Farmer directory, 1800

wo" «Kg

gl 5 A of

The quantity of rain which falls in nine succes-

sive years, is nearly equal to that which falls in the F

next following nine. - And every \ nineteenth year is generally similar. This similarity vas very | striking between the temperature of tlie years 17 915

A great quantity of Sow in Winter, promises a fertile year; hut abundant rains, give reason to ap- 9 |

prehend that it will be barren .

A winter, during which a great deal of ono |

1 50 rain fall, announces a warm summer.

It is generally helieved that huuleded W mer 5 | prognosticates abundance, because it fertilizes the 1

If the summer be remarkably rainy, it is pro- bable that the ensuing winter will be severe; for

the unusual evaporation will have catricd off the 0

heat of the earth. Wet summers are generally attended with an unusual quantity of seed on the |

Winte Thorn and Dog-rose Bushes : hence the un- 1 » usual fruitfulness of these en is a Sign of 4 se-

When the wind is unsers . summer or 4 autumn, and the temperature of the air nn 3

.cold:for the scason, much rain is expected;

A AMolst Auliumm with a mild winter is generally a followed by a cold and dry sping, which greatly : _ Ictards vegetation; such was the year 1741.

FI ' long severity of seasons, either by, winds,

= h dampness heat or cold, becames (n-

. A damp spring or summer, is | comply: fol- ; lowed by a ine autumn.

J. If the winter is rainy, the spring will in general be dry; and if the former is dry, ye latter will-be

BZ by When the autumn 1s 0 it announces a winter, during which winds will nn and the spring

1 will be.rainy. ky

3 1 It rains oftener in the in time than in the night ;

r and oftener in the evening than in the morning.

N + Unusual Cold in Summer is produced from the * 98 long continuance of easterly or northerly winds; 2 S from frequent and heavy rains; and from a 5 * long continuance of cloudy weather, which pre-

1 wy vents the earth from receiving a proper proportion | BY of heat from the sun.

Unusual Cold in Winter commonly happens from unusual cold or. wet in the preceding summer; from the immediate effect of heavy rains, followed by easterly or northerly winds ; and from westerly or outer] y currents in the upper regions of the

PE" atmosphere,

atmosphere, while east or Fabre winds prevail near he ace of te Garti. ; The following years were remarkable for the 3 the cold was very severe. At the time of the equinoxes, or when the sun passes from one hemisphere into the other, there is generally some disturbance in the weather, par- ticularly with respect to the winds, which at, or near, those times, are N e more bolsterous „than usuallll 8 art 4 FO HED The summer zolatice, or about the 20th of June, is frequently distinguished by violent rains, called Midsummer Floods. And the winter solstice or about the 20th of December, is the time that the severe frosts set in, with some continuance of snow, NG lies * _ the ah nid .

Influence of the Moon

S the Moon's influence on the water of the ocean, in producing the tides, is now uni- versally acknowledged, and rationally ac- counted for, we may therefore reasonably | conclude, that it has a similar effect on the atmosphere, as being a gravitating fluid, dif- fering in a physical sense from water, chiefly . in possessing less gravity. And this idea pro- mises at length'to obtain due consideration and support, from the sure principles of the Newtonian philosophy; as is evident by the labours of Toar Do, LAMARCK, & HowarD. It is very easy to conceive, that in consequence of the lunar influence, great variations and commotions must take place in the atmos-

phere, and also in the weather; which agree

with the observations of ToaLDo, who has compared the state of the atmosphere with the different situations and aspects of the Moon in her monthly revolutions, and found that good and bad weather may be very often truly predicted by them.

directions are selected.

The probability, that ths we at, or near, the New Moon, is as 6 to 1. - At the first Qua vr ter, as 5 to 2. - At the Pull, as 5 to 2. -

Aud at the last 2uarter, as 5 to 4. That is, a per-

son may venture to bet 5 to 1, that the new moon will bring with it a change of weather. e 1;

The probability that the weather will 5 8

or near, the time when the moon, in cach luna-

tion, approaches as near as she can to the Zenith, is as 11 to 4; and at her greatest distance from it, in each lunation, as 3 to 1. 3

The probability, that the weather will change at, or near, the time when the moon passes over the Equator, if ascending to the Northern hemisphere,

It is therefore, chiefly from this source that the following

ther will change

is as 13 to 4; and in her I a to wp Souths Fern hemisphere, as 11 to 4.

