Adams County, Nebraska - Chapter 2: Adams Couxty Soils Axd Climate, 1916

To get a correct understanding of the nature and kinds of soils it will be necessary to go back somewhat into the geological history of the earth. This land upon which we are producing our wheat and corn has had a history which extends far back when the world was in l^rocess of formation. Xo one knows or can scarcely form a conception of the vast extent of time which has been required to make a fertile soil out of what was first solid rocks. We say rocks, leaving out of the consideration possible times of a gaseous or a liquid condition of the earth. ^Ve might say in just a sentence in passing that this earth is supposed to have begun its existence as a body of gas thrown off from the sun, then to have gradually cooled down into a liquid and afterward a solid body or a body with a solid crust over the surface. The condition of the interior of the earth is still an open (juestion, but there is a probability that it is an intensely heated but solid mass of matter.

In the cooling of this mass of gas there was formed a spherical body covered over with water and surrounded by an envelope of air. LTnder the water there was a solid crust of matter in the form of rocks, or a layer of granite rock to be exact. When this body of gas cooled, three distinct forms of matter separated - air, Avater, and solid rock. Difference in density caused these to take the positions mentioned before, the rock below, then the water, and the air still above the water.

The interior of the earth is known to be intensely heated and violent disturbances causing elevations and subsidences in the crust of the earth have at times occiu-red. In this way the land in places arose from the sea. But this land was in all cases solid rock of a granite formation. From this granite rock all oin- soil has been formed. At first mostly sand but afterward changing into clay and all stages between sand and clay. A granite rock is composed of several distinct kinds of matter. There are particles of quartz, of feldspar, and of mica, and sometimes of other mineral matter. Now when a granite rock decomposes, due to the action of the atmosphere, the quartz jiarticles form grains of sand, feldspar forms clay directly. Sand will also decay under some conditions and form clay. ^Nluch of our Adams County soil is j-ellow clay from decayed sandstone. This stone once formed the surface of the land but percolating water has caused it to decay to a depth of more than one hundred feet in many places. That is, we have a hundred feet of yellow clay before we reach the rock. This sandstone was once granite but dissolved under the erosion of the atmosphere into sand. This sand was then buried under rivers and beds of water. Here under pressure it was compiessed into sandstone, then an elevation of the earth's crust occurred and the sandstone was brought to the surface. Since that time there has been tliis slow decay by the water until the present when we may find many feet of yellow clay before we come to the more solid rock below.

It will ])e understood that this is a very brief outline of the geological history of our soil. More extended discussion will not belong to this work. A survey of the whole State of Nebraska shows four distinct regions each with a different type of soil. The eastern portion has a layer or covering that is called glacial drift. Then to the west and south, which includes Adams Count}', windblown soil. To the southwest there is a layer of volcanic ashes, commonly called alkali soil. Then in the northern and northwestern part we find the sandliills. A\hich were either carried there by water or possibh^ were in part windblown.

This soil east of Adams County which we call glacial drift was brought there from the country lying to the northeast of the state. It was carried there by immense fields of moving ice which at one time in the history of the earth came do^vn from the north. This movement of glaciers or ice fields carried great masses of rocks which were left when the ice afterward melted because of a change in the conditions upon this jDortion of the earth. ]Many rocks in the form of boulders not yet decayed into soil are still to be seen in this portion of the state.

The history of the alkali soil is quite peculiar. A long time l)ack in the formation of the world the mountains to the west contained many volcanoes that Avere constantly sending off smoke and cindei-s of lava. The prevailing winds were then as now from the west. This carried all the smoke and lava to the east where it was deposited over the land. The immense amount of time when these processes con- tinned may be inferred from the depth of the deposits. These vary from a few feet to more than thirty feet in some places on the western boundary of the state. This volcanic ash has been much windblown and has undergone many changes due to the action of the atmosphere. As a result of all these agencies we have our alkali soils.

