Piatt County, Illinois - Chapter 5: Indians in Illinois, 1883

Chapter 5: Indians in Illinois

"Alas ! for them - their day is o'er, Their fires are out from hill to shore ; No more for them the wild deer bounds ; The plough is on their hunting grounds ; The pale man's axe rings through their woods ; The pale man's sail skims o'er their floods ; present Indians of the United States constitute, it is sup- J- posed, the third distinct race which has inhabited North America. Their origin is still but a matter of conjecture. The most common supposition, however, is that they sprang from some of the early peoples of Asia. According to Indian tradition they came from the northwest. Their "happy hunting grounds" were always toward the west. The Algonquin and Iroquois branches of the American Indians are the only ones which played a conspicuous part in Illinois history.

The principal part of the Iroquois country was in what is now the State of New York. The five principal tribes of the Iroquois - the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas - constituted the famous Five Nations of New York. It has been considered by some that these nations showed the Indian in his most favorable aspect - that the Iroquois Indian was the bravest, most patriotic and most eloquent of all the Indians. A later opinion, however, is that the Algonquins, from the same latitude, were fully their equals in courage, patriotism and eloquence.

The territory of the Algonquin Indians completely surrounded that of the Iroquois, arid extended far to the north, south and west. The Algonquins were on the St. Lawrence at the time of the French discoveries there ; they were found as far south as South Carolina, and Marquette and La Salle found them in the Mississippi valley. The Algonquins embraced the Ottawas, Chippewas, Pottawatomies, Sacs and Foxes, Kickapoos, Illinois, and several other tribes. The majority of the Indians who made Illinois their home belonged to the Illinois tribe.

Illinois Indians

The word Illinois is derived from Illini, an Indian term meaning "real or superior men." The French have left their impress upon our state by giving to its name a French termination.

Originally the Illinois confederacy was composed of four tribes, the Kaskaskias, Cahokias, Tamaroas and Peorias. Not a great while previous to the appearance of the French in the west, a foreign tribe, the Michigamies, were taken into the confederacy.

Previous to the discovery of the upper Mississippi by Marquette the Illinois Indians had been driven west of that river by the Iroquois. They afterward returned to their former home, and when Marquette and Joliet passed up the Illinois river they found some of their tribe near the present town of Utica, on the Illinois river. After the repulsion of the Illinois tribe by the Iroquois the former Indians were in constant fear of renewed attacks ; and they had ground for fear, for in 1680 the Iroquois again made their appearance.

Consternation and fear were depicted in the countenance of "every inhabitant of the Kaskaskia village .when a Shawnee Indian, after starting for home, hurried back with the news of the invaders1 arrival. With hurried preparations for war the Illinois crossed the river and barely reached the plain beyond when the Iroquois emerged in vast numbers from the woods of the Yermilion river. Some shots were discharged on both sides, but a partial treaty of peace was made and the Iroquois reserved their attack until later, when they plundered the village and pursued the Illinois down the river. Near the mouth of the Illinois river seven hundred women and children of the Tamaroas were taken prisoner. Throughout the entire attack the butcheries were fearful ; men, women and children were unmercifully slaughtered. After the appeasing of their fiendish thirst the Iroquois retired from their field of conquest and the remaining Illinois returned to their desolated homes.

The Iroquois were great warriors, could not remain idle, pretended to subject all other nations to themselves, and never wanted a pretext for commencing hostilities. They, however, were not always successful in their campaign into the Illinois country, and into other parts of the west. According to tradition, four hundred Iroquois were defeated at the moutli of Des Moines river by three hundred Sioux. Again, on the banks of the Illinois river, some Illinois Indians, at the instigation of an Indian maiden,* returned after a partial defeat and completely routed the Iroquois.

The founding at the Kaskaskia village of the earliest Jesuit mission in Illinois has already been alluded to. This mission, founded in 1675, was removed by Father Gravier to Kaskaskia, in southwestern Illinois, some time previous to 1690. Kaskaskia, the oldest town in Illinois, was the last abiding place of the Illinois Indians within the limits of the state.

