle was not lacking in any of the essential qualifications. From his mother he inherited many of the superior qualities of the Mohicans. Agile and athletic, his physical ability was not to be ques- tioiit'd for a luoinciit. As a youth his inHiu'uiice was made inaiiit'est on numerous occasions, and even the older warriors listened with respect when he presented his views in council. After he became chief, not only his own tribe, but also others of the Miami confcderncy. ackimwledgetl him as their great leader and followed him without the slitjhtest envy or jealousy. No military academy taught him the art of war. hut in the management of any anuy he showed the skill of a Napoleon. His prowess in this line is seen in the masterly manner in which lie conducted the assault on General St. Clair's army, November 4. ITHl.- Not until he met General Wayne, whom he designated as "tln' man who never sleeps," did Little Turtle acknowledge defeat. He was likewise a statesman, as well as a warrior, and was a conspicuous figure in tlie negotiation of several of the early treaties with the Cnited States. Having once affixed his signatiu'e to m ti'eaty. Iiis honor would not |>eruiit him to violate its stipulations, and by this mean^ iu> won the confidence and esteem of the whites. General (ieorge Washington, while president of the Cnited States, presented him with a medal and a handsome sword, which were buried with him at Fort Wayne, where he died on July 14, 1812. He was buried by the white people with honors, a monument was erected over his grave, <ind it was said of him that "he never offered or received a bribe."

Jean l'.aj)tiste Kicluii'dviilc, commonly called John 15. Kichardville, became principal chief of the iliainis after the death of Little Turtle. His hulian nanu> was Pe-she-wa 'the l.vnx), a name indicative of his character - always alert and watchful for his own interests and the welfare of his tribe. Richardville (pronounced Roosheville) was not a fullblootl Miami. His father, a noted Fi-encb trader, .was Joseph Drouet de Richardville, a scion of a noble family of France, and there is a tradition that he was an officer in the French service in Canada before becoming interested in^the fur trade. His brother was a trader at Vincennes, where some of his descendants still live, and who according to Meginnis have in their possession valuable documents "which trace their ancestry back to the year 1162."

The mother of Chief Richardville was TahJvum-wali, daughter of the old chief Aguenackgue and a sister of Little Turtle. He was born at the Miami village of Kekionga (Fort Wayne) about the year 1761. His election to the chieftainship of the tribe was the result of a daring feat that for bravery is entitled to rank with the defense of the pass at Theruiopjlae or the heroic .sacrifice of .\rnold W'inkelricd. A white nuiii was captured by a war part\- of ilia mis and brought into the Indian camp on the Maumee river. Little Turtle's successor had not yet been chosen and, after a consultation of the head men. the uiifoi-tunate prisoner was seuteuced to be buriu-d at the stake. Among the ]\Iiainis there were some who wanted to abandon this barbarous custom and one of these was Tah-kum-wah, the mother of Richardville. With her son she stood apart, sileuth- watching the preparations for the sacrifice of the prisoner, who, knowing that protestations were useless, resigned himself to his horrible fate. The stake was planted, the captive ))ound to it securely, the fagots piled around him, the bloodthirsty savages around him reveling in fiendish anticipation. When all was ready the torch was applied and the Indians "began tlu^ir awful dance of death." Then Richardville 's mother thrust a knife into his hand and bade him assert his claims to the chieftainship. Springing through the circle of frenzied dancers and kicking aside the blazing fagots, Richardville (juickly severed the cords that bound the prisoner and bore him beyond the cordon of flames. It would probably be a difficult matter to say which was the most astonished - the liberated captive or the Indians whose barbaric ceremony had been so rudely interrupted. Jleginnis says they were "by no means pleased at the loss of their prize, yet the young man. their favorite, for his daring conduct, was at once esteemed as a god by the crowd, aiul then became a chief of the first distinction and honor in the tribe."

The story then continues to the effect that Richardville 's mother took charge of the man, placed him in a canoe, covered him with peltries and sent him down the ilaumee under the protection of friendly Indians. Some years later, while on his way to Washington, Richardville stopi)ed for a few hours in a town in Ohio and while there a stranger came up to him, gave him a warm greeting and declared himself to be the rescued prisoner.

- The story of this dramatic incident, was related by the chief to Allen Hamilton, the Indian agent at Fort Wayne, and has since been repeated by several writers, all of whom describe Richardville as a young man at the time he did the daring deed that won for him the chieftainship of his tribe. The same authorities agree that he did not become chief until after the death of Little Turtle, in the summer of 1812. The story of the rescue may be true, but if Richardville was born in 1761 and did not succeed to the chieftainship until after the death of Little Turtle, he was therefore past fifty years of age when he became the principal chief, civil ruler and great lawgiver of the Miamis.

There is abundant evidence, however, that for years prior to that time he had been one of the leading men of his tribe. He was more of a diplomat than a warrior, but he took part in the action that defeated General Harmar's army in October, 1790. He was one of the Miami representatTves in the council of Greenville, which resulted in the treaty of August 3, 1795 ; was one of the signers of the treaty of Fort Wayne, June 7.