The probability, that the weather will. 1 7 at, or near the time when the moon is at her greatest distance from the earth in each lunation is as four to one; and at her least distance from

it, as seven to one. t ho

FE When a combination of any of thank cituatipis 5 of the moon takes place, it generally occasions will always have the greatest effect; the! nearer = they are to the moon's passage over the equator, particularly in the months of March and September. © The situations of the moon, favourable to Good Weather, are its greatest distance from the earth, its quadratures, and its greatest distance from the zenith: and for Bad Weather, are its nearest dis- tance to the earth, new and full moons, passage of the equator, and its least distance from the

Each situation of the moon alters that State of the atmosphere which has been occasioned by the preceding one; and it seldom happens that any change in the weather takes place withaet a - _ in the lunar situations.

5 Changes of the weather seldom take - on

the very days of the moon's changing, but either

precede: or follow, viz.. such as happen in the six winter months generally precede; and those in the #4

six summer months follow them. | o_ On the 4th day before new and full moon, the = weathet is inclined to change. If, on these days, Pp by

the horns of the moon are clear and well defined,

good weather may be expected. But if they are 42 dull and not clearly marked on the edges, bad | a weather will ensue. 'Y . Muhen the weather remains unchanged, on the 3 * ath, Soth, and 6th days of the moon, we may con- 0 jecture, that it will continue so till full moon and \ \

sometimes till the next new moon. 5

If the; moon is rainy throughout; it generally | clears up at the ensuing change, and the rain will | probably commence in a few days after, and, con- tinue. But, if the moon has been fair eee and it rains. at the change, the fair weather will | probably be restored, about the 4th or 5th day of | the moon, and continues as before. 1 nts

Note.+By these directions, Mr. Jones, in his Physological Disguisitions, says, he has made hay for twenty:-years, without having once had the mortification to see it damaged by rain. 5

If the moon looks pale or dim, we are to expect rain, lf red, it is a sign of wind. - If white, and of Its natural colour, we may expect fair weather.

In rainy, days, the bad weather is generally a

1 little interrupted about the time ow moon e

the meridian. Ihe eclipses of the sun and moon n oc

cur in the midst of good weather, 7: 113579

The great falls of rain and stormy weather ge-

f nerally take place on the 3d or 2d days before, or tliree, four, or fire days after the change and full of the moon, and not at N e time chat they

The times most exposed to rain are the rising and setting of the moon: ond those most favotr- able to good weather, are its E over 82

It is supposed that the general temperature or

State of the weather of any year, wilt 'nearly'edr-

[| with each antecedent/19th year; becabse the phases and positions of the moon in regard to the earth, are again the same.

It is well known that the Fu! Moon nearest the 23d of September, during the week in which it is full, rises Sooner after sun-set than any full moon week in the year. By this means it affords an im- mediate supply of light after sun-set, to enable tlie Farmer to gather in his corn. - Hence this moon is called the Harvest Moon, and is in some years

more beneficial to the farmer than in others. In

the former case, the time of its rising after sur. set does not exceed 15 hours for 7 days together 14 whilst in the Jatter case there is a difference of 3/8 = hours in the same space of time. And these val 73 riations *of the moon's rising are gone throughf [2 i every 19 years. 4 The 1 account che ws what years be 1 q harviet moon will be of most benefit to the farmer, f and what years it will not, viz. 75 15 From 1816 to 1825 inclusive, most beneficial. From 1826 to 1834 inclusive, least beneficial. From 1835 to 1843 inclusive, most beneficial. From 1844 to 1852 inclusive, least beneficjal. 1 And from 1853 to 186 1 inclusive, most beneficial.

