Tipton County, Indiana - Indian Tribes, 1914

Indian Tribes

To give the best history of a county it is necessary to begin with the first records, and although these first records may be worn by eons of time, and the proper comprehension of them rendered impossible by this same all-destroy¬ ing hand, it is, nevertheless, the province of the historian to relate them, and explain. In the case of many parts of Indiana, including Tipton county, the first known humans inhabiting the country were the Mound Builders. It is with them that we shall first have to do.

Mound Builders

Upon the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492, four centuries and a quarter ago, the remains of ancient earth-works, mounds, moats and forts were scattered from Mexico all along the Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, thence to the northern lake regions. The Indians knew little or nothing of these mounds, and could not tell their purpose nor the race of men who built them. A few vague and conflicting superstitions alone re¬ mained. The city of St. Louis was a city of mounds, while on the opposite side of the river more than two hundred mounds were counted. The mounds at Grave creek, Marietta, Miami and Vincennes, with many others, are but little less immense and imposing. The walls and embankments in the locality of Newark, Ohio, measured more than twenty miles in length. Similar walls and circles are found all over Indiana and several other states, one of the best preserved in this state being about three miles east of Anderson; another near the confluence of Bear and Duck creeks with White river. The latter is the only circle in the state having the moat or ditch on the outside. The rivers and streams formed the highways and channels of commerce for these mysterious people, and upon the banks they built their cities. It is reasonable to suppose that they were connected with the highly advanced Indians of

Although Tipton county is a natural water-shed, and would present very unattractive prospects to the Indian of those times, the county has many evi¬ dences of this prehistoric race. . From the Wabash they followed up the Wild¬ cat to its headwaters, in the northeast part of the county, and there estab¬ lished a colony, and cultivated the soil. A mound and numerous rough and polished stone implements have been found in this locality. The southeastern part of Tipton county \vas still more thickly populated. From their capital city and old circle at Strawtown, on White river, they followed up Duck creek, and formed a continuous line of settlement on the banks of this stream, and inland through that portion of the county. There a stone circle, several sacri¬ ficial and burial mounds, with highly polished implements, bear evidence of their ancient existence. Again, in the southwestern portion of the county, on the banks of Cicero creek, there are other evidences of these people. There at another diverging line, near where Center Grove church stood, these ancient people also had a place of worship, the pyramidal foundation of which was sixty-four feet in diameter.

History sheds little light upon this race, although the testimonials left bear witness that agriculture was an extensive industry with them, also weav¬ ing and spinning, and the art of stone-cutting.

The Miamis

The Indian tribes inhabiting the county of Tipton were the Miamis, Dela¬ wares and the Pottawatomies. Before describing their life in this county it is well to give a brief history of each of the tribes.

The Miamis were a leading and very powerful branch of the Algonquin family. The tribe was known by various names, of which the initial name was "Twa twas." In history they are referred to frequently as the "Tew twees," and again as the T wight wees, Omees, Omamees, Aumamias, and finally Miamis. Bancroft, the historian, writes that they were the most pow¬ erful confederacy in the West, excelling th$ Six Nations, or Iroquois. The Miamis were first known about the year 1669, in the vicinity of Green bay, where they were visited by the French missionaries, Claude Allouez and Claude Dablon. From there they passed south and eastward around the southern shores of Lake Michigan, occupying the regions of Chicago, and afterward establishing a village on the St. Joseph, another on the Miami river, and another on the Wabash. The territory claimed by this confederacy is narrated by Chief Little Turtle, in a speech delivered by him at the treaty of Greenville on July 22, 1795. He said in part: "General Wayne, I hope you will pay attention to what I now say to you. I wish to inform you where your younger brothers, the Miamis, live, and also the Pottawatomies of St. Joseph's, together with the Wabash Indians. You have pointed out to us the boundary line between the Indians and the United States, but now I take the liberty to inform you that that line cuts off from the Indians a large portion of country which has been enjoyed by my forefathers from time immemorial, without molestation or dispute. The print of my ancestors' houses are every¬ where to be seen in this portion. I was a little astonished at hearing you and my brothers who are now present, telling each other what business you had transacted together at Muskingum, concerning this country. It is well known by all my brothers present that my forefather kindled the first fire at Detroit; from thence he extended his lines to the headwaters of the Scioto; from thence, to its mouth; from thence, down the Ohio to the mouth of the Wabash river, and from thence to Chicago on Lake Michigan; at this place I first saw my elder brothers, the Shawnees. I have now informed you of the boundary lines of the Miami nation, where the Great Spirit placed my forefather a long time ago and charged him not to sell or part with his lands, but to preserve them for his posterity."

In 1765 the Miami confederacy was composed of the following branches: The Twightwees, located at the head of the Miami river; the Ouiatenons, in the vicinity of their village of the same name, on the north side of the Wea plains, on the south branch of the Wabash, a short distance below the present city of Lafayette, in Tippecanoe county. The Piankeshaws had about three hundred warriors.