Richard ville was one of tlie chiefs who received $500 from the fjoverniiient about 1827. with which to huild a hoii.se. To tlie apjjropriation he added a eonsiderahK> sum of his own money and luiilt a ratlirr ])retentious residence' on one of his I'esei-vations. Tlie "'Handbook" issued by the United States Bureau of Ktimology says: "His house on the bank of the St. Mary's, abdut four miles from Fort Wayne, was foi- many years known as the abode of hospitality."' For a mimher of years he conducted a lai-jre tradint; house at Fort Wayne, where he spent most of his time, but about 1836 he removed his trading post to Wabash and contiinied in linsincss there for some time, his wife and the younger membi^rs of the family remaining at tiie houie on the St. Mary's. The following description of him is from the pen of Judge Horace P. Biddle, who was personally aei|uainted with the chief for several years preeedinij his death :

'"In stature Richardville was about five feet ten inches, with broad shoulders, and weighed about 180 pounds. His personal appearance was attractive and he was graceful in carriage and manner. E.xemjit from any expression of levity, he is said to have 'preserved his dignity umleiall circumstances.' His nose was Roman, his eyes were of a lightish blue and slightly protruding, his upper lip pressed firmly upon his teeth, and the under one slightly projecting. That he was an Indian half-breed there can be no doubt. His own statements and unvarying traditions conclusively prove that he inherited his position through his mother, by the laws of Indian descent, and contradict the theory that he was a who obtained the chieftainship by trickery or purchase. In appearance he was remarkable, in that his skin was neither red nor white, but both coloi's combined in his skin, which was mottled or spotted red and white.''

Richardville died at his home on the St. Mary's river on August 13, 1841. The next day he was buried by the Catholic church, the services being conducted by Father Clark, the priest from Peru, in the church of St. Augustine. His body was first interred where the cathedi'al of Fort Waj'ue was afterward erected, and when work on that building was commenced his remains were removed to the Catholic ceuieteis- south of the cit}-. His grave is marked by a marble monument placed there by his daughters. On the east side of the monument is the inscription: "Here rest the remains of Chief Richardville, principal chief of the .Miami tribe of Indians. He was born at Fort Wayne, about the year 1760. Died August 13, A. I). 1841," and on the west side: "This monument has been, erected l)v La Blonde, Sarah and Catherine, daughters of the deceased."

Catherine, whose Indian name was Po-con-go-qua, became the wife of Francis La Fontaine (To-pe-ah), who was the last principal chief of the ^Miamis. Like his illustrious predecessor, he was the son of a Preuchniau and his mother was a Jliami. His marriage to the daughter of Biehardville occurred when he was about twenty-one years of age, and but a short time before the old chief's death. In that short interval he took such interest in the welfare of the iliamis that he was unanimously selected as chief soon after the death of his father-in-law. La Fontaine is described as a "tall portly man, weighing about 350 pounds." His home was on two sections of land a short distance east of the city of Huntington. But his elevation to the position of chief came after the treaties of 1826 and 1838, which had taken from the Miamis their lands and humbled their pride, hence he had no opportunity to display liis (lualifieatioiis as a leader. He accompanied his people to their new reservation in Kansas, spent the winter there with them, and the following spring set out to return to his home in Indiana. On the way he was taken ill and died at Lafayette, Indiana. April 13, 1847. His remains were taken to Huntington and interred in the Catholic cemetery.

With regard to the social and political organization of the Indian tribes, J. N. B. Hewitt, of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, says: the Nortli American Indians a chief may be generally defined as a political officer whose distinctive functions are to execute the ascertained' will of a definite group of jjcrsons united by the possession of a common territory or range. . . . The clan or gens, the tribe and confederation present more complex forms of social and political organization. The clan or gens embraces several such chieftaincies, and has a more highly developed internal political straeture with definite land l)oundaries. The tribe is constituted of several elans or gentes, and the confederation of several tribes. . . . There were in several communities, as the Iroquois and Greeks, civil and sub chiefs, chosen for jicrsonal merit, and permanent and temporary war chiefs."

The social and political structure of the iliamis was very similar to that of the Iroquois and Creeks. The principal chief was the civil ruler and executive official of the tribe, and under him were the war chief and the chiefs of the clans or gentes. There is a tribal tradition that at an early date a chief named Osandiah, at the head of one division of the ]\liami tribe, left the Wabash country and established himself on the Big Miami river in Ohio. Some time afterward he visited President Washington, who presented him with several tokens of regard. His popularity with the white man 's government awakened the jealousy of some of the other clans and Osandiah 's death followed in such a way as to give rise to the suspicion that he had been poisoned.

His son Ataw-ataw then became chief aud upon his 'death was iu turn succeeded by his son Met-o-cin-yah (or Me-to-sin-ia), who led the clan back to Indiana, locating near the line between the present counties of Grant and Wabash. Of his ten children Me-shin-go-me-sia, the eldest son, became chief of the band upon the death of his father. He was born in what is now Wabash county, about the time of the Revolutionary war, according to Indian tradition, and lived until December, 1879. At the battle of the Mississinewa, December 18, 1812, he distinguished him- .self by his bravery and qualities as a leader, but at his death the band had become so decimated that the chiel'tainship perished.

From this tradition it appears that at least some of the minor chiefs inherited their honors, though the known history of the tribe shows that L'liii'fs were frequently selected for their intellectual ability, or as a reward for the performance of some noteworthy action, as in the case of Richardville.

In Little Turtle the functions of civil ruler and war chief were combined. After his death, when Richardville became the principal chief, the mantle of the war chief fell upon She-po-con-ah. later known as the Deaf i\lan, who was the husband of Frances Slocum, the white woman mentioned in another chapter. Shepoconah is described as a large, heavy set man and a great warrior until his hearing became affected. His headciuarters were at the Osage village, near the mouth of the Mississinewa river, until he retired from the chieftainship, when he went farther up the river and built a log house, where a settlement grew up that became known as "the Deaf Man's village." He died iu the early '30s and was buried on a knoll a few hundred yards from his dwelling. Graham, in his History of IMiami County, says that Shepoconah i)artieipated iu the battle of Fort Wayne, August 20, 1794; the battle of Tippecanoe, November 7, 1811, and the battle of the Mississinewa, December 18, 1812. In the last named engagement he was one of the leaders of the Indian forces against Colonel Campbell.