Signs from the Barometer,

Te greatest acquisition, n that ever was made to natural philosophy, with respect to ascertaining the changes of the weather, was the discovery of the Barometer, although it is not considered as an infallible guide in this respect. From some observa- tions lately made by Mr. Howanp, and others, there is great reason to suppose that the Moon has some influence on the state of the Barometer, which may lead to several important consequences, amongst which, perhaps, to a new and more satisfactory theory of this instrument; by which means, it may be still more successfully applied to

foretel the changes which take place in the weather. - The usual ranges of the Mercu- rial Column in our latitude, are compre- headed between twenty-eight and thirty- one inches; of which the middle, or twenty-nine and a half inches is the uual station in vari- able weather, when there is a mixture of Showers and sun-shine: and accordingly as it deviates from this point, we foretel the changes that are likely to take place in the atmosphere,; by the following rules and directions.

- COP oe

When the mercury. falls in the Barometer, it announces Rain or Wind, or in general what is called Bad Weather. And. on the contrary, when

When the mercury falls in frosty weather, either | Snow or a Thaw may be expected : but if it rises

in the winter with a north or cast wind, it gene- rally forebodes a Frost. ä

If the mercury sinks slowly, we may expect Rain, which will probably be, of some continuance.

But if it rises gradually, we may expect Vine 1 eather, that will be lasting,

n ett any A; te by

When the Barometer is fluctuating, rising and falling suddenly, the weather may be expected to

be like it, changeable,

When the mercury falls very low, there will be much rain. But if its fall is low and Sudden, a High Wind frequently follows.

When an extraordinary*fall of tlie mercury hap- pens, without any remarkable change near at hand, there is some probability of a storm at a distance.

In very hot weather, the fall of the mercury in- dicates Thunder.

The Barometer will descend sometimes as an indication of wind only; and sometimes rise when the wind is to the north or east.

A north-east wind generally causes the Baro- meter to rise, and it is generally low, with a south-

west wind.

An extraordinary fall of the mercury will some- times take place in summer previous to heavy showers attended with thunder; but in spring, autumn, and winter, it indicates violent winds.

The mercury is higher in Cold than in Warm Weather ; and lower at noon and midnight than at any other period of the day. |

The mercury generally falls at the approach of

the New and Full Moon ; and rises at the Ru

bY Ye I If Ne FE,

Ee fore high tides, there is almost always a great | 7

fall of the mercury; this takes place ofcener at | 4 for the Full than at the New Moon. : 5 Ihe greatest changes of the Barometer com- 5 monly take place during clear weather, with a a 9 . north wind; and the smallest 1:5tngs during Sl | E rainy, or windy weather, with a south, or nearly Y tt South wind. bt tl The words generally engraved on the plate of I - the Barometer rather serve to mislead than to in- : form ; tor the changes of weather depend rather on the rising and falling of the mercury, than on

its standing at any particular height. When the mercury is as high as fair, and the surface of it is concave, beginning to descend, it very often rains; and on the contrary, when the mercury is opposite rain, when the surface of it is conver, be- ginning to rise, fair weather may be expected. These circumstances not being duly attended to, is the principal cause that many people have not a proper confidence in this instrument. When the mercury stands in the Barometer at 30 inches, the pressure or weiglit of the air upon every square inch on the carth's surface is about 15 lbs. avoirdupois. Hence if we take the surface | of a middle sized man to be 14 square feet; when 2 the air is lightest, the pressure on him is about 13

tons, and when heaviest about 14 tons. The dif- ference of 1 ton in the weight of the air at one time more than at another, must greatly effect us, in regard to the animal functions, and consequently in respect to our healths, more especially when the change takes place in a short time. When the Barometer rises, the weight of the air increases, the weather is commonly fine, and we feel our- selves what we call braced and more alert and active than usual ; on the contrary, when the-Ba- rometer falls, the weight of the air diminishes, the weather is bad, and people feel a listlessness and inactivity hang about them. Hence we are enabled to correct an improper expression, which many people make use of when their spirits are de- pressed, by saying, that it proceeds from the hea- viness of the air, whereas it arises from the con-

e meructough 2 of O7% |

Tim Thermometer is used to measure the degrees of heat in the air, and contributes towards denoting when changes are likely to take place in the lower regions of the atmos- phere. The Thermometer most in use is FAHRENHEIT'S, which Is sometimes placed in the same frame with 1 the Barometer. The scale affixed to it, is divided into equal parts, called degrees; of which the number between what is called the freezing and boiling water points is 180, the former being at 32, and the latter at 212, above O, or the point from

which the degrees are numbered above and

below it. The following rules and directions are selected, as being the most useful, in ap- plying this instrument to predict the changes Which take place in the air, &c. It

Ik is generally allowed, that tlie sensations of tleat and Cold are occasioned by the presence or absence, in degree, of a certain principle or qua- lity, denominated ire or- Heat.