The Pottawatomies

The Pottawatomies established themselves in the northwestern portion of the state, had crossed the Wabash and were familiar to the early settlers of Tipton county. At the opening of the seventeenth century they held the lower peninsula of Michigan, in scattered bands, independent of each other. At that time there was no central government of the tribe and its divisions. They were hunters and fishermen, and raised few crops, but were very war¬ like, and had frequent struggles with neighboring tribes. They were finally driven to the West by the Iroquois. They settled on the islands and shores of Green bay, and the French organized missions among them. Perrot ac¬ quired great influence with the tribe, who took sides with the French against the Iroquois. Onangnice, their chief, was one of the parties to the Montreal treaty in 1701. The tribes gradually spread over southern Michigan and northern Illinois and Indiana, a mission on the St. Joseph acting as sort of central point. They allied with Pontiac and attacked St. Joseph fort, captur¬ ing the commandant, Schlosser, on May 25, 1763. They were hostile to the Americans in the Revolution and subsequently, but after Wayne's victory joined in the treaty of Greenville, December 22, 1795. The tribes comprising the families of the Golden Carp, Frog, Crab and Tortoise, was then composed of the St. Joseph's, Wabash and Huron river bands, with a large scattering population generally called the Pottawatomies of the Prairie, who were a mixture of many Algonquin tribes. From 1803 to 1809 the various bands sold to the government portions of land claimed by them, receiving money and annuities. Yet in the war of 1812 they again joined the English, influenced by Tecumseh. A new treaty of peace was made in 1815, followed rapidly by others, by which their lands were almost entirely conveyed away. A large tract was assigned to them on the Missouri and in 1838 the St. Joseph's band was carried off by troops, losing one hundred and fifty out of eight hundred on the way by death and desertion. The whole tribe numbered then about four thousand. The St. Joseph, Wabash and Huron bands had made progress in civilization, and were Catholics; while the Pottawatomies of the Prairie were still roving and pagan. A part of the tribe was removed, with some Chippewas and Ottawas, but they eventually joined the others or disappeared. In Kansas the civilized band, with the Jesuit mission founded by DeSmet and Hoecken, advanced rapidly, with good schools for both sexes. A Baptist mission and school was more than once undertaken among the less tractable Prairie band, but was finally abandoned. A treaty, proclaimed April 19, 1862, gave individual .Indians a title to their several tracts of land under cer¬ tain conditions, and, though delayed by the Civil war, this policy was carried out in the treaty of February 27, 1867. The experiment met with varied suc¬ cess. Some did well and improved; others squandered their lands and their portions of the funds and became paupers. Many of these scattered, one band even going to Mexico.

The Delawares

The Delaware tribe was a part of the Algonquin nation, and living, when first becoming known to the white men, in scattered bands, under separate sachems, on the Delaware river, and calling themselves Renappi, meaning a collection of men, sometimes written Lenape or Leno Lenape. The Delawares can be traced as having come from the West, with the Minquas, after having driven from the Ohio the Allequewi. The Minquas soon placed the Delawares in a state of vassalage, and when they were beaten by the strong Five Nations, they were named "women," a most odious term to the Indian. They formed three clans, the Turtle, the Turkey and the Wolf. During the early Virginia settlement at Jamestown, supply ships bound for the colony stopped at various places. Upon one of these came Lord De la Warre, who put into the mouth of the river upon which these Indians were settled; hence the name of the river and the tribe. The Dutch settlements traded with these clans, the most important of which was the Saukhicans, at the falls of the Delaware river. These traders bought lands of the Renapi, who had to strike inland to supply game for furs. In 1744, during the progress of the treaty negotiations at Lan¬ caster, Pennsylvania, the Iroquois refused to recognize the Delawares, and peremptorily ordered them to move to other hunting grounds, which the crest¬ fallen tribe did shortly. They moved westward and first settled upon White river in Indiana. Here missionary work was attempted among them, but was broken up by the Prophet and Tecumseh. In the war with Great Britain, the Delawares were loyal to the States. In 1818, however, they again moved westward and settled in Missouri and Kansas. They enlisted many of their strongest braves in the Civil war for the preservation of the Union. In 1866 their reservation was cut up by the Pacific railroad, and they sold it to the government. They next settled on lands near the Verdigris and Cane in 1868, and those remaining now are regarded as fairly good citizens.

The Indians were not removed from Tipton and Howard counties until the year 1846. They went north to Peru, then, by way of Cincinnati, to their western home beyond the Mississippi. Richardville, the Miami chief, for whom Howard county was originally named, was the successor of Little Tur¬ tle. His other name was Pee-jee-wah. He was one who signed by his "X'?

vicinity of Terre Haute, in iVugust, 1795, made with General Wayne by the sachems of the Miamis, Eel Rivers, Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnees, Ottawas. Chippewas, Pottawatomies, Weas, Kickapoos, Piankeshaws and Kaskaskias. From 1840 to 1845 there were about two hundred Indians along Wild¬ cat creek.

The Reserve

thence through Wabash and Grant counties into Madison county, its south¬ east corner was about four miles southeast of Independence at the center of section 27; thence running south of west, parallel with the general course of the Wabash river, across Tipton county and through the town of Tipton, and crossing the west line of Tipton county about three miles north of its south¬ west corner, to where it intersects a line running north and south from Logansport, which is the western boundary of Howard county, one mile west of range line number 1 east; thence north to Logansport; thence up the Wabash to the mouth of the Salamonie, then embracing parts of the Wabash. Grant, Madison, Tipton, Clinton, Carroll and Cass counties, and all of what was Richardville and is now Howard, and containing about nine hundred and thirty thousand acres. By a treaty, a strip was taken off the north side, five miles wide, to build the Wabash and Erie canal.

Near the year 1837 the Legislature of the state of Indiana passed a law setting aside* certain lands to be sold, and to be used for the route of the Wabash and Erie canal. This was done, and in just recent years litigation has resulted from the owners, or descendants of owners, in regard to these land scripts. The exact route of the canal in some places, particularly the above location, is now in doubt, all traces having disappeared.