Upon the resignation of Shepoconah, Francis Godfroy was made the war chief of the ]\Iiamis. He was a son of Jacques or James (sometimes called Jocko) Godfroy, a French trader among the Indians along the Wabash. It is said that Jacques Godfroy was a descendant of Godfroy of Bouillon, the famous crusader whose standard was the first to be planted upon the walls of Jerusalem, July 5, 10!)i), in the crusade against the Saracens. Francis Godfroy was born near Fort Wayne in March, 1788. As a youth he was noted for his physical strength, daring and bravery. He and his brother Louis were distinguished from early manhood and commanded the respect of the entire Miami tribe. They were leaders in the battles of Fort Wayne, Tippecanoe and the Missis- sinewa, as well as several other engagements. Judge Horace P. Biddle relates the following story, showing how Francis came to be chosen as the war chief:

, "There was a vei-y bad Indian in the trilie known as ]\Ia-.ien-i-ca. He was a drinking, quarrelsome man and frequently killed those who displeased him. Being the chief of a village, he was greatly feared. Once upon a time, as the story runs, he was in a boisterous condition at a council, which was being held on the liill just above where the Godfroy cemetery is now located. Francis Godfrey, then a young man, was present. From some remark, he incurred the displeasure of ilajen-i-ca, who commanded him to sit down, telling him he was no man. Young Godfrey resented the insult, and told him that he was no man - that he was a coward - that he should desist from stabbing and killing his own people for trivial causes. These remarks greatly excited Jlajen-i-ca, and. drawing his knife, he rushed on Godfroy. The latter being brave and powerful, (juickly seized his assailant by the wrist and held his arm tirmJy. Then he drew his own knife and told him the braver way would be to tight a duel. Still holding him I)y the arm, he commanded him to look upon yonder sun for the last time if he proposed to tight. If not intending to tight, and if he was a brave man, he would drop his knife. Godfroy stood tirm and ready to fight, and. being a giant in strength, caused his assailant, through his determined look, to quail. Finally the big chief dropped his knife and yielded to the superior will of Godfroy. This act of bravery resulted in the latter being chosen war chief after the resignation of She-pan-can-ah. ""

In the treaty of St. Mary's in October, 1818, Francis was granted a reservation of six sections of land on the Salamonie river and his brother Louis a reservation of the same size on the St. ilary's. On December 2, 1824, an agreement, witnessed by Joseph Bai-ron and General John Tipton, was entered into by Francis and Louis Godfroy to exchange one section of these reservations, "the sole object and purpose of the exchange being that the brothers may live near each other," and they bound themselves not to sell or otherwise dispose of the sections thus exchanged except by mutual consent."

About a year before this exchange was made, Francis Godfroy had established a trading post on the Wabash river, near the mouth of the Mississinewa, which he named Blount Pleasant. As a trader he was successful and amassed a considerable fortune. He would probably have become as wealthy as Richardville, had it not been for his liberality. Stephens says: "The most distinguished quality in the character of Francis Godfroy was his generosity. In this he was a prince. He was like a good, old father to his tribe. His Mount Pleasant home was like an Indian village. A niiiiil)cr of Indians wure always feasting at iiis table. Generosity was e.xtended to all. His home was like that of a lord of an English manor, or a king of a French feudal state - here were horses and hounds, gun.s and ammunition, the chase and tlh; feast. He was held in perfeet rcvcrenee by his people."

Although Godfrey's father was a Frenchman and the French largely predominated in his character, his mother was a :\liami woman and he always claimed to belong to that tribe. Ilis first wife was Sac-a-che- <iuah. Ihe daughter of a white man named Cole, who was captured when a child in Kentucky by the Shawnees, grew up among the Indians and acted as interpreter at the treaty of Greenville in 1795. Ilis sister became the wife of White "Wolf. By his first marriage Francis Godfrey had six children - Poqua, Tac-con-ze-quah, Catherine, Louisa, James R. and William. His second wife was a Miami woman named Sac-a-qua-tah, who also bore him six children, viz. : Sallie, George W., Thomas, Gabriel, Clemenee and Frances. George Washington, when only fourteen years of age, was killed by a bolt of lightning, which came from an almost clear sky, in May, 1841, while he was sitting on his horse in front of his father's trading house. The incident was regarded with profound super.stition by the Miamis and a large Imwldcr near the place was for many years pointed out as marking the place of his tragic death.

In his personal appearance Francis Godfrey was ever six feet iu height, weighed about three hundred pounds, and carried the air of one "born to command." It is said that even those against whom he fought in battle respected him. While Colonal Richard ^I. Johnson was vicepresident of the United States, Chief Godfrey sent him an elaborately decorated tomahawk, the receipt of which Colonel Johnson acknowledged in the following letter to Colonel Abel C. Pepper, superintendent of Indian affairs:

"Sir: - I have this day received the elegant tomahawk from your hands, as a present from my friend and brother, the brave Jliami chief, Palonzwa, and I now return my thanks to that brave and generous chief and warrior, and let him know- that I shall ever keep it as a token of his friendship.

"In addition to this, I send by you a brace of pistols, which you will please present to that brave chief and warrior as an evidence of regard. With sentiments of great respect,

Palonzwa, the name that appears in Colonel Johnson's letter, was the Indian pronunciation of the French word Francois, which was the real name of Chief Godfrey, but which became corrupted into the English name Francis.