Although the Illinois Indians were considered cowardly, treacherous and deceitful, yet the French never had any more faithful allies. Charlevoix, in the "History of New France," said of them: "If we except the Abenaqui tribes, they are the only tribe that never sought peace with their enemies to our prejudice."

In 1684 there were twelve hundred Illinois warriors in their single village at La Salle's colony, at Fort St. Louis, on the Illinois river. These Indians assisted the French in many instances. They assisted in the Chickasaw war, and fought against the Katchez Indians in 1729. They became involved in Pontiac's great conspiracy, but they had seemingly lost much of their old thirst for warfare ; and as they did not show the zeal which Pontiac expected they would, he threatened them severely. In 1767,f when Pontiac lost his life in the Illinois country, the other nations that had answered to Pontiac's mighty word of command sought revenge upon the Illinois confederacy. During this persecution, shortly after the death of Pontiac, occurred the siege of Starved Rock. Tradition says that a war party of the Illinois sought refuge at the old Fcrt St. Louis, on Le Rocher, as the French called it. Their enemies besieged these warriors until, when near starving, they grew desperate. One dismal, stormy night they attempted to escape, but they were soon overpowered by their bloodthirsty enemies. It is said, however, that a few escaped down the river and joined the remaining Illinois Indians near Kaskaskia. Hence the name, Starved Rock, by which this rocky promontory is known at the present time. In 1794 the Illinois Indians were defeated in a war against the United States. A treaty of peace was made and an annuity was granted them. They made several moves after this, selling their land as they left. According to a letter of Gen. Harrison's, written in 1814, the Illinois confederacy was reduced, in 1800, to but thirty warriors, while in 1745 their warriors numbered four thousand. By various treaties their lands were ceded to the United States. They were moved west of the Missouri, and in 1854 were in eastern Kansas. In 1867 they moved farther west. There remained, in 1872, but forty persons, men, women and children, of the once great and powerful Illinois confederacy.

According to the accounts given by some of the early French missionaries, the Illinois Indians originally possessed their full share, probably more than their full share, of Indian vices. Upon the arrival of the French missionaries they were warmly welcomed by the Illinois, and soon Christianity had "produced a change such as she alone can produce in morals and disposition." In the use of the bow and arrow they were more skillful than any of the surrounding tribes. They were tall and graceful, and were noted for being swift of foot.

Previous to the coming of the Iroquois the Illinois Indians had lived on the banks of the Illinois river in primitive content'edness. Long "before Perrot reached Illinois these Indians had lived, fought, loved and worshiped in the beautiful valley of the river which bears their name. Their swift arrows pierced the hearts of scores of timid bounding deer. The buffalo, in all his mightiness, fell to the ground no less Surely than did the deer when the Illinois bow was raised. They hunted that they might live. They lived in great simplicity, but with a kindness to relatives and a royal hospitality to friends and strangers, that some of their pale-faced successors would do well to imitate. They fought in defense of kindred and homes, and for their dead. Cupid's arrow was no less potent then than now. Triumphantly the "-persistent god" started the mystic dart that pierced with all surety the hearts of dusky youths and maidens. And here on this broad rolling prairie, or in the midst of the great forest, which Marquette said was the Indian's paradise, these Indians thought ever of the Great Spirit - their God.

Sacs And Foxes

These tribes originally lived on the banks of the St. Lawrence river; but hostile tribes drove them westward, and they fought their way separately to the vicinity of Green Bay. Here, for mutual protection, these tribes made an alliance which has never been broken. The Jesuit Allouez found them near Green Bay as early as 1669 or

1672. He was at first received by them with contempt, but with Jesuitic patience he labored and finally succeeded in gaming their confidence and friendship. AVhen Marquette, several years afterward, passed through this region he beheld with joy the cross which had been erected at Allouez's instigation.