Within the county of ^Tipton there was never an Indian village nor battle between them and the whites. In the early part of the present century it constituted the joint hunting grounds of the Miamis, Delawares and Pottawatomies. Black bears, deer, wolves and other animals once were thick in the territory now embraced by Tipton county, and the red men were fond of killing these animals for their meat and hides. They would camp for days on the animals' trails.

In the thirty-seventh annual report of the Indiana department of geol¬ ogy, issued under the date of 1912, Lewis A. Hurst, of the United States department of agriculture, and E. J. Grimes, of the Indiana department of geology, have written a very extensive soil survey of Tipton county. To supply the necessities of this chapter this account is used verbatim, some parts of it being extracted and used in another portion of this work, namely, the description of Tipton county agriculture.

Description Of The Area

Tipton county is situated in the north-central part of Indiana and has an area of one hundred and sixty-six thousand four hundred acres, or two hundred and sixty square miles. The county forms a rectangle about twenty miles long from east to west and thirteen miles wide from north to south. It is bounded on the north and west by Howard and Clinton counties, on the south by Hamilton county, and on the east by Madison and Grant counties. As a whole the surface of the county is a monotonously level and featureless till plain, interrupted in places by morainic knolls and swells. The boldest relief is found along the larger stream courses, especially along the lower course of Cicero creek and in the vicinity of Duck creek, which crosses the extreme southeastern part of the county. A rather prominent moraine in the southwestern section and small morainic areas in the northwest and northeast afford some relief to the generally level topography. The average elevation of the county is between eight hundred and fifty and nine hundred feet above sea level.

The summit of the drainage divide between Wabash and White rivers extend in a general east and west direction across the center of the county.

The streams north of this divide empty into the Wabash, while those on the southern side lead to the White river. Since almost all of the area is so level that its streams have a very gentle, gradual fall, the entire area might be said to occupy the so-called summit of the watershed. There are no large rivers in the county.

The drainage of the area south of the divide is affected through Cicero, Duck and Pollywog creeks and their tributaries. Cicero creek and its tribu¬ taries, including Prairie, Wallace, Jericho, Nixon, Wolf and Buck creeks, drain the central and southern parts of the county, emptying into the White river. Pollywog creek receives most of the drainage from the southeastern portion of the area through various minor stream courses, most of which are merely open ditches, and flows into Duck creek.

North of the divide Mud and Turkey creeks form the chief drainage outlets. These streams rise in the western part of the county, and, receiving the waters of various small tributaries, flow in a general northeasterly direc¬ tion until they reach the northeastern portion of the area. There they unite to form Wild Cat creek, which empties into Wabash river outside the county. Turkey creek receives the drainage of the cent rah portion of the county north of the divide, while Mud creek drains the northern section of the area. Irwin creek, a small tributary of Wild Cat creek, drains a part of the northeast cor¬ ner of the county. Swamp and Little Wild Cat creeks are minor streams which furnish the drainage for the northwest corner of the county.

Climate

No official weather records for Tipton county are available, but the gen¬ eral climatic conditions are shown by the figures in the following table, which are taken from the records of the nearest United States weather bureau sta¬ tion, located at Marion, Indiana. The table below shows the normal monthly, seasonal and annual temperature and precipitation covering a period of years :

It will be noted that the average annual temperature at Marion is 5 1 ° F. and the average annual precipitation 37 inches. An average from the records of the stations located at Indianapolis, Lafayette and Greenfield show the annual temperature for the territory covered by these stations to be 55 0 F. and the average annual precipitation 44.06 inches. From all these figures an approximate estimate of conditions prevailing over Tipton county may be obtained.

TJiere are no very marked extremes in temperature, with the exception of an occasional extremely cold winter. The maximum and minimum tem¬ peratures quoted, 105° above and 25 0 below zero, are usually of short dura¬ tion. Hot spells rarely last any great length of time except in very dry weather, when they may continue for several weeks, but any excessive heat is usually tempered by winds. The annual mean snowfall for the county is 32.2 inches. Snow sometimes remains several weeks, and even months, but more frequently disappears within a short time. The thermometer occasionally drops to twenty or more degrees below zero, but these temperatures are rare. Even zero temperature is uncommon and when it occurs is of short duration. The depth to which the ground freezes is variable. Ordinarily it remains frozen only a few weeks and thaws in February or March.

The precipitation is fairly well distributed throughout the growing sea¬ son, so that crops rarely suffer from extreme drought or excessive moisture. As shown in the foregoing table, the greatest amount of rainfall is received during May and June.

The length of the growing season is about five and a half months, the average dates of the last killing frost in the spring and the first in the fall being April 24th and October 2d, respectively. The earliest date recorded of a killing frost in the autumn is September 14th and the last in the spring is May 22 d.

A heavy mantle of glacial drift or till was deposited over the entire county during the glacial period by the last invasion of the ice, known as the Wisconsin stage. The drift material consists of a moderately stiff, clay-like mass at the surface, grading downward into a lighter, sandy and gravelly material. Occasionally rock fragments and bowlders occur throughout the till, but nowhere in large quantities. The glacial deposit has a depth of forty to seventy-five feet along the northern and eastern borders of the county and two hundred to three hundred feet along the southern and western boundary.

mation of the various soil types. The Devonian measures in the western part of the county and the Niagara limestone in the eastern section occur at too great depths to outcrop at the surface or influence the soils.

It is from the upper part of the glacial till that the upland soils of the Miami series have been derived directly through weathering. This series is represented in Tipton county by two types, a silt loam and a loam. The loam member is confined to the more rolling areas along stream courses and the few moraines that were large enough to be indicated on the map.