After a lingering illness Francis Godfroy died on Jlay 1, 1840, and was buried on the rising ground a short distance south of his Mount Pleasant home. His funeral was attended by hundreds of white people, as well as a large number of the Miamis. The funeral oration was delivered by Wap-pa-pin-sha (Black Racoon), who was one of the local chiefs and most noted orators of the IMiami tribe. Translated, his address was as follows:

"Brothers: The Great Spirit has taken to himself another of our once powerful and happy, but now rapidl.v declining nation. The time has been when these forests were deusel3' populated by the red man; but the same hand whose blighting touch ^vithered the majestic frame before us, and caused the noble spirit by which it was animated to seek another abode, has dealt in a like manner with his and our fathers; in a like manner it will deal with us. Death, of late, has been common among us - so much so that an occurrence of it scarcely attracts our notice. But when the brave, the generous and the patriotic are blasted by it, then it is that the tears of our sorrow freely flow.

' ' Such is now the ease. Our brother who has just left us was brave, generous and patriotic, and as a tribute to his merit, and a reward for goodness, the teai-s, not only of his own people, but also of many white men, who are here assembled to witness these funeral rites, mingle in sorrow over the death of one they loved.

"At this scene the poor of his people weep, because at his table they were wont to feast and rejoice. The weak mourn his death, because his authority was directed to their protection. But he has left the earth, the place of vexation and contention, and is now participating with Pocahontas and Logan in those joys prepared by the Great Spirit for such as well and faithfully discharge their duties here. Brothers, let us follow his example and practice his virtues. ' '

On February 26, 1840, Francis Godfroy executed a will, disposing of the lands granted to him by treaties with the United States, and other property which he had accumulated. To this will a codicil was added only a short time before his death. As this will is of historic interest to the people of Miami county, forming, as it does, the basis of title to a great deal of real estate in the county, it is here reproduced in full :

"Second, It is my will and I hereby bequeath to iny beloved son, James R. Godfroy, one section of land, to include my mill on the creek below Peru, commonly called Pipe creek.

"Third, I will and bequeath to my beloved son, William Godfroy, one section of land lying on the Mississinewa river, being the section of land gi-anted to O-san-di-ah at the treaty between the United States and the Miami Indians of 1838, which I purchased of the said O-sandi-ah.

"Fourth, I will ami bequeath to my beloved son, George Washington, the section of land lying opposite the town of Peru, on the Wabash, being the same on which Peter Gibout now lives.

"Fifth, I will and bequeath to my dearly beloved sons, Thomas Godfroy and Gabriel Godfroy, as tenants in common, three-fourths of the section lying above and adjoining the town of Peru, which said threefourths of a section so bequeathed as aforesaid is a part of the section granted to me adjoining the town of Peru at the treaty between the United States and the ^liaini Indians of October, 1834.

"Sixth, For the purpose of educating my sou Gabriel, I hereby will and bequeath to him, in addition to my former bequest, the onequarter section of land lying opposite my house, being the same purchased of John B. Richardville.

"Seventh, I will and bequeath unto my two wives, or the mothers of my children, Sac-a-che-quah and Sac-kali-(iuet-tah, anil my beloved children, my eldest unmarried daughter, Louisa, to my daughter Sally, to my daughter Frances, to my daughter Clemence, the four sections of land and improvements wliere I now live, during the lifetime of my said wives, to be decided in case of dispute by my executors during the lives of my wives. The two of the four sections of land aforesaid to include the houses and improvements, I will and beqeuath to my said daughters, Louisa, Sally, Finances and (Jlemence, as tenants in common and to their heirs forever. The remaining two of the four sections aforesaid, I will and be(|ueath to all my children and their heirs and a.ssigns, as well as those who are devisees to this will, as also Poqua, and the wife of Goodboo, to be equally divided among them all.

"Eighth, It is my will that after the personal property, which I may be possessed of at the time of my death, should be exhausted, that my executors, or the survivor of them, or the person who may administer on my estate, shall sell so much of my real estate as he or they may deem necessary for the payment of iny debts, the same to be sold for such prices as he or they may deem reasonable. Such real estate to be sold as is not devised individually to any member of my family.

"Ninth, I will and bequeath such property as I may die possessed of, both real and personal, not heretofore disposed of, after my debts are paid, to be equally divided among all my children, share and share alike.

"Lastly, I hereby constitute and appoint Allen Hamilton and John B. Richardville, of the county of Allen, to be the sole executors of this my last will and testament. In the case of the death of either of them, the other to be sole executor, or in case one fails to serve, then the other to be the executor.

"Signed, sealed, jjublished and declared by the testator as and for his last will and testament, executed in the presence of the undersigned, who signed the same as witnesses in the presence of each other, and in the presence of the testator sub.scribed their names as such witnesses at the request of said testator, the 26th day of February, 1840.