The nortliwestern sandhills, which are the result of granite rocks eroded by water, also carried by water or by the winds, and our Adams County soil, much windblown, will need no further explanation. The many changing causes of all these different kinds of Nebraska soils may be understood from this brief description. INIention should also be made of recent soil formation along some of our rivers. These alluvial dejiosits result from overflows at times of floods and are seen especially in the valley of the Platte River.

Din-ing the long inten'als of time many changes in temperature have occurred. At first intensely heated, the earth has cooled until all jjarts are habitable though the equatorial regions are still tropical in climate. This cooling of the earth's surface began in the polar localities and gradually spread to the south. All our present animals and jilants came down to us from the north where their ancestors are now to be found buried under the ice and snow and preserved in the locks in the form of fossils. This region itself was at one time tropical in temperature. The coal beds of Kansas and of Wyoming are formed of palms and other trees now found only to the Far South. This type of vegetation once grew luxuriantly in this state in former ages of its history. Buried by the upheavals and subsidences of the crust of the earth, we now find it in places partially petrified in the form which we call coal.

The native animals themselves have changed much. At one time the mastodon and the mammoth, which are supposed to be the ancestors of the present day elepliant, lived in this county. These liuge animals Avhich resembled the elephant of today were larger than any land animals Avhich we now know. Their skeletons are found in sand beds which may have been ancient river courses. INIany bones from the skeletons of these animals have been found near Brickton in ^Vdams County. There can be no doubt that these very old types of the elephant family with long trunks and immense tusks once roamed over this county as well as the entire state. Nebraska has been also the home of many other curious but now extinct animals. Among these are the ancestors of the horse Avhich we now use as a domestic working animal. The horse Avhich we now know came to us with our European ancestors. But in times back an animal

In the ages past this part of the country has been at times above the sea and at other times covered with water. All this has been determined by examining the fossil forms of animal life preserved in the rocks. Not far from us in the State of Kansas many skeletons of very large fish have been found. Some of these bones would indicate a fish ten or more feet in length. This wovdd imply deep water. The geological history of the earth has been that of a slowly cooling body of matter. The oldest part of the land surface in the arctics is now almost uninhabitable because of the cold. In the long distant future the whole earth will become cold and all plant and animal life will disapjjear.

One of the most important (questions concerning soils is that of the supply of ground water or rather it might be called the underground Avater. The dejjth of this ground water surface below the genei-al land level is also a very important question in every agricultuial community. The supply of Adams County water is quite largely from the west and is at some depth in ])laces. At other jjlaces this ground water is near the surface. The importance of this will be understood when Ave consider the extensive irrigation projects now being carried on in the State of Nebraska. ]\Iany farmers now own and operate small irrigation plants upon their farms. The underground water is pumped by means of steam or gas propelled pumps into reservoirs and then run over the land. This question of irrigation is far from settled in all its phases at present and is beyond the scope of this paper. But there is no reason to doubt that in the futin-e we shall make much use of the water that now goes largely to waste as it makes its Avay sloAvly back to the rivers in the lowlands by this underground route.