When any substance feels cold to the hand, it is concluded tlie principle of heat is not so abundant in that substance as in the hand; and if it feels hot, then more abundant. ESE

One universal effect of fire, is its expanding or enlarging those bodies into which it enters; which bodies subside again when the. fire is withdrawn. --. 1 Soltds are least expanded by fire; Inelustic Fluids, as water, spirits &c. are more expanded; and Elastic Fluids, as air, most of all.

In Thermometers, the mercury with which they are filled, is found to expand nearly in proportion to the heat it receives; and to contract as it im parts it to the surrounding bodies. Hence the di- latations and contractions, or the rising and falling of the mercury, indicate the degrees of heat in the

The extreme degrees of Heel are almost every where the same; this however, is not the case in regard to the same degrees of Cold.

The ind has no influence on the Motions of the Thermometer ; but. Maisture has aà peculiar in- fluence on the Mercury, if followed by a wind which disperses it. The

The greatest Heat, and tlie greatest Cold, in the atmosphere, takes place about 6 weeks after the longest and shortest days.

The Thermometer changes more in e than in Ninten. | 1

The coldest period of the 1 is half a an "FR be- fore sun- rise. And the Hottest between 2 and 3 o'clock in the afternoon, in our latitude,

In Winter, if the cold diminishes suddenly, and in Summer, if the heat augments , it in general portends rain. GOL. 7

It scarcely ever 4reezes in latitudes under 35 de- grees ; nor ever hails in latitudes higher th than 60

Between the latitudes of 35 and 60 degrees, in 3 adjacent to the sea, it generally thaws, when We Sun's altitude is 40 degrees; and seldom begins to freeze, until the Sun's meridian altitude is be- low 40 degrees. |

January, in general, is the coldest month, in every latitude, and July the warmest, in all lati-

tudes. above 48 degrees, and August in all below

it, in the Northern hemisphere. Every habitable latitude enjoys a beat of 60 de- grees at least for two months, which seems neces-

Sary for the growth and maturity of corn. The

5 of vegetation in the higher latitudes pro-

ceeds from the duration of the sun over the horizon for a considerable time without setting. Rain is but little wanted there, as the earth is sufficiently 4 moistened by the liquefaction of the Snow, that 1. covers it during the Winter.

. . When snow covers the earth, it tends to keep 1 it warm: because, by its interposition, it prevents bf the cold air from n the caloric, or heat, from

the earth.

No Substance in nature is found to deprive water. of its Oxygen or pure air, with more avidity than fertile earth. Hence, when snow melts, it pene- trates into the vegetable mould, and communicates to it, its Oxygen, by which means the earth's fertilizing power is increased, and the germination of seeds, the growth of plants, &c. are promoted.

A continuance of cloudy or masty Weather will intercept tne Sun's rays from reaching the earth, and consequently prevent it from receiving its due proportion of heat .to ripen the corn and fruit. This was the case during several of the summer months, in the year 1783, when the whole conti- nent of Europe was covered with a fog, which is supposed to have proceeded from Sicily and Cala- brag, when that dreadful earthquake happened, which desolated some of the most beautiful and

What follows is an account of some experiments made with the Thermometer, at the time that the Barometer stood at 29 inches, viz. mercury boils|f at 600 degrees; cow's milk, at 213; water, ati

212; brandy, at 190; the heat of the human body i

in a common ague or fever, at 106; the heat of 1

the human body in health, at 98 ; the mean tem. 1

perature of the air in England, at 55; water just

freezing, or mow and ice just melting, at 32; milk

mixture of now and salt will sink the Thermo-

meter to 0; brandy freezes at 7 degrees below O; 4

and mercury, it is thought, at 40 degrees below 0,

a degree of cold, of which, in this country, we |

have no conception.