In the codicil provisions were made for defending the titles to several tracts of land bought by Godfroy from Wap-pa-piu-sha and other Indians by the employment of James Raridon as attorney, and that the sum of $1,000 should be paid by his executors to his wife, Sac-kah-quet-tah, immediately after his decease, the money to be used for the support of the infant children. The principal jirovisions of the codicil, however, was as follows :

"I do further will and direct that my executor or administrator lay off, within three mouths after my decease, on the (luai'ter section of laud immediately adjoining the town of Peru, town lots and streets in continuation and corresponding in size and width with the lots and streets in

Peru, excepting only tliat portion of the said quarter section near the sand hill, suitable for taniier\- sites, for whieli pui-pose I desire that it should be laid off in lots of two acres each; that every fourth of the town lots and tannery sites ])e reserved and titles for th(> same executed to my son, James Godfrey, and tlie remaining tliree-foui-ths of each description of said lots be sold at puhlie auction to the high(>st bidder, on the following conditions, to wit: Om-tliii-.l nf ihc purchase money to be paid at the expiration of six months from the day of sale, the remainder in two equal payments at the expii-atiou of twelve and eisrhteeii montlis from the day of sale; and I hereby authorize and empowi>r my said executor or administrator, when full payment is nuidi' by the purchasers, to make, seal and deliver deeds for the ccmveyanee of said lots to the purchasers, their heirs and assigns, hereby vesting him with full power and authority to act in the jircnnses as fully to every intent and purpose as I myself could do if living. The proceeds of the sales of the the aforesaid lots I hereby direct my said executor or administrator to apply to the discharge of my just debts, and in the event of there being thereafter a surplus, that the same be by my said executor invested in bank stock, and the annual interest thereon be applied to the discharge of the taxes on my real estate. ' '

Some time after the death of Francis Godfi'oy, his sons erected a handsome marble monument over his gi-ave. On one side is the name, date of birth and death of the deceased, and on the other is the inscription: "Late Principal Chief of the ^liami Nation of Indians. Distinguished for courage, humanity, benevolence and honor, he lived in his native forests an illustration of the nobleness of his race, enjoying the confidence of his tribe and beloved by his American neighbors. He died as he lived - without fear or reproach."

The inscrijition is somewhat misleading, in that it describes Godfroy as "Late Principal Chief," when, as a matter of fact, he was the war chief of the tribe.

Gabriel, the son of Francis Godfroy, lived for many years after the death of his father and was called by courtesy and common consent "the last chief of the Miamis." For a long time he lived in a brick house on the right bank of the ]\Iississinewa river, a short distance above its mouth and across the valley from the old Osage village. His farm there was a part of the reservation of four sections of land granted to his father by the treaty of November 6, 1838. After a time this farm was acquired by B. E. Wallace and is now the winter quarters of the Hagenback and Wallace shows. The closing years of Gabriel Godfroy 's life were passed farther east, on the road to and near the old cemetery where his father lies buried. He was held in high esteem by the Miamis of Indiana and is said to have been guardian for more persons than any other man in the United States. His death occurred in 1911.

Among the Miamis, besides the principal chief and the war chief, there were numerous band or village chiefs. The names of several of the most important of these minor chiefs appear as signers of the great treaty of 1838.

Of the Pottawatomi chiefs that inliabited the country immediately north of the Wabash, the most prominent were Winamac, Ashkum, Weesau, Chechawkose, Kinkash, Metea, Menoquet and Mota. Ashkum 's and Weesau 's villages on the Eel river were the only Pottawatomi villages within the limits of Miami county. Ashkum 's village and its reservation were ceded to the United States in 1836, and Weesau 's village was ceded the next year, when the tribe relinquished title to all its lands in Indiana and soon afterward removed to a reservation in Kansas. Winamac (the Catfish) was no doubt the leading Pottawatomi chief in the Wabasli valley. There were, in fact, two cliiefs of tliat name. The elder signed the treaty of Greenville in 17!)') and the treaties of Fort Wayne in 1803 and 1809. He was in the liattle of Tippecanoe, fought with the British in the War of 1812, and was one of the chiefs that brought about the massacre of the whites at Fort Dearborn on August 15, 1812. On the 22nd of November following this massacre Winamac was killed by a Shawnee Indian. The younger Winamac had his village on the Tippecanoe river, where the county seat of Pulaski county now stands, and which bears his name. He was in the battle of Tippecanoe, but afterward became friendly to the Americans and was influential in securing the cession of the I'ottawatonii lands in Indiana to the United States.

An account of the treaties made between the United States and the Miami and Pottawatomi Indians previous to the admission of Indiana into the Union as a state will be found in the chapter on the "Period of Preparation." After the admission of the state their was a heavy tide of immigration and the chiefs asked for a treaty to establish the boundary of the Indian lands. Jonathan Jennings, Benjamin Parke and Lewis Cass were appointed commissioners on behalf of the United States to negotiate the treaty, which was concluded with the Pottawatomi at St. Mary's, Ohio, on October 2, 1818. The next day it was ratified by the Delawares, who relinquished all their lands in Indiana, and on the fith the treaty with the Miamis was concluded. By this treaty the tribe ceded all its lands south of the Wabash river, except what was known as the "Big Reserve," wliich extended along the Wabash river from the mouth of the Salamonie to the mouth of the Eel river and "from those points running due south a distance equal to a direct line from the mouth of the Salamonie to the mouth of the Eel river." The "Big Reserve," as thus estal)lished, included all that part of Miami county lying south of the Wabash ; the southeastern part of Cass ; that portion of Wabash county south of the river and west of a line running south from the mouth of the Salamonie, near the present town of Lagro; about one-third of Grant county - all west of that line; the northeastern corner of Clinton; the northern half of Tipton; all of Howard, and the northwestern corner of Madison county. It contained nearly one million acres of land.