The combined tribes continued their warlike machinations when they moved to northern Illinois, and while residing there formed alliances with other nations, and for years harassed the Illinois Indians on their river and ultimately helped to drive this tribe southward. They warred frequently against the French, and aided the British against the Americans as late as 1812. They' made several cessions of land to the United States, and in 1830 that cession was made which led to the Black Hawk war. After this war these tribes went to their lands in Iowa. They were afterward removed to the Indian Territory. From the year 1825 to that of 1850 these tribes had suffered a decrease in numbers of some 3,000 souls.

The Kick A Poos

In 1672* Allouez found the Kickapoos on the Milwaukee river. In 1763 they were situated in tli3 country around the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan. They afterward moved farther south ; and still later, at the time of the first settlements in Piatt county they lived in the vicinity of the Sangamon river, and had a village on Kickapoo creek, at Elkhart Grove, and at several places in eastern Illinois.

It is said that the Kickapoos were somewhat more civilized than the surrounding tribes ; but be that as it may, in warfare, at least, they were barbarous. They were very bitter in their hatred of the Illinois Indians, and for near a century did their share in helping to exterminate that powerful tribe. The Kickapoos reaped their coveted reward, for they afterward occupied a portion of the coveted Illinois huntinggrounds. They gained possession of this ground shortly after the war which followed Pontiac's death, and were not content to let the Illinois Indians alone after their retreat to the southern part of the state. The Kickapoos, in general, had a deep feeling of animosity toward the whites. They, in connection with several other tribes, did so much damage by murdering and stealing during the war of 1812 that Gov. Edwards was necessitated to suppress them by military force.

After their submission annuities were granted them. Some emigrated to Mexico, where they still showed their hatred to the whites by making inroads over the border.

The Pottawatomies

The French found this tribe lying just east of the southern part of Lake Michigan, and the Jesuits founded a mission among these Indians on the St. Joseph river. The Iroquois had been instrumental in driving this tribe westward. A portion located as above mentioned, while some went farther north.

These Indians were ferocious, and long had strong hatred toward the English and Americans. They were friendly toward the French and assisted them in some of their battles. In Pontiac's war they were strongly allied to him. They were merciless, and often disguised their evil intentions under the garb of friendship. By thus doing they massacred almost the entire garrison of a military post on the St. Joseph river. These Indians, in conjunction with parts of the Ottawa and Chippewa tribes, were very ferocious and vindictive in the wars which marked the advancement of the whites toward the west. In the destruction of life they were the most daring, cruel and fiendish. Pontiae did well when he gained them as co-workers in his great satanic scheme of cruelty and bloodshed.

In 1812, under British influence, the Pottawatomies enacted at Fort Dearborn* one of the most merciless crimes that human beings have ever perpetrated. Fort Dearborn was built and garrisoned in 1804. The traders who came from time to time to this place managed to keep up a friendly feeling with the Indians. In 1812, during the English and American war, word was sent for the garrison at this fort to evacuate. Captain Heald, commander of the garrison, made known, in council with the Indians the intended evacuation. Signs of hostility were observed among the Indians, but all fears were mostly quieted upon the arrival of Captain Wells with some Miami Indians from Fort Wayne. Early on the morning of August 15 - the fatal day - -Mr. Kinzie, one of the principal traders at the post, received word from a friendly Indian that mischief was on foot. At nine o'clock the party, escorted by Captain Wells and 500 Pottawatomies, left the fort to the sound of martial music. Notwithstanding the Pottawatomies had pledged their honor to see the party safe to Fort Wayne, before they were beyond the present limits of Chicago these treacherous fiends made a terrible attack upon the whites, sparing neither men, women nor children. The American troops fought bravely, and until over half were killed, before a surrender was made. The Indians soon had control of the wagons and baggage, and the helpless were massacred without mercy. The most tearful of all these dread deeds was that performed by a single young savage who climbed into a wagon and with his tomahawk dispatched twelve innocent children. Captain Wells, then a prisoner, upon witnessing this scene, exclaimed : "If this be your game, I can kill too," and he started toward the Pottawatomie camp. But he soon became a prisoner again, and although some friendly chiefs tried to save him, a Pottawatomie rode up in the rear and killed him by a single blow. This man's heart was cut to pieces and distributed among the Indians for a token of bravery. Wells street in Chicago perpetuates the name of this brave man. During all this terrible scene Mr. Kinzie's family were guarded by friendly Indians near the fort. The prisoners taken by the Indians were widely distributed to various tribes in Illinois and Wisconsin. The majority were ransomed at Detroit the next year, while some were detained a year longer.