T Ir Hygrometer is an instrument intended to discover the moisture contained in the at- mosphere, and to foretel a change in the weather. Whatever substance contracts by moisture, and lengthens by dryness, as cord, catgut, whale bone, &c. 1s capable of being

formed into a Hygrometer; and that subs-

tance is to be preferred, whose expansion or contraction varies most nearly in proportion to the quantity of moisture imbibed.

From time immemorial, the effects of moisture have been considered as prognostic of the weather, as is evident by the confidence the house-wife places in her Salt-box, the carter in his Whit-leather Thong, and the sailor in his Shrouds. And the Hygrometer

promises to be an instrument of no inconsi- derable use to the farmer in hay-time and

harvet ; which is fully evinced by the follow.

ing observation of Mr. MARSHALL, in his minutes of agriculture, viz. V esterday morn- ing (says he) while the Hygrometer stood at 2 degrees moist, the peas were by no means fit for carrying; the haulm was green, and the peas soft. About ten o'clock the Hygro- meter fell to 1 degree dry; before one, the Peas were in good order; I went up into the field, merely on the word of the Hygrometer, and found them fit to be carried." The fol- lowing remarks and observations are selected, as likely to be the most useful on this subject.

The Dutch Toys, called Weather e are no bad Hygrometers for common purposes; the contraction of the string by moisture in the air, forces the man out of the door against Bad IWea- tier: and when the air begins to be dry, the string is disposed to resume its natural length, and

forces the woman out of the dooyaguing Good

Weather. F - l i ol

A common Hygrometer may be made hy sus- pending a piece of Catgut, Whip-cord, Whit- leather, &c. about 4 feet long from a nail, against a wall, with a leaden ball fixed to the other end : near which fix a scale on the wall, divided into several equal parts, to shew when the ball rises and falls: Then as the air becomes moist, tlie ball ascends, and we judge that rain is at hand : on the contrary when the air becomes dryer, the ball descends, and we judge that fine weather is ap- proaching. But when great exactness is required in these matters, the whale-bone Hygrometer ought to be procured, which is esteemed one of the best.

The cold in the higher regions of the air, may be one cause why vapours are not collected 80 plentifully there, as nearer the earth ; as the clouds are seldom found to be more than a mile in height, and not often at that elevation.

The height where the air is found to be most Salubrious and proper for animal life, is between five and six hundred yards above the level of the sea. And the air at sea is esteemed more pure than that on the land. |

A moist air conducts heat with much more ra- pidity than dry cold air; and the more that vapour is dilated, the more heat it absorbs. Eruporalion

is greatly increased by a current of air flowing over the evaporating surface. Hence a calm day is always hotter than one in which there 1s a strong wind. And hence arises, the danger of persons Sitting in a current or draft of air, which robs him of his animal heat, and produces colds and coughs ; the reason also is plain, why those disorders are more prevalent during the cold autumnal rains, and the breaking up of frost in the spring: and from the same cause arises the danger of sleeping Evaporation in our climate is four times greater from the 21st of March to the 21st of September, than in the remaining part of the year. Hence it is that the evening air in summer and autumn 1s more unhealthy, than the cold and severe frosts in winter. | | Tracts of land covered with trees or vegetables, are found to emit more vapour than the same space covered with water. Hence the air about a woed or forest is made colder by the evaporation from the trees and shrubs, while the plants themselves are kept in a more moderate heat, and secured from the burning heat of the sun, by the vapours perspired from the leaves. And hence it is that we find the shade of trees more effectual to cool us,

as well as more agreeable, than that from rocks and buildings, It

It is generally. allowed that clearing away wood, in time, lessens the vapours, and consequently the rain of a country. This appears to be the case in scveral fine parishes in Jamaica, which used to

produce large crops of sugar canes; but upon clear- ing away, the neighbouring woods, they are now dry for nine months in the year. And in those

parts of America, where the woods have been cut down, it is well known that their humidity is very