Two soils of the Clyde series, a silty clay loam and a loam, are developed in numerous enclosed tracts formed by the promiscuous deposition of till material during the recession of the ice sheet at the close of the Wisconsin stage of glaciation. These areas remained in a semi-swampy condition until artificially drained; and this favored the accumulation of organic matter. The Clyde series therefore comprises essentially till material or wash from till soils modified by weathering under conditions of restricted drainage and by the accumulation of large quantities of black organic matter.

The alluvial deposits, consisting of reworked drift material, have been separated into two series on the basis of certain physical differences, princi¬ pally in color. A dark colored, nearly black, soil has been classed as Wabash silty clay loam, and two types of brown soil are included with the Genesee series.

The narrow strips of unassorted alluvial material developed along some of the smaller streams are mapped as meadow, while in some depressed areas which were formerly swamps or lakes the accumulation of organic matter has resulted in the formation of small bodies of muck.

In the survey of Tipton county nine types of soil, including muck and meadow (Genesee material), have been mapped on the scale of one inch to the mile. These types are distinguished by separate colors.

Miami Silt Loam

The Miami silt loam includes the greater part of the better drained uplands of the county. It is known locally as "clay land," as distinguished from the "black land." The type is a silt loam, and the term "clay land" probably has reference to the tendency of the soil to clod or run together. This tendency is due to the lack of humus in the soil and to the fact that it is frequently plowed when too wet.

The surface soil to an average depth of about eight inches is a compact silt loam. It is light brown when moderately moist and grayish when dry.

The subsoil between eight and about twelve to fifteen inches is a grayishbrown or yellowish-brown heavy silt loam or silty clay loam. Below this the material is a yellowish-brown silty clay loam to silty clay, mottled with gray in the upper part, grading below into a darker brown, friable silty to sandy clay, known as "bowlder clay." This is generally encountered at about twentyfour to thirty inches, although along the stream courses and over the sharper knolls and ridges it occurs at a depth of eighteen to twenty inches. Below three to four feet the substratum gradually Incomes lighter both in color and texture until at a depth of about eight to ten feet the material is made up largely of sand and gravel.

The surface soil throughout the area is fairly uniform, wfith occasional local variations. Upon the crests of the ridges and knolls it is sometimes slightly sandy, with a few chert, granite and quartz pebbles upon the surface. Where the type occupies nearly level areas the surface soil often has a leached or ash-colored appearance. This condition is generally found in those sections where the black soils are the predominant types. These areas are naturally poorly drained and artificial drainage must be established if the best results are to be obtained, since the soil is less productive than that of the better drained areas. Where the surface is more undulating and the natural drain¬ age better developed the soil is darker in color, being more nearly brown. In the level areas the subsoil is more mottled, cold and dense, as if water-logged, while in the better areas it is more open and porous and has a yellowishbrown color. In addition to tiling and draining these level areas, they should also be subsoiled and limed to render the soil and subsoil more open and porous and to correct the acidity which numerous tests have shown to exist.

The Miami silt loam occurs in various areas throughout the county in association wfith the "black lands" comprising the Clyde soils. Next to the Clyde silty clay loam it is the most extensive soil type in the county. The largest proportionate acreage occurs in the southern and southeastern parts of the county and along the Howard county line. In the nearly level sections it occupies low, flat ridges, as previously described, where the "black lands" pre¬ dominate. In general, the type is most extensively developed in the vicinity of stream courses.

In the early settlement of the county the Miami silt loam was one of the first soils to be cultivated because of its better natural drainage. When first cleared the soil was darker in color and much more productive than at present. Subsequent cultivation has greatly reduced the natural store of humus.

This type can generally be distinguished in any particular field from the black soils by the more vigorous growth on the latter in the early develop¬ ment of the crop, particularly with corn, oats and hay. If the season is favor¬ able the yields on this soil - the "clay land" - is generally a little more than half that of the associated black Clyde soils except in the case of wheat, which is better adapted to the Miami silt loam. The quality of the hay, corn and oats is generally better upon this type as compared with the darker colored soils.

Tests made with litmus paper show the soil to be distinctly acid in reac¬ tion. The use of phosphatic manures and liming is strongly recommended. The lime can probably best be applied in the form of finely ground limestone, since the type is already deficient in humus, and lime in the more soluble form might tend to destroy the remaining organic matter. Still, Jtmrnt lime could be used, and any lowering of the organic content thereby could be made up by plowing under vegetation or applying barnyard manure. From two to four tons per acre of the ground limestone should be applied, preferably on clover sod in advance of corn. The wheat and clover which follows will be especially benefited. Where barnyard manure is also used the addition of ground phosphate rock or acid phosphate would materially increase the yields of wheat and com. The application of barnyard manure and phosphate is treated in the chapter on agriculture.

The deepening of the soil by deeper plowing and subsoiling will tend to correct the unfavorable "sour" condition of the land by the more thorough aeration thus brought about. The turning under of such crops as clover, cowpeas, Canada field peas, soy-beans, rye and oats stubble will improve the physical condition of the soil and furnish a store of food supply for the plants.

The one thing that has probably done most to reduce the crop yields from this type is the plowing of the soil when too wet and not in condition to produce the best possible tilth. This is generally due to a desire to force the crops in season. Under such conditions the soil clods badly and as a rule it is not reduced to the proper tilth by subsequent cultivation.