The Pottawatomies also took part in the outbreak against the Illinois Indians, and were benefited by the removal of the latter from their cherished land. They were finally removed from Illinois. They found their way to the Indian Territory, and in 1850 the Pottawatomies only numbered about 1500 persons.

Shabbona was a peace chief of the Pottawatomies, and was born near the Maumee river, in Ohio, in 1775.* His commanding physical structure, as well as the noble attributes of his mind, caused him to be respected by Indian as well as by white man. He was a companion of Tecumseh in the war of 1812, and was fighting by his side when the great brave fell, in 1813, at the battle of the Thames. Upon the death of his wife's father he became a chief of the Pottawatomies. After the war of 1812 he was always a friend of the Americans. The whites owe this Indian an everlasting debt of gratitude for the prompt action in favor of the whites taken by him during the Black Hawk trouble. Black Plawk endeavored to gain Shabbona's assistance in his war, telling him, as an argument, that if they united their tribes they would be in numbers as the trees of the forest. Shabbona replied, "Yes, * Lecture before the Chicago Historical Society, by Mr. Win. Hickling.

and the army of the palefaces you will have to encounter will be as numerous as the leaves on those trees. " After finding that war must come Shabbona traveled, night and day that he might save the frontier white settlers. Had the white settlers of Indian Creek heeded Shabbona's ' words of warning, that fearful massacre might have been averted. Many of the people of La Salle county owed the preservation of their lives to this old peace Indian. For the services rendered by Shabbona to the whites the government reserved a portion of land at Shabbona's Grove, in what is now De Kalb county, and presented him with a pension of $200.

When his tribe moved to the Pottawatomie reservation, west of the Mississippi, Shabbona went also, but he, with his family, returned to his individual reservation. He again went west, but affer one of his sons was killed he returned to Illinois, in 1855. Supposing that Shabbona had deserted his reservation, some speculators sold his land during his absence. Upon his return Shabbona was hurt by this act, and sorrowfully said, "Shabbona has nothing now." The citizens of Ottawa raised by subscription a sufficient amount of money to purchase twenty acres of land in Grundy county, upon which Shabbona and his family lived until his death, in 1859. His wife, who weighed 400 pounds, was drowned in Mazon creek, six years after her husband's death.

Let those who would ruthlessly push the Indians to the very verge of our continent pause and remember Shabbona. His life shows what nobleness there can be in the Indian's character. He is a striking example of the people who hate their enemies and love their friends with all their soul. It may be said of him, however, that while his friendship was of the strongest, his hatred was not so bitter nor so lasting as that of some of his people.

Illinois In Pontiac'S Conspiracy

Pontiac was born in 1712. His native tribe has long been a matter of controversy, as several tribes have claimed him. The most favorable opinion at present, however, is that he belongs to the Sac tribe. He closely resembled these Indians, and it was the first to answer his call against the whites. It is well known that he was a chief of the Ottawas, but that probably was because of their being greater warriors.