Three years later, when it became known that the capital of the new state was to be permanently located at Indianapolis, immigration was attracted to the central and northern portions of the state and again the Indian found the white man encroaching upon his domain. These conditions led to the treaty of October 16, 1826, which was concluded at

"Beginning on the Tippecanoe river where the northern boundary of the tract ceded by the Potawatoniies to the United States by the treaty of St. Mary's in 1818 intersects the same; hence in a direct line to a jtoint on Eel river half way between the mouth of said river and Pierish 's village; thence up Eel river to Seek's village near the head thereof; thence in a direct line to the mouth of a creek emptying into the St. Joseph's of the ilianii near Metea's village; thence up the St. Joseph's to the boundary line between the states of Indiana and Ohio; thence south to the Miami (Maumee) ; thence up the same to the reservation at Fort Wayne ; thence with the lines of the said reservation to the boundary established by the treaty with the iliamis in 1818 ; thence with the said line to the Wabash river; thence with the same river to the mouth of the Tippecanoe river; and thence with the said Tippecanoe river to the place of beginning."

Seek's village was near Columbia City; Pierish 's village was on the north side of the Eel river, almost due north of the city of Wabash ; Metea's village was on the St. Joseph river, about eight miles from the Ohio line. The cession made by this treaty included the greater part of Cass county, all that part of iliami lying between the Wabash and Eel rivers and a large part of Huntington and Allen counties.

Just a week later - October 23, 1826 - at the same place a treaty was concluded with the Mianiis, by which that tribe ceded all claiaa "to the lands in the State of Indiana, north and west of the Wabash and I\Iiami rivers, and of the cession made by said tribe to the United States by the treaty concluded at St. Mary's, October 6, 1818." For the lands thus ceded the ]\Iianiis received $31,040.53 in cash and a similar amount in goods. In 1827 they received an additional payment of $61,259.47 and in 1828 they received $30,000. After that they were paid an annuity of $25,000. The treaty also authorized the State of Indiana to lay out and construct a canal or road through any of the reservations, and for the right of way for the canal a strip of land six chains in width was appropriated.

Within the territory ceded by the Pottawatonii and iliauii tribes by the treaties of October, 1826, was what was known as the "Fivemile Reserve," so-called because it included a tract of land five miles in width, extending from the Wabash river to the Eel river. The east line of this reserve began on the Wabash river two and a half miles above the mouth of the Mississinewa, and the west line, two and a half miles lielow the mouth of that stream, was coincident with the east line of the individual reservation later granted to J. B. Richardville. The southwest corner of the Five-mile Reserve rested on the Wabash river l)etvveen the present streets of Broadway and Wabash, in the city of Peru. lu 1834 the Five-mile Reserve was ceded to the United States, lint within its limits several individual reservations were given to certain Indians. One of these was the reservation of Francis Godfroy, No. 12, the southwest fiuarter of which now forms Godfrey's addition to the city of I'ei'u, under the provisions of Francis Godfroy's will. All these individual reservations were granted subject to the former provision of the treaty of 1826, setting apart a strip six chains wide for a canal or highway. On account of these individual reservations President Jackson refused to ratify the treaty of 1834 and it did not become effective until late in the year 1837.

Some time after the treaty of 1826 was coneludetl. Congress appropriated a strip five miles wide along the Wabash for the construction of the canal to the mouth of the Tippecanoe river, and for this strip paid tlie sum of $335,680. By the treaty of October 23, 1834, the Miamis ceded several small reservations granted to individuals and clans by former treaties, and the same year the government purchased a strip seven miles wide off the west side of the "Big Reserve" - 177,000 acres in all - in Ihe pi'csent counties of Cass, Howard and Clinton, and this tract was turned over to the State of Indiana to aid in tile construction (if the canal. As the Indians saw their reservation tiius passing to the ownership of the white man many of them became dissatistied and proposed to sell the remaining portion of their lands in 1 1. (liana and remove to a new reservation beyond the ^Mississippi. The result of this condition of affairs was the treaty of 1838.

Abel C. Pepper was apjiointed eonnnissioner on the part of the United States to hold a council with the Indians and ascertain their views witli regard to the disposal of their lands. The council met at the "Forks of the \Val)asli," a short distance south of the city, of llnntin^'- ton, at the place known as the "Treaty Ground," where on November 6, 1838, a treaty was concluded. As this treaty wfis the one by which Miami county was fully opened to settlement by white people, the full text is here given :

"Article 1. The ^liami trilie of Indians liei'eby cede to the United States all that tract of land lying south of the Wabash river and included within the following boundaries, to wit: Conniiencing at a point on said river where the western boundary line of the Miami reserve intersects the same, near the mouth of Pipe creek; thence south two miles; thence west one mile; thence south along said boundary line tiiree miles; thence east to the Mississinewa river; thence U]) said i-ivei-, with tlu; iiicati(lei-s tlici'cof, to the eastern boundarv line of the said Miami reserve; thence north along said eastern boundary line to the Wabash river; thence down said last named river, with the meanders thereof, to the place of beginning.

"The said ilianii tribe of Indians do also hereby cede to the United States the three following reservations of land, made for the use of the j\Iiami nation of Indians by the second article of a treaty made and concluded at St. :Mary's. in the State of Ohio, on the fith day of October, 1818, to wit:

"Also one other reservation made for the use of the said tribe at Seek's village, on Eel river, by the second article of a treaty made and concluded on the 23d of October, 1826.

"Article 2. From the cession aforesaid, the Miami tribe reserve for the band of Me-to-sin-in, the following tract of land, to wit: Beginning on the eastern boundary line of the Big Reserve, where the Slississinewa river crosses the same; thence down said river with the meanders thereof to the mouth of the creek called Forked Branch; thence north two miles; thence in a direct line to a point on the eastern boundary line two miles north of the place of beginning ; thence south to the place of beginning, supposed to contain ten square miles.