A vital question in the jjroduction of farm crops in all places is this water content of the soil. After every shower of rain a large part of the Avaterfall sinks into the ground. Some of this Avater is retained by the soil near the surface and comes back again by capillary attraction and by roots of groAving plants. Still more Avater sinks deep hito the earth and in a large part becomes lost so far as farming operations are concerned. The amount of underground Avater at all places seems almost incredulous, but veiy careful estimates have been made by geologists. In Nebraska it is estimated that if all the Avater beloAv the surface could be brought back it Avould cover the ground Avith a layer more than one hundred feet in depth. There is an abundance of this Avater beloAv the surface to irrigate the land for many generations to come. The question is the cost of IJumi^ing. In some jiarts of this covmty there are places where the underground water ajjproaches the surface. This is true in all localities where there are streams of water or even low land where there is running water. It is a rule that in the beds of rivers the underground water lies not more than a few feet below the surface and it may even approach to the surface, so that the running water of the river may be in actual contact jvith this water underground. Irrigation in these low i)laces is only a matter of the small expense to bring back this water from below. In many districts of Adams County where there is high land the ground water sinks to a considerable depth. It would be necessary to go a hundred feet or more in many places to obtain sufficient water for irrigation, and here of course would come in the matter of heavy expense. Just how nuich land we have in this county that can be easily irrigated and how much where the cost might be excessive has never been determined and Ave have no waj" of knowing at present. But it still remains for the experiment of irrigating to be tried in Adams County on any extended scale. There are plenty of these irrigation plants in other and especially western parts of the state. The lack of need of water during many seasons has acted to deter anyone from expending any time or money to make use of this great amount of water below ground.

But if we leave out of the consideration the need of water for irrigation, the presence of the water imderground has much to do with the productiveness of the land. The roots of all plants extend far deeper into the soil than generally is sujiposed. A depth of several feet in the roots of corn and wheat is quite common, while many plants, and especially the alfalfa, send their roots very much deeper. When we come to the forest shade-trees of course a depth of manv feet is common, though there are some trees whose roots are in most part close to the surface. In general, however, the groAAih of the tree is largely a question of the water supply of the soil. JNIany trees send their roots down to where the ground is always moist, and any change such as might be caused by the digging of a ditch for drainage of the land will cause the death of trees standing near. This death of the tree under these circumstances is to be explained by the absence of the usual water supply. The presence of many trees in Nebraska along the water courses and in low ground and their absence on high ground is a fact of very common observation. This whole matter is merely a question of water supply. With more abundant rainfall and groundwater there would never have been any prairie land in the West. Whenever in any virgin country there is a lack of vegetation the cause must be sought in one of two ways, either poor soil or lack of moisture. Here in X^ebraska where the early settlers found the country covered only with grasses of the very hardy varieties, unfavorable climatic conditions could be and were by many discerned at once. But to come back again to the subject of our soil water supj^ly, here we nmst look for means to change natural conditions, and in this respect we are exceeduigly fortunate. Tlie supply of underground water is sufficient for all time to come since the total amount is constantly increasing by additional rains. But very little of the water from any shower of rain, no matter how iieavy, runs off into the rivers and reaches the sea again in this way. It all or nearlj' all goes into the ground and only after many years does it seep back through underground channels to the seashore. The different laj'ers of clay, sand and rock for a depth of several hundred feet below ground are completely saturated with water. This great volume of water is slowly moving back again to the sea whence it came in the form of vajior in clouds and rain. The importance of the work of this water in soilmaking can scarcely be overestimated. The unfortunate part about it is that it lies so far below ground that roots of ordinary plants can not reach down and bring any of this moisture back again. The flow of water underground has caused the decay of rocks and in this way a soil many feet deep has been formed. Tlie top layer has been mixed with humus from the decayed plants imtil there is now one or more feet of black soil very rich in chemicals and with many bacteria, especially the nitrogen-fixing kinds. Upon this black humus soil farmers are now raising crops. The chemical content of this soil is more or less depleted with each crop. There is a question of how long will the original supply of chemicals last without fertilization by artificial means. So far in the history of X^ebraska farming everything has been taken out of the soil and nothing put back except in the case of the alfalfa culture. This crop is peculiar in that it fertilizes the soil in the supply of nitrogen. There are certain microscojiic bacteria upon the roots of this plant, also on clovers of all kinds, which take nitrogen from the air and transfer it to the soil. This is a chemical change which takes place and the soil is enriched by the growing of this plant, at least in the nitrogen supply. It may be worth while to note in passing that the air we breathe consists in the main part of two chemicals, oxygen and nitrogen. There is also water vapor and other elements in small amounts. This nitrogen, so abundant in the atmosphei-e that it forms almost fourfifths by volume, is one of the most important of all land fertilizers. One large class of plants called legumes, of whicli alfalfa is one, have played a very important part in the formation of a fertile soil. They have by means of the bacteria upon their roots transferred much nitrogen from the air to the soil. But the work of plants is not all destructive so far as the atmosphere is concerned. Plants fiu-nish much oxygen to the air. The crust or covering of the earth is almost one-half oxygen, in the form of comiJounds with other elements. Water is also in part oxygen. The leaves of the green plants in their physiological processes give off great quantities of oxygen and in this way the oxygen content of the air is maintained.