much lessened. Hence we may learn the neces-

Sity of preserving the trees, from beneath whose humid shades a water spring discharges its streams; and hence, too, we may learn, that the' smallest Springs may be improved by planting around them

a grove of trees. On the other hand it may not

be improper to observe, that thick [plantations ad- jacent to houses which stand low, cannot be wholesome, on account of the increase of moisture and the bad air they emit during the absence of the sun. | Ihe soil of large tracts of land has its share in influencing the temperature of the weather: thus stones or sand heat and cool more readily, and to a greater degree, than the earth or vegetable mould. Hence the violent heats of most sandy desarts, par- ticularly those in Arabia and Africa, and the burn- ing heat and blasting qualities of the wind that

passes over them: hence also the intense cold of Terra-del- Fuego, and other stoney countries in cold latitudes.

The following positions have been deduced from some observations on the electrical state of the at- mosphere, - viz. that in the spring, when plants begin to grow, we are told that temporary electri- cal clouds begin to appear, and pour forth electric rain. And that the electricity of the clouds and of the rain increases, till that part of autumn, when the fruits are gathered. It is hence supposed to actuate and animate vegetation, and to give rain that power, which renders it more propitious to vegetables than any other kind of watering.

Spontaneous or insensible evaporation is not only carried on from the surface of the earth, but from all vegetables. A part of the water, thus raised into the air in the day, falls down again in Dew in the night; and is absorbed by the sub- stances which yielded it before. Thus, the earth is not so soon exhausted of its moisture from a long drought, as we are apt to imagine; as may be proved by the following easy experiment _ - _ by the Bishop of Landaff, viz.

Having provided a large drinking glass, the area of the mouth of which was twenty square inches, he placed it with its mouth downwards on a grass

plat which had been mown close. The sun shone bright and hot, and there had been no rain for up- wards of a month. When the glass had stood on

the grass-plat one quarter of an hour, and had col-

lected a quantity of condensed vapour, he wiped

its inside with a piece of muslin, the weight of

which he had previously ascertained, and as soon as the glass was wiped dry, the muslin was weighed. The medium increase of weight from various expe- riments, between twelve and three o'clock, was six grains in one quarter of an hour from twenty square inches of earth. At this rate of evaporation, it is easy to calculate that not less than 1600 gal-

lons of water would be raised from an acre of

ground in twelve hours. PP By the theory of spontaneous evaporation, many

of the common appearances in nature are explained.

If a glass of cold water, &c. be exposed in a room where many people are assembled, its outside will soon be covered with moisture like dew ; which is produced by the cold body condensing the vapour with which the air is charged from the breath and perspiration of the company. Similar to this is the dew on the inside of the windows, which in cold weather is frequently frozen, and assumes the forms of leaves of trees, and of the most beautiful

4 EY we rain : Eun Rain-Guage, or Pluviameter, is an instru- to : ment placed to receive the falling rain, with a 20 : view to ascertain the exact quantity that falls ow 20 2 a given horizontal surface. | | to Ihe Rain-Gauge is a very FAR instrument, C consisting of a square tin funnel, of 12 inches in ; diameter, communicating with a tube or cylinder þ

of tin, into which the rain'is conveyed by the fun- nel. The depth of the water is measured by a rule fixed to a float; this rule passes through the centre of the funnel. The''divisions on the rule shew the number of cubic inches of water that have fallen, in a given time, on a surface of one Square foot.

To use the Rain-Gauge, so much water Should be first poured in, as will raise the float, so as the Zero, on the rule, may exactly coincide with the aperture of the funnel, which/is-80 contrived as to even the water from evaporating. This instru-

ment should be fixed down firmly in a place, where, whatever wind blows, the fall of the rain may not be interrupted by the houses, or any other

What follows 1s an account of the quantity of rain, which feil at London yearly, for seven years, taken from the Philosophical Transactions, viz. in the year 1774 the depth of rain which fell, was equal to 1743; inches: which at a medium is about 23 in- ches for each year.

It appears that the most rain falls in places near the sea coast, and less as the places become more inland. The quantity which falls on the western coast of England, is sometimes twice as much as falls at London. It is also found, that the nearer the Rain-Guage is placed to the ground, the more rain it collects,