end, and Pontiac was too politic to adhere to the cause of the vanquished, so he made friends with the English upon their taking possession of the French posts. It was when Maj. Robert Rogers was. sent to take possession of the frontier French posts that the great Pontiac appeared first upon the scene. After passing Fort Niagara the major landed at the farthest point west the English troops had been. Soon after their landing Indians made their appearance, evidently to design the purpose of the whites. 'Twas then that Rogers first saw Pontiac, who addressed the whites in rather an arrogant style and seemed disposed to prevent their continuance to Detroit. But the next morning the sagacious, politic Pontiac reappeared, offered the peace pipe and designated his desire to live in peace with the English. The party proceeded, and, owing to Pontiac's influence among the hostile tribes, reached Detroit safely. The French commander wras evidently incensed at the appearance of Rogers, but nevertheless the French garrison filed out of the fort, laid down their arms and gave place to the English. The Indians who witnessed the transfer could not understand how a few English could take the place of the French garrison. When all was explained to them their opinion of the English began to be exalted, but still they could not understand why the lives of the conquered French were not taken.' Pontiac expected all the deference from the English that the French had been wont to pay him, and the English not bestowing this deference, had not been long in the possession of the country ere an awful cloud began to hover in their horizon. The Indians, instigated somewhat by the French, began to nourish a silent, fearful hate of the English. Pontiac's mind had not been inactive while these feelings were being aroused among the other Indians. He began to realize what English supremacy meant, and he resolved to resist with an awful strength their advancement, and if possible to "drive the red* dogs into the sea."

By his own power, and with the assistance of the French, Pontiac became the leader of at least fifteen Indian nations. His messengers had been sent near and far until a mighty war cloud was close upon the unsuspecting English.

Pontiac's plot was to attack all the English posts on the same day and, after gaining possession, to kill all the English - men, women and children. Illinois, being still under the French flag, was the rendezvous/ for both French and Indians, and the origin of the great scheme might be traced there. « The principal scene of action, however, was east

Through artifice nine British posts were captured. In some cases the garrison was completely surprised. Again the officers were secured while the Indians were pretending to transact business with them. A squaw betrayed the officer at Maumee by enlisting his sympathies with a dying man outside the fort. At Michillimackinac - opposite the present Mackinaw Strait - the Indians played a game of ball in honor of the king's birthday, and the officers and soldiers of the garrison were artfully tempted to witness the scene, some even engaged in betting for the winners. The ball wras finally artfully tossed over the pickets of the fort, and the reckless tumultuous crowd followed it. Then came the terrible war-whoop, and before the English could scarcely think the fort was in the hands of the Indians.

The formidable Detroit post had been left for Pontiac to gain the glory of its victory. But he was to reap disappointment. A pretty Ojibwa maiden who was attached to G-ladwyn, the commander of the fort, went to take him some moccasins and revealed Pontiac's intricate plot for the morrow. Accordingly Gladwyn was ready when Pontiac came for a council meeting the riext day. Pontiac's deep-laid plot was foiled and he made many professions of good will toward the English. The following day, amidst throngs of his swarthy followers, Pontiac approached the fort, and, upon finding it- barred, asked the cause of his exclusion. He was told that "he might enter, but his rabble must remain without.1' With his entire being expressive of unutterable disappointment and rage the foiled warrior turned and strode alone to the river, and started with defiant speed to the village of the Ottawas. Quickly were the revengeful, exasperated feelings of the leader interpreted, and soon from off the surrounding plains scores of yelping satanic beings arose and begun preparations for their direful work of carnage and bloodshed. The war-dance was heard that night, and ere dawn the fort was attacked by the savage multitude. The Indians expected to take the fort by a single blow, but failing in this, they, although scarce of food, began preparations for a protracted siege. Indians arrived daily from the west. The besiegement was conducted for a period of eight months. This persistency on the part of the Indians is without parallel in all Indian history.

This is but an instance of the several years of bloody war begun by Pontiac. Destruction of life and property did not cease in the forts. The borders of the frontier states were the scenes of multitudes of Indian atrocities too frightful to relate.

After a time a portion of the Indians began to retire from the contest, and not long afterward the plans of Pontiac received a terrible blow. The French in Illinois had long been the secret allies of Pontiac, who had been artfully kept in the dark in regard to the English power in Illinois. A letter was sent to the commander of the principal French post in Illinois, instructing him to make known to Pontiac the full extent of the treaty between the English and French. Pontiac, upon the receipt of this news was enraged, and in company with some of his most faithful countrymen, started for the Maumee country, hoping to excite the Indians sufficiently to renew hostilities in the spring. In 1764 Pontiac, with some 400 warriors, began intercessions with the tribes in Illinois. It was at this time that Pontiac had to use threats to enlist the aid of the Illinois tribe.