Another important work of plants in the formation of soil is performed by the roots. The way in wliich a plant gets its food is some^vhat peculiar. The roots secrete and give off in the presence of moisture chemical solutions that will dissolve particles of soil or even rocks. These solutions are then absorbed again by the cells of the plant by a process called osmosis and ascend to the leaves. Here other chemical changes are produced by the action of the green matter of the leaf and the sunlight. These green leaves of the plant are its digestive system. Here the food is prepared for all parts. The roots themselves get their food from the leaves. There are certain kinds of plants that will live upon rocks. Such food as they will need they get by the roots dissolving the rock and from the air. For long periods of time after outflows of lava from volcanoes and in other rocky places the only plant growth will be these mosslike forms which will in time and with the aid of water redvice the solid rock to small particles. Other plants Avill then obtain a foothold and dissolve the rocks still more, and, mixed with the humus from the dead plants themselves, a fertile soil is gradually built up.

In the geological history of soil formation these two factors are of first importance, running water and the roots of growing plants. Certain kinds of rocks of the limestone and sandstone varieties readily dissolve in water into clay and sand. But the granite rocks are much more stable. They are generally considered quite indestructible so far as natural agencies are concerned. There is, however, no rock that these chemical secretions of plant roots will not dissolve, and the erosions of rocks by the agency of water is much aided by the roots of plants in many cases.

Should we wish to begin the history of the soil with the rise of the crust of the earth out of the sea, it will be at first all solid rock. Then by the action of the atmosphere and the rain partially dissolved on the upper surface. This was followed by the appearance of plants and more rock dissolution, also the formation of the humus layer, as mixture of dissolved rocks and decaved vegetation. The final result has been the fertile soil which now supports all plant and animal life. But in this process of development plant life has preceded animal life.

The climate of Nebraska presents many peculiar phases. This may be explained in part by the geographical location. The state is close to the mountains on the west. The wide expanse from the west to the east also gives room for a considerable variation in conditions; then there is the imjiortant facf of the general movement of storms across the state, and the changes due to topography. The eastern end of the state is not high above the sea level, but the rise is rapid in crossing the state to the west. There is a rise of about seven feet to the mile in Adams County going from the eastern line to the western. The City of Hastings stands at an elevation of about one thousand nine hundred and twenty feet. Toward the western end of the state there is a more rapid increase in elevation above the sea.

The climatic conditions of any place will depend largely upon a number of factors. The general elevation above the sea is one, distance from the sea is another. Proximity to mountain ranges, presence of forest trees, and still other factors might be mentioned. The climate of any part of the country is in reality the result of natural agencies. 3Ian himself has little to do with this question. It is quite probable that cutting down the forests has increased the velocity of the wind in these sections once heavily wooded. Cultivating the once pi-airie and grass covered sections may affect the amount of water A\hich runs off after a rain. There is little reason to doubt that some considerable changes in climate are to be noticed in short periods of time for reasons mentioned above. But passing these rather small factors there remains still the general rule that climatic conditions are fixed and unchanging. The causes which produce all our weather changes are constant and have been since time first began. We shall discuss just briefly what these causes are, but since this work is largely historical we shall compare conditions of the present with those of the past. Half a century back when the pioneers Avere pre-empting th.e land they found the soil covered only with hardy kinds of grasses and plants acclimated to semi-arid conditions. This fact tells the Avhole story of climatic conditions for centuries. There is the probability of periods of wet and of dry years, or of seasons with considerable rain during summer and of others with a drouth and crop failures. But in the long expanse of time there could have been little change in the climate of Nebraska.