Tomatoes and potatoes grown on this type are generally superior to those grown upon the black lands. Owing to reduced yields, however, toma¬ toes are more often grown upon the Clyde silty clay loam. The Miami silt loam is better adapted to fruit growing than the darker soils.

The native vegetation consists of beech, black walnut, white oak, yellow poplar, sugar maple, red oak, shell-bark hickory, chinquepin oak, white ash, hazel, pawpaw, redbud, wild plum, flowering dogwood, etc.

Miami Loam

The surface of the Miami loam is a brown to yellowish-brown silty loam or loam to a depth of ten to twelve inches, grading into a yellowish-brown silty clay loam. At eighteen to twenty inches a dark -brown, brittle clay (bowlder clay) is encountered which contains an appreciable amount of sand and gravel. The content of sand and gravel increases with depth, and below three to four feet the material becomes a lighter colored gravelly loam.

The type is not extensively developed in Tipton county. It occurs along the larger stream courses and over the larger morainic knolls and ridges. It is typically developed along Duck creek in the southeastern portion of the county and also in the northeastern section. It occupies a well-defined mo¬ rainic ridge in the southwestern part of the county and several smaller ridges and knolls throughout other sections.

This type is very similar to the Miami silt loam. Since it has a more rolling topography it is more subject to erosion, and this has had much to do with effecting a higher content of sand and other coarse materials.

Clyde Silty Clay Loam

The Clyde siltv clay loam is the most extensive as well as the most productive soil type in the county. Owing to the dark color of the soil, due to its high content of organic matter, it is generally known locally as "black lands."

The surface soil of this type to an average depth of eight inches is a dark-brown to almost black silty clay loam. As the surface dries the material assumes a grayish or grayish-black appearance. Idle intensity of the dark color is proportionate to the amount of organic matter in the soil. This con¬ stituent also affects the chemical and physical properties and the agricultural value of the soil, making the land more retentive of moisture and mellow and easy to till.

The subsoil between eight and twelve to fifteen inches is a bluish-black silty clay loam, grading below into a drab silty clay. This in turn is underlain by a medium to light gray, stiff, plastic clay which is mottled with brown streaks or iron stains. Below twenty-four to thirty inches the subsoil is morfe deeply mottled, with a gradual tendency in texture from the stiffer clay to k lighter textured silty to fine sandy clay. Where this type follows the course of the natural drainage ways it is generally underlain with sand and gravel at various depths, usually at about six to eight inches. This sand and gravel is generally highly stained with iron compounds. Since Tipton county em¬ braces but few morainic hills from which to draw its gravel supply, a large per cent, of the road material has been obtained by dredging the gravel from these old stream valleys.

This type comprises the greater part of the low-lying, poorly drained areas of the county which in their natural state were in a semi-swampy condi¬ tion throughout the greater part of the year. After being drained the land was cleared of the underbrush and standing timber and put in corn, as this was about the only crop that could be cultivated and harvested among the roots and stumps. An occasional field is to be seen in which the stumps remain, but over far the greater part of the type they have been removed and the soil is in a high state of cultivation.

The Clyde silty clay loam is derived from the same material as the Miami silt loam, the glacial till of the late Wisconsin epoch, but owing to its low-lying position and water-soaked condition the character of soil and sub¬ soil is very different. This type occupies irregular shaped depressions which are widely distributed throughout the county, but more generally confined to a wide strip extending diagonally through the center of the county from north¬ east to southwest. It occurs as low-lying or depressed areas in the uplands, and forms the main background of the soil map throughout which the Miami silt loam is shown.

The type was slowly developed. It was not until the early eighties that its possibilities were understood or appreciated. This came about through the building of good roads and adequate drainage outlets, giving the individ¬ ual farmer an opportunity to drain his land. The development was attended by a rapid increase in land values, and the present high price of land in Tipton county is due in large measure to the productivity of this type and its wide distribution throughout the county. The value of individual farms is gen¬ erally determined by the included area of this "black land."

The soil is fairly uniform throughout the area, but owing to differences in the natural drainage it has certain local variations in color, texture and depth of soil. The texture is heaviest and the color darkest where the depth of the surface soil is only about six to eight inches. This condition is largely found in the areas of the type east and southeast of Windfall, in the vicinity of the Madison county line, extending as far south as Cedar Point and West Elwood. The larger bodies of this soil in the vicinity of Tipton and else¬ where throughout the county have the same characteristics. The type usually reaches its maximum organic content and darkest color in the center of the depression or at its lowest point, shading off gradually toward the surround¬ ing lighter colored soil of the Miami silt loam. The texture also follows this same general relationship. Both these conditions are due to the movement of the surface waters, and carrying in suspension and depositing the finely divided soil particles from the uplands as well as the decomposed native vegetation.

The Clyde silty clay loam is used extensively in the vicinity of Tipton. Sharpsville and other towns in the area for growing tomatoes, peas, beans, etc., for local markets and for the canning factories. The yields are larger from this type than from the Miami silt loam, but the weight and quality of the product are somewhat inferior. The tomatoes on the black lands decay more readily and in wet seasons crop yields are greatly reduced from this cause. By the judicious use of commercial fertilizers the yields from the clay lands could be materially increased.

The type is probably best adapted to corn and oats. Yields of sixty to eighty bushels of corn per acre are not infrequent, and fifty to sixty bushels of oats are obtained, but in wet seasons this crop lodges badly and consider¬ able loss is incurred, except where it is mowed and used for hay. Its value as a green manure when turned back into the soil is not to be underrated, how¬ ever. Alsike and red clover and timothy produce heavy yields, the average being from one and a half to two tons per acre.