"Article 3. In consideration of the cession aforesaid, the United States agree to pay the Miami tribe of Indians |335,CS0 - $60,000 of which to be paid immediately after the ratification of this treaty and the appropriation to carry its provisions into effect; and the residue of said sum, after the payment of claims hereinafter stipulated to be paid, in ten yearly installments of .$12,568 per year.

"Article 4. It is further stipulated that the sum of $6,800 be paid John B. Richardville ; and the sum of $2,612 be paid Francis Godfroy; which sums are their respective claims against said tribe prior to October 23, 1834, excluded from investigation by the late commissioners of the United States, by reason of their l)eing Indians of said tribe.

"Article 5. The said Miami tribe of Indians being anxious to pay all their just debts, at their request it is stipulated that immediately after the ratification of this treaty, the United States shall appoint a commissioner or commissioners, who shall be authorized to investigate all claims against said tribe which have accrued since the 23d day of October, 1834, without regard to distinction of blood in the claimants ; and to pay such debts

"Article 6. It is further stipulalrd lliat the sum of $ 151 ),()(!() out of the amount agreed to l)e paid said tribe in the third article of this treaty, shall be set apart for the payment of claims under the provisions of the fourth and fifth articles of this treaty, as well as for the balance ascertained to be due from said tribe by the investiy:ations under the provisions of the treaty of 1834; and should there be an unexpended balance in the hands of the commissioner or commissioners after the payment of said claims, the same shall be paid over to the tribe at the payment of their next subsecjuent annuity; but should the said sum set apart for the purpose aforesaid, be found insufficient to pay the same, then the ascertained balance due on said claims shall be paid in three equal installments from the annuities of said tribe.

"And the said Miami tribe of Indians, through this public instrument, proclaim to all concerned that no debt or debts that any Indian or Indians of said tribe may contract with any person or persons, shall operate as a lien on the annuity or annuities, nor on the land of said tribe, for legal enforcement; nor shall any per.son or persons other than the members of said Miami tribe, who may by sufferance live on the land of, or intermarry in, saiil tribe, have any right to the land or any interest in the annuities of said tribe, until such person or persons shall have been by general council adopted into their tribe.

"Article 7. And it is further stipulated, that the I'nitcd States will cause the buildings and improvements on the land hereby ceded, to be appraised, and have buildings and improvements of a cori-esi3ondiug value made at such place as the chiefs of said tribe may designate ; and the Indians of said tribe are to remain in the peaceable occupation of their present improvements until the I'nited States shall make the said corresponding improvements.

"Article 8. It is further stipulated that the United States patent to Beaver for five sections of land, and to Chapiue for one section of land, reserved to them respectively in the second article of the treaty made A. D. 1826, is continued between the parties to the present treaty.

"Article 9. The United States agree to cause the boundary lines of the land of said tribe in the State of Indiana, to be surveyed and marked within the i)eriod of one year after the ratification of this treaty.

"Article 10. The United States stipulate to possess the Miami tribe of Indians of, and guaranty to them forever, a country west of the Mississii)pi river, to remove to and settle on, whenever the said tribe may be disposed to emigrate from their present country, and that guaranty is hereby pledged; aud the said country shall be sufficient in extent, and suited to their wants and conditions, and be in a region contiguous to that in the occupation of the tribes which emigrated from the States of Ohio and Indiana. Aud when the said tribe shall have emigi-ated, the United States shall protect the said tribe and the people thereof, in their rights and possessions, against the injuries, encroachments and oppressions of any person or persons, tribe or tribes whatsoever.

"Article 11. It is further stipulated, that the United States will defray the expenses of a deputation of six chiefs or head men, to explore the country to be assigned to said tribe west of the Mississippi river. Said deputation to be selected by said tribe in general council.

"Article 12. The United States agree by patent to each of the iliami Indians named in the schedule hereunto annexed, the tracts of land therein respectively designated. And the said tribe in general council request, that the patents for the grants in said schedule contained, shall be transmitted to the principal chief of said tribe, to be by him distributed to the respective grantees.

"Article 13. And it is further stipulated, that should this treaty not be ratified at the next session of the Congress of the United States, then it shall be null and void to all intents and purposes between the

"Article 14. And whereas, John B. Richardville, the principal chief of said tribe, is very old and infirm, and not well able to endure the fatigue of a long journey, it is agreed that the United States will pay to him and his family the proportion of the annuity of said tribe which their number shall indicate to be due to them, at Fort Wayne, whenever the said tribe shall emigrate to the country to be assigned theni west, as a future residence.

"Article 15. It is further stipulated, that as long as the Congress of the United States shall in its discretion make an appropriation under the sixth article of the treaty made between the United States aud said tribe in the year 182G, for the support of the infirm and the education of the youth of said tribe, one-half of the amount so appropriated shall be paid to the chiefs, to be by them applied to the support of the poor and iuMrm of said tribe, in such manner as shall be most beneficial.

"Article 16. This treaty, after the same shall be ratified by the President and Senate of the United States, shall lie binding on the contracting

"Signed in the presence of John T. Douglass, sub-agent; Allen Hamilton, secretary to the commissioner; Daniel D. Pratt, assistant secretary to the commissioner; J. B. Duret, H. Lasalle, and William Hurlljcrt, Indian agent."

Attached to tlie treaty was the following li.st, or schedule, of grants referred to in Article 12, showing the quantity of land patented to each grantee by the United States :

"Three sections of land, commencing at the mouth of the Salamonie i-iver ; thence running three miles down the Wabash river and one mile up the Salamonie river.