around the sun. Two main causes and then several minor ones which should not be overlooked. This daily rotation of the earth causes the atmosiihere which surrounds it to move from the west toward the east. Since the movement of the earth is constant and fixed by astronomical laws, this west to east motion in the atmosphere is also constant. The distance passed over each day varies somewhat but will average from five hundred to seven hundred miles. That is in general - storms in Wyoming today will pass Nebraska tomorrow; they will reach Chicago in another day and New York in a second day after passing here. Some variations are to be exi^ected. Not all storm movements travel so rapidly, others more so. But a regular movement in this direction is always apparent, not only across the United States but also around the world. Our weather changes come to us across the Pacific Ocean and with almost perfect regularity. About every third or fourth day a new atmospheric disturbance arrives on the western coast and moves eastward. Some of these disturbances or changes bring storms, others fair weather. Frequently a stormy period is followed by one of fair weather. At other times several storm periods follow in succession and there results a Aveek or more of storms. Then again fair weather conditions follow one after another and for a considerable time there will be an absence of rain. This latter condition is more usual, or at least more noticeable in summer when crops are maturing and much financially is at stake. A period of dry weather at any other season than summer will usually pass quite unnoticed. One of the most interesting features in connection with the weather observations is this constant movement of storms towards the east. Tliese take the form of large areas of high or low barometric pressure. The barometer is the instrument which measures the weight or pressure of tlie atmosphere. The weight varies depending on the amount of water vapor present. This water vapor is lighter than air. When much moisture is in the air the weight is less than when the air is dry. The barometer is so constructed mechanically that when the air is light it reads low and when the air is heavy the instrument reads high. Consequently, a low barometer indicates a light atmospliere or one with much moisture, in other words, stormy or cloudy weather. ^V high barometer indicates fair weather.

Another peculiar feature of these storm areas is the circulation of the winds. In an area of low barometer tlie winds circulate in a spiral formation and counter-clockwise in direction. In an area where the barometer is high the winds are circulating in the opposite direction or clockwise. The air at the center of a counter-clockwise movement is always rising to higher elevations where the moisture condenses into clouds due to lower temperature. For this reason clouds will generally form when the barometer runs low. The air at the center of a cloekwase movement of the winds is descending, consequently expanding due to a higher temperature, and clouds will have a tendency to disappear.

The frequent periods of dry weather are caused by mountains to the west. This general movement of the atmosphere from the west toward the east will exjjlain the absence of rain. Any storm approaching from the west crosses the high mountain ranges before reaching Nebraska. At the high elevations moisture is precipitated. This is the result of a fall in temperature in ascending above the land surface of the earth. The average fall in temperature is one degree for about every two-hundred feet of elevation. An ascent of ten thousand feet would mean a fall of fifty degrees in the temperature. The actual figures might vary sliglitly from these, but they will probably answer for an apj^roximation. \Vhen any clouds containing moisture rise to pass over the mountains, this cooling in teni))eratvu"e causes a condensation of the vapor pai'ticles and they fall liecause of their own weight. There is always much snow and rain in mountainous places. Once the clouds cross an elevation and descend, there is a rise in temperature and their capacity for carrying moisture increases since the warmer the air the more moisture it \^i]l carry. This is a physical law in science. The result of this is that the storms coming in from the Pacific Coast lose all their moisture in the high regions to the west and descend the eastern slope of the mountains as dry atmosphere or dry winds which even absorb moisture from the soil at times. At other times some of the moisture is retained by the storm clouds after passmg the mountains and some rainfall occurs on the eastern side. But a region of dry climate must necessarily follow for the reasons given. It is true of all desert localities in every country that they are on the side of mountain ranges opposite from the general directions from which the winds blow. The western part of the state is seriously affected by lack of rain. The amount of rainfall increases considerable toward the eastern end. The winds gather much moisture from the soil also fi-om winds which blow from the east and south and soon become satm-ated again after leaving the mountains.