Where commercial fertilizers are applied to this type it is recommended that a mixture be used containing about eight per cent, of phosphoric acid and eight to ten per cent, of potash. Nitrogen is not generally needed for this soil and can best be obtained from the supply stored in the roots of leguminous crops, which should be included in all crop rotations.

The surface of the type is flat to depressed, so that ample drainage is required to remove the surface waters. Open ditches were at first installed, but these have generally been replaced in recent years by underground or tile drains, which permit the cultivation of the land formerly dissected by the ditches, making it possible to cultivate the type in large bodies.

The native forest growth of the Clyde silty clay loam consisted of swamp white oak, swamp pin oak, white elm, silver maple, burr oak. black ash, green ash, cottonwood, prickly ash, spice bush, buttonwood, wild rose, willows, etc.

Buck Creek, Northwest Of Tipton Clyde Loam

, The surface soil of the Clyde loam to an average depth of eight to ten inches is a black, heavy silty loam or loam containing a high percentage of organic matter. The presence of this organic matter not only gives the soil its dark color, but also imparts to it a slightly pasty feel when wet, making it resemble muck. However, the amount of organic matter in the soil is not sufficiently high to justify its classification as muck.

The subsoil of the Clyde loam is a heavy black clay loam which grades below into bluish-black to grayish silty clay, and this in turn into mottled brown, drab, and gray, rather stiff, plastic clay. At a depth of about thirty to thirty-six inches silty to fine sandy clav of a lighter gray color mottled with brown is generally encountered. The content of sand generally increases with depth and in some instances a wet, loose, fine sand, similar to quicksand is encountered. This material is most common in the soils of "Round Prairies," southeast of Windfall, which was originally a lake or shallow basin.

The Clyde loam was originally treeless. The native growth consisted of sedges, grasses, cattails, flags, button bushes and willows. The better drained areas supported a heavy growth of native prairie grass which was used ex¬ tensively by the early settlers for hay and pasture for their stock. The annual decay of this vegetation was the source of the high content of organic matter in the soil, so that it is frequently referred to as "made land." Where this soil carries a very high content of organic matter it is generally loose, "chaffy" or fluffy, or mucky. The latter condition is more noticeable when the soil is first put under cultivation, following reclamation by artificial drainage. Corn planted on the mucky areas makes a vigorous growth in the early stages of its development, but usually turns yellow or "burns" before reaching matur¬ ity. The application of barnyard manure, deeper plowing, and thorough cul¬ tivation so as to aerate the soil as much as possible will tend to correct this chaffy condition and greatly increase the yields from this type. The use of fertilizer mixtures containing potash and phosphoric acid in the proportion of about two parts of the former to one of the latter is also recommended.

The Clyde loam is naturally fertile, but generally the best results are ob¬ tained through the use of barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers. The soil is generally lacking in phosphoric acid and potash, particularly the latter. Corn yields have been greatly increased by the application of potash fertil¬ izers. Lime is also beneficial.

It is only within the past few years that satisfactory yields have been ob¬ tained from this type. Oats produce a rank growth and lodge badly. It is recommended that the oats be sown thicker on this than on the lighter colored soils.

Clyde Loam, Prairie Phase

In the vicinity of Kempton and running as far east as Goldsmith a darker phase of this type occupies an area which is known locally as "Indian Prairie.,, This development is almost twenty miles long and two to three miles in width. The term "prairie" was applied to this area because of its original treeless condition. It supported a dense growth of aquatic vegeta¬ tion, consisting chiefly of sedges, grasses, cattails, flags, button bush and wil¬ lows. About forty to ninety per cent, of the soil was under water throughout the year. The better drained portions supported a growth of bluestem prairie grass and numerous species of typical prairie plants. The grass was cut for hay by the early settlers. Interspersed throughout the low-lying prairie lands were small, low morainic knolls and ridges which supported a growth of hazel and sumac. Many of these knolls are now covered with hickory, and shingle, white, and red oaks.

The surface soil of the prairie phase of the Clyde loam to a depth of eight to ten inches is a black or brownish-black silty clay loam or heavy silt loam which grades into a bluish-black clay or clay loam, sometimes mottled with yellow. This in turn is underlaid at twenty to twenty- four inches by a bluish or drab, tenacious silty clay which Incomes light gray in color and more intensely mottled with depth. The mottling in the lower depths consists of deep brown iron stains or streaks. At thirty to thirty-six inches a lighter textured, deeply mottled silty to sandy clay is encountered, and this in some places is underlain by marly material. Probably at least a part of the prairie phase is underlain by gravel at various depths similar to that underlying por¬ tions of the Clyde silty clay loam.

The soil is deeper in the depressions, has a darker color, and is frequently loose and fluffy. The fluffy soil, which occupies buttonwood ponds, produces a good growth of corn and other crops, but the plants tend to "burn out" or turn yellow without reaching full maturity. This is possibly due to the excess of certain organic acids in these muck-like areas, which can be corrected by heavy applications of barnyard manure or by liming, or to a deficiency of potash. The use of commercial fertilizers containing a high percentage of potash has greatly increased the yields from this land. Where the barnyard manure is needed for the clay knolls it is advisable to use commercial ferti- lizers, maintaining a proper balance in the available nitrogen by crop rotation. This land is especially well adapted to corn, producing an average for the past ten years of about fifty bushels per acre. Average yields of fifty bushels of oats, twelve to twenty bushels of wheat, and twenty-five to thirty bushels of rye per acre are obtained. Oats lodge badly, especially in wet seasons. Clover and timothy do well upon the prairie phase and an average of two tons or more to the acre is produced. Alsike clover does especially well. Potatoes yield from two hundred to three hundred bushels per acre.