By this time Gen. Gage was convinced that as long as Illinois remained virtually in the hands of the French, it would be impossible for the Indians not to expect the assistance of the French, and he therefore determined to send out a sufficient force to terminate the war. Accordingly George Croghan, a western trader, was sent with Lieut. Frazer toward the west, through Ohio. The result of this visit was a conference held in Detroit, where Pontiac had begun his satanic scheme. At this conference Pontiac not only accepted the King of England as his father, but he promised to go to Oswego the following spring and enter into a treaty with Sir Win. Johnson. Soon after this conference, ere the winter snows had fallen, Capt. .Stirling led a regiment down the Ohio and to Fort Chartres, where the English colors took the place of the old French flag.

Pontiac did not forget his promise to Croghan, and when the peaceful spring glided gently in he started for Oswego. And there, for the last time before the representatives of English sovereignty, Pontiac concluded his speech with, "I promise to keep this covenant as long as I live." From the council meeting he, with sad heart, turned westward, and for three years lived with his family in the gloom of the forest.

In 1767 the last scene in the drama of Pontiac's life was enacted. A disturbance occurred in Illinois among some French traders and some of the Illinois Indians, not far from St. Louis. Pontiac soon appeared at the place, and not long after his arrival repaired to St. Louis to see an old French friend who commanded the Spanish garrison. While there he moved about with great dignity in the full French uniform which Montcalm had presented him. lie was received quite cordially, and when Pontiac heard of an Indian social gathering at Cahokia his French friends, fearing English design, tried to prevent his going. Pontiae, however, in his usual fearless manner, boldly set forth, and was soon under the influence of liquor in the midst of the surging, drunken throng.

An English trader in the village, looking with distrust on Pontiac, resolved to work his destruction. Accordingly a Kaskaskia Indian was bribed with a barrel of whisky to slay the white man's foe. Pontiac. after participating for a time in the drunken pleasures, started for the neighboring woods, singing his medicine songs the while. In this case he was not safe within the mystic spell of his magic songs, for the lurking Illinois Indian drew near and treacherously sunk his tomahawk into Pontiac's brain. Thus perished the greatest Indian warrior that history has portrayed.

With their usual impulsiveness his friends sought to take immediate vengeance on the murderer, but the Illinois Indians protected their brother and Pontiac's followers were driven off. The Sacs, Foxes, Pottawatomies, Ottawas, and other tribes who had answered to Pontiac's command in time of war, combined in their mighty efforts to wreak vengeance on the Illinois tribe. Whole villages were destroyed, and the grassy plains of Illinois stained with Indian blood.

Pontiac's body was procured by the French commander and buried with warlike honors near the fort of St. Louis. "Neither mound nor tablet marks the burial-place of Pontiac. For a mausoleum, a city has risen above the great hero, and the race whom he hated with such burning rancor trample with unceasing footsteps over his forgotten

Wixnkbago And Black Hawk Wars

^Lfter the treaty of peace following the war of 1812, the Indians on the northwestern frontier remained in peace and friendship with the whites until 1827. The Winnebagoes, notwithstanding the fact that the Sacs and Foxes had, by the treaty of 1804, ceded to the whites the land between the Illinois and Wisconsin rivers, felt that they really owned land in the northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin. A portion of this land was subsequently retroceded to several tribes; the AVinnebagoes, however, not being mentioned in the treaty. The Indians, quarreling about the boundaries of their lands, caused the United States commissioners to make a new arrangement in 1825, admitting that the Winnebagoes had a right to some of the land.