In writing of the winds mention has been made only of the general kinds which are caused by the rotation of the earth and wliich are moving across the country from west to east. But there are also what are called local winds, and this kind is very conspicuous in Nebraska. They can be recognized at once. These winds come up with the sun in the morning and cease at night. The cause of this class of winds is difference of temperature in various locahties over the earth's surface. They may blow from any direction and frequently shift about during the day. When these local winds come from the east or south, they usually bring much moisture that may cause clouds or even storms at times. For this reason east and south winds are aften called storm winds. North and west winds are quite likely to be fair weather Avinds.

A law of meteorological science also helps to explain the -wind directions. When storms are approaching from the west, the winds shift to the east. After the storm passes and fair weather is coming, they change to the west or northwest. To put it in a single sentence, when storms approach from the west, they come up against the winds, and fair weather comes from the west with the winds. Here in Nebraska a storm frequently comes down from the northwest. In this case, the winds will be southeast, directly opposite the storm. The direction of the winds is the result of all these causes mentioned. The frequent changes are only what might be expected.

There is every probability that climatic conditions in Nebraska have remained unchanged for a long time back. The causes of our weather changes are fixed natural laws which never vary, while the api)earance of the soil and vegetation at the beginning of historic time would indicate no change of marked inqjortance since man first has any knowledge of the country. One exception to the above statement must be made. The earth is gradually cooling and here in Adams County, where once tropical plants grew, Ave now have those of the temperate kind. Other conditions have remained unchanged since the mountains to the Avest arose from the sea.

The great question concerning the future of agriculture in Nebraska is connected Avith the Avater supply. This may be solved jiossibly by the conservation of Avhat noAv runs to Avaste through the river courses, or that Avhich sinks into the ground and in this Avay becomes lost. The surface drainage of Adams County is largely through small branches of the Blue River system. A very small section of. the county is drained by the Platte River. Only a small percentage of the annual rainfall is lost by this surface OAerfloAv. The construction of dams and a system of reservoirs AA'herever possible Avould be of nuich benefit to the Avhole country. A supply of water could easily be saved for irrigation purposes. Then the presence of surface Avater ahvays tends toAvard a humid atmosphere. Exj^eriments have shoAvn that air in passing over a Avater surface soon becomes saturated with humidity. The dry winds of summer are a very serious menace to the farm crops of this state. The conservation of water in the river beds and other lowlands would do something towards increasing the moisture in the atmosphere and directly benefit all concerned. The large part of this work will necessarily have to be carried on by other portions of the state, since the surface run off in this county is quite small. But even in Adams County something could be done, and no doubt will be in the future to conserve our natural water supply. We have sufHcient rainfall for all needs. The trouble has always been in the distribution. It remains for man himself to partially correct this by proper conservation of this water supply for use in times of drouth. We must remember in this connection that agriculture in Nebraska is even yet in a state of infancy so far as time may be considered. The chief object has been to get the most out of the virgin soil with the least exjjenditure of labor. This method of farming has about come to an end. Two problems now confront the farmer. One of these is the conservation of the fertility of the soil. But another and still inore pressing is the question of irrigation. Some ways and means must be devised whereby the lands can be watered when the natural sup])ly fails.

The whole subject of farming in every branch is rapidly becoming a matter of scientific study. The high price of land and the unfavorable climatic conditions make it imperative that the most skillful means shall be used to bring financial returns, and to overcome the frequent causes of crop failures. That this result shall be the history of the future goes without question. All that we need is the proper conservation of resources to make this county for all time the garden spot of Nebraska.