Genesee Silty Clay Loam

The surface soil of the Genesee silty clay loam is a medium-brown heavy silt loam grading at a depth of five or six inches into a silty clay loam which extends to twelve or fifteen inches, when the subsoil is usually encountered. The subsoil is a gray or steel-blue, stiff, plastic clay mottled with shades of brown or iron stains, the color becoming lighter with depth.

This is generally subject to overflow, but where it occurs above ordinary high water the soil is a light-brown, loose silty loam to eighteen to twenty inches, below which it is a dark-brown to drab, mottled silty to sandy clay.

The type resembles to some extent the Clyde silty clay loam, except that it is lighter in color and occurs in the better defined valleys of the streams along which it is found.

The largest single body of the type occurs in section 29, township 21, range 4, where Wallace and Prairie creeks unite to form Cicero creek, extend¬ ing along the latter for a distance of two miles or more. The soil is also found as first bottom land in a narrow strip along Mud creek, which traverses the northern part of the county.

The Genesee silty clay loam, like the Genesee loam, belongs to the young¬ est group of soils in the county, representing alluvial material recently de¬ posited by the streams along which it occurs. The soil is generally lighter in texture near the stream, where the currents during periods of overflow are swifter and can carry the heavier materials in suspension. The heavier mate¬ rials are deposited in the outlying bends of the creek where the movement of the water is more sluggish.

Originally this type comprised poorly drained bottom lands along streams of very shallow, crooked channels, through which the water flowed sluggishly. In recent years the channels have been straightened and deepened by dredging, and the land along their courses has thus been reclaimed' for cultivation through an improvement of the drainage.

Some of the largest yields of corn in the county have been obtained from this type, the average being from fifty to sixty bushels per acre, while a yield of eighty bushels is not unusual. Heavy yields of oats and hay are also ob¬ tained, but com is the leading crop. Being subject to overflow, this type does not require as much fertilizer to produce maximum yields as is needed on the upland soils, since fertile deposits of alluvium are being laid down over the bottoms from time to time.

If cultivated under normal moisture conditions, this soil turns up a loose, mellow loam, but if plowed when too wet it has a tendency to form heavy clods which cannot be readily reduced to subsequent cultivation. Too often this physical characteristic of the soil is overlooked by the farmers in their haste to plant crops, especially when the season is late, and by such practice the crops are affected for even more than one season.

The native vegetation consisted of swamp oak, white oak, burr oak, pin oak, silver maple, white elm, cottonwood, black ash, prickly ash, spice bush, etc.

Genesee Loam

The surface soil of the Genesee loam to a depth Qf about six to eight inches is a medium dark brown silty loam to loam. This grades into a lighter colored brown loam as the depth increases. At ten to twelve inches the texture is slightly heavier, and the material becomes a siltv to fine sandy clay or clay loam. Varying amounts of sand and gravel are encountered through¬ out the soil and subsoil. The surface material varies to a fine sandy loam in places, but these spots could not be mapped on account of their small size. Occasionally at depths of twenty-four to thirty inches a fairly loose, sandy and gravelly material is encountered.

The Genesee loam, being of alluvial origin, is subject to local variations over small areas, due to the uneven deposition of alluvial material at different intervals of overflow, the greatest uniformity being found in the broader bodies.

This type occurs as first bottom land along Cicero creek, from the Hamil¬ ton county line to the junction of Cicero and Nixon creeks. A narrow strip also extends along Nixon creek for about two miles. Where this type occurs near the Hamilton county line the soil is more nearly a fine sandy loam, but in the vicinity of Tipton it is much heavier in texture.

Only a limited acreage of the Genesee loam is under cultivation, since it is subject to intermittent overflow. It is used almost exclusively for pas¬ ture. There is generally some growth of silver maple, white elm, sycamore, buckeye and red oak. The type is cultivated only over the better drained areas which in places have the character of terraces. Corn and oats are the chief crops.

Where market facilities are adequate the lighter, sandy soil of the type might be used to advantage for trucking purposes since it is especially adapted to watermelons, muskmelons or cantaloupes, cucumbers, and potatoes, par¬ ticularly sweet potatoes.

Wabash Silty Clay Loam

The soil of the W abash silty clay loam to an average depth of about eight inches is a black heavy loam to silty clay loam containing a high per¬ centage of organic matter, the amount of which is sufficient in places to im¬ part a mucky character to the soil. The subsoil consists of a bluish-black silty clay grading at about twelve to fifteen inches into a stiff, impervious drabcolored clay. The water table is frequently encountered at a depth of thirty to thirty-six inches. The lower subsoil has a light-gray color, deeply mottled with brown and yellow.

The area in which the Wabash silty clay loam occurs is a slightly de¬ pressed or outlying basin adjoining the bottom lands along Prairie creek. The supposition is that it is a part of that valley, representing an abandoned channel way of Prairie creek. It is said that in times of high water a part of the overflow from Prairie creek breaks across into this basin and finds its outlet through Devil's Den run. The latter stream has in recent years been^ straightened and deepened as a drainage outlet for the basin. The area was formerly a dense swamp which was inundated during a greater part of the year. Only in recent years has it been drained and made suitable for agri¬ culture.