"Two sections of land, commencing at the mouth of the ^Mississinewa river ; thence down the Wabash river two mil«s and up the Mississinewa river one mile.

"To Catherine Godfroy, daughter of Francis Godfroy, and her children, one section of land to run one mile on the Wabash river, and to include the improvements where she now lives.

' ' To Kah-tah-mong-quah, .son of Susan Richardville, one-half section of land on the Wabash river below and adjoining the three sections granted to John B. Richardville.

"To Mong-go-sah, son of La Blonde, one-half section of land on the Wabash river below and ad.ioining the half section granted to Kah-tahmong-quah.

"To Peter Gouin, one section of land on the Sixth ;\lile Reserve, commencing where the northern line of said reserve intersects the Wabash river ; thence down said river one mile and back for quantity.

"To ilais-shil-gouin-mi-zah, one section of land, to include the Deer Lick, alias La Saline, on the creek that enters the Wabash river nearly opposite the town of Wabash.

"To 0-zah-shin-quah, and the wife of Brouillctte, daughters of the 'Deaf Man,' as tenants in common, one section of land on the Mississinewa river, to include the improvements where they now live.

"To Mais-zi-quah, one section of land on the Wabash river, commencing at the lower part of the improvement of 'Old Sally,' thence up said river one mile and back for quantity.

"To Black Loon, one section of land on the Six I\Iile Reserve, commencing at a line which will divide his field on the Wabash river, thence up the river one mile and back for quantity.

"To Duck, one section of land on the Wabash river below and adjoining the section granted to Black Loon, and one mile down said river and back for quantity.

"One and one-half sections, commencing on the Wabash river where the road crosses the same from John B. Richardville, Jr. 's; thence down the said river to the high bank on Mill creek; thence back so as to include a i)art of tlie prairie, to be surveyed as directed by said chief.

"To Tow-wah-keo-shee, wife of old Pish-a-wa, one section of land on tlie Wabash river below and adjoining the half section granted to Mong-so-sah.

"To the wife of Benjamin Ah-mac-kon-zee-quah, one section of land where she now lives, near the prairie, and to include her improvements, she being commonly known as Pichoux "s sister.

"To Pe-she-wah. one section of land above and adjoining the section and a half granted to John B. Richardville on Flat Rock creek, and to run one mile on the Wabash river.

"To Xi-con-zah, one section of lantl on the IMississinewa river, a little above the section of land granted to the Deaf ;\Ian's daughters, and on the opposite side of the river, to include the pine or evergreen tree, and to be surveyed as he may direct.

"To John B. Richardville, one section of land, to include the Osage village on the ilississinewa river, as well as the burying ground of his family, to be surve.ved as he ma,v direct.

"To Kee-ki-lash-e-we-ah, alias Godfroy, one-half section of land back of the section granted to the principal chief, opposite the town of Wabash, to include the creek.

"One-half section of land connnencing at the lower corner of the section granted to Mais-zi-iiuah, thence half a mile down the Wabash river.

"To John B. Richardville, Jr., one section of land on Pipe creek, above and ad.joining the two sections of land granted to the principal chief, to be surve.ved as he ma.v direct.

"It is understood that all the foregoing grants are to be located and surve.ved so as to corresjjond with the public surve.vs as near as ma.v be to include the points designated in each grant respectively."

The last treaty with the iliami Indians was held at the Forks of the Wabash on Xovemlier 28. 1840, when Sanniel ililro.v and Allen Hamilton, connuissioners on the part of the Ihiited States, met the chiefs and head men of the tribe and concluded a treat.v by which the iliamis ceded all their lauds south of the Wabash river, "not heretofore ceded and known as the residue of the I^ig Reserve." and began their preparations for removing to a new reservation west of the ilississippi. B.v the terms of this treaty the sum of .$25,000 was directed to be paid to John B. Richardville and .$15,000 to the acting executor of Francis Godfroy, "being amounts of their respective claims against the tribe." At the request of old Metosinia, who had lived at one place for eighty years, a reservation of fourteen sections of land on the ]\lississinewa river was set apart for him and his band. lie died soon after the treaty was concluded and the tract was held in ti'ust for his son Meshingomesia until it was partitioned among the members of the band by the act of Congress, approved June 1, 1872. A few specific reservations south of the river were exempted from the provisions of the treaty, and here some of the

,Mi;miis continued to reside after the majority of the ti'ilie removed to Kansas. Some of their desi-endants still live in Jliami and adjoining counties. A majority of those living in Miami, Grant, Wabash and Huntington counties have become tillei-s of the soil, who have abandoned all tiieir ti'ibal customs and adopted the methods of the white people. The members of tiie younger generation are intermarrying with tlie whites and it is oidy a question of time when this once powerful tribe of Indians will be known only to history.

After the removal of the tribe to the new reservation in Kansas, the white man came into full possession of the fertile Wabash valley. In the century that has elapsed since Colonel Campbell fought the battle of the Mississinewa, which was the first of a chain of events that broke the power of the Miamis, great changes have come to this beautiful valley. The scream of the factory whistle is heard instead of the howl of the wolf or the war-whoop of the savage; the smoke of the council tire has been displaced by that which rolls from the chimneys of great industrial establishments; the school house has taken the place of the tej)ee : the trail through the forest has been broadened into an improved highway, over which civilized man skims along in his automobile at the rate of thirty or forty miles an hour; along these highways are stretched telegraph and telephone lines that bear testimony to a century's progress, and coaches, almost palatial in their appointments, propelled bj- steam or electricity, traverse the land where once the red man roamed in all his fret'doiii and pride.