When first cleared and put under cultivation the soil was highly charged with organic matter and in places was chaffy, so that the corn showed a tend¬ ency to "burn" without properly maturing the grain. This condition has been gradually remedied by the use of large quantities of stable manure and subse¬ quent cultivation. The use of potash as a fertilizer has also increased the efficiency of this soil.

The type occurs as a single body, and includes a greater part of the northeast quarter section 31, and the southwest quarter section 29, township 21, range 5. It extends to the southeastern and northwestern comers of sec¬ tions 30 and .32 respectively.

the natural fertility of the soil yields of about sixty to eighty bushels per acre have been obtained, but unless crop rotation is practiced these yields will de¬ cline and the growing of corn become unprofitable.

Muck

The type of land classified as muck consists of black or dark-brown organic matter in a state of partial decomposition, mixed with varying quan¬ tities of soil material or mineral matter. These areas are generally referred to locally as "made land." The depth is quite variable, ranging from a few inches in the margin to three feet or more in the center of the body. The color changes little with depth but the organic matter is more noticeable in the lower portion. At an average depth of about twenty-four inches the mucky layer is underlain by bluish-black, plastic clay or silty clay which grades be¬ low into a light colored or grayish, mottled clay. In places the lower portion of the three-foot section consists of peat. Occasionally an impure shell marl is found imbedded with the underlying material. Considerable mineral matter in the form of fine sand and silt have become incorporated with the muck along the margin of the larger areas.

There is only a small total area of this type, the largest body being in the northeastern part of the county, north of Groomsville, in an old channel now drained by Swamp creek and Turkey creek. Two small bodies occur in the morainic areas of the extreme northwestern section of the county. A few isolated patches are found in depressions in various parts of the area.

Small areas of peat consisting of pure deposits of less thoroughly de¬ composed decaying vegetable matter, were included with the muck. These are so intimately associated with the muck as to preclude their being mapped separately. The peat deposits were formed along with the muck in shallow basins and ponds from the decayed remains of water-loving plants and ac¬ cumulations of other forms of vegetation, particularly mosses. The peat com¬ monly occurs near the center of the body of muck where the deposition of vegetable matter has been more recent and has not undergone as thorough decomposition, though it sometimes occurs in spots throughout the entire body.

Since the muck occupies low-lying, depressed areas which lack natural outlets, drainage must be supplied before the material can be successfully utilized for crop production. Muck land was first brought under cultivation about twenty years ago and most of the type in the county is now reclaimed. This has been accomplished by the construction of large open ditches into which many tile ditches drain. In the early settlement of the area the native -grasses were cut from these soils and used for hay, but at present most of this land is under cultivation and used chiefly for general farm crops, such as com, oats and hay.

Com will produce an average yield of fifty to sixty bushels per acre, and oats forty to sixty bushels. Some very heavy yields of oats have been obtained, but the grain makes a rank growth of straw which becomes lodged so that harvesting is difficult as well as damaging to the crop. This condition may be partially remedied by the liberal use of mineral fertilizers. Corn fre¬ quently "bums" or turns yellow on this soil and does not mature. Timothy is easily set and makes a rank growth, but it usually "burns" at the ground, and the hay is lighter than that grown on other soils. Alsike clover is well adapted to this soil and should be grown in combination with timothy. The crops grown on this type are subject to injury from early and late frosts. It is often necessary to replant corn two or three times, and early frosts some¬ times prevent the corn from maturing. If the seed bed were made firm with a heavy roller the movement of the soil moisture would be so regulated as to lessen the danger from frosts. Applications of potash salts and phosphatic fertilizers are very advantageous to these soils. Coarse barnyard manure and lime are also beneficial.

This soil is seldom used for the crops to which it is best adapted, includ¬ ing celery, onions, cabbage, Irish potatoes, beets, turnips, cauliflower, and other garden products. Such crops have been successfully grown upon this material in northern Indiana and adjoining states, but for the cultivation of such special crops the accessibility of city markets and rapid transportation must necessarily be a matter of consideration, except in those cases where grown for local consumption.

The #term meadow, as here employed, denotes a generalized type or classification embracing the narrow strips of first bottom land lying along certain minor stream courses of the county, such as Irwin, Turkey, Little Wild Cat, Nixon, Jericho, Wallace and Prairie creeks. These bottoms are subject to periodic overflow, but they are not particularly swampy, the drain¬ age of much of the soil being fairly good between overflows. There is wide variation in the color, composition, and texture of the soil, as also in local drainage and surface conditions. The predominant material is a heavy silt loam, dark brown in color, and resembling the Clyde and Genesee soils.

The subsoil is a mottled drab or grayish silty clay. Near the stream channel the soil may be lighter in texture, but throughout most of the area the sediments are fine and the soil is rather heavy. Deposits are being added repeatedly, each successive overflow bringing in new deposits and spreading them over the bottom lands.

The areas of meadow are ordinarily too wet for cultivation, yet they are not permanently swampy. By straightening and deepening the stream chan¬ nels much of this poorly drained land has been reclaimed, like the Genesee silty clay loam, for agricultural purposes. Corn is the chief cultivated crop upon such areas, and when proper means of drainage are employed the yields are excellent. Where the valleys are deeply cut and narrow and the land fre¬ quently interspersed with shallow depressions or marshy places its chief value is for pasturage. Complete drainage of the meadow lands is not essential when they are used for this purpose.

The greater portion of meadow in this county is being used for pasture, the native forest growth generally being allowed to remain as shelter for stock. It also affords a supply of timber for domestic use, chiefly for fence posts and rough lumber.