The miners began to work the lead mines near Galena despite the remonstrances of the Winnebagoes, who claimed the land thereabout. This greatly incensed these Indians, but when they attempted to protect their property in the usual Indian manner they were promptly repulsed. More incensed than ever, some of the Winnebagoes started to get help and advice of some of their principal chiefs about Prairie du Chien. They also quite readily obtained the assistance of the Sioux, who had begun to feel hostile toward the whites on accouut of their having captured some Sioux Indians and having given them over to their Chippewa enemies. In July, 1827, some Winnebago Indians, Laving previously killed two white men, collected for plunder or murder around some boats bound for Fort Snelling, which had landed at their encampment above Prairie du Chien. The whites adroitly made the Indians drunk and were up the river out of reach ere the Indians realized what was being done. As the boats retuined down the river the crew, anticipating an attack from the Indians at this same place, armed themselves. One of the boats succeeded in getting by in the night, but the other was attacked with all vengeance by the savages. Although the boat became grounded the crew succeeded in compelling the Indians to retire from the contest. A few only of the whites were killed, but so many were wounded that it was a difficult matter for the remaining men to reach Galena.

Upon hearing of this hostile attack the residents about Galena and the state officers took prompt action, and companies and regiments were soon ready for work. Before companies from the southern part of the state could reach the scene of action, Gen. Atkinson, with some regulars, and the Galena militia under Gen. Dodge, had,*in the vicinity of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, compelled the savages to sue for peace. Several Indian chiefs were taken prisoner, among whom were Red Bird, of the Sioux tribe, and Black Hawk, of the Sac and Fox tribes. Hed Bird died in prison, but Black Hawk, with several others, were acquitted in about a year afterward.

This sudden outbreak of the Indians struck terror to the whites living in the northern part of the state. A portion of the Pottawatomies contemplated joining the Winnebagoes against the whites, and according to Gurdon S. Hubbard, anticipated an attack on Fort .Dearborn. Shabbona, the peace chief, communicated to the whites the Indians' intentions. These hostilities begun by the Winnebagoes were but a prelude to those begun. 1831, under Black Hawk.

on the Rock river. He distinguished himself in early life as a brave. In all his difficulties with the Indians it is said that he never lost a battle. "-He was distinguished for courage and for clemency to the vanquished. He was an Indian patriot, a kind husband and father, and was noted for his integrity in all his dealings with his tribe and with the Indian traders."* He was aid-de-camp to the great Tecumseh, and during the war of 1812 was in the service of the English. After the close of the trouble in 1812, Black Hawk, instead of making peace with the United States, still kept up his friendship with Canada, and accordingly cherished an implacable hate toward the Americans. He was gloomy and morose in disposition, and his annual visit to his favorite daughter's grave on the Mississippi caused gloomy and melancholy feelings. He was thus led to look back on the supposed wrongs committed by the whites, and to lift the shadowy veil of the future and see his people gradually retiring from the hunting-grounds that had been theirs so long. He saw the dreaded whites taking entire possession of the broad rolling prairies; he saw their "big canoes" gliding over the peaceful waters of the winding streams ; he heard the woodman's ax making sad havoc among the noble trees of the grand old forest, and saw the white man's houses on the site of their old villages arid over the graves of their dead. With such mingled thoughts of love, patriotism and revenge 'tis scarce a wonder that he sounded the war cry against the advancing enemy.

The Sacs and Foxes, however, had no right to the Rock River couritry, as it originally belonged to the Santeaux tribe before the incoming of these tribes from the north.

-In 1804 a treaty was made by which the Sacs sold to the United States their country on the Rock river. That portion of the Sac and Fox tribes which joined the English in the war of 1812 violated this treaty. This treaty was confirmed by that portion of the tribe which remained at peace, and in 1816, Black Hawk, with other hostile Indians, professed repentance, and, obtaining pardon, recognized the treaty of 180-1, which was re-enacted. Still another treaty was made in 1825, hoping thus to settle the hostilities among the northwest tribes. In 1830 a treaty was made with the Sacs and Foxes, in which they confirmed the former treaties and agreed to remove to the territory west of the Mississippi. According to the former of these treaties the Sacs and Foxes had the privilege of hunting on the grounds while they were the property of the United States. In 1829 portions of land around the mouth of the Rock river were sold for settlement, and soon after there was begun a series of depredations among these settlers and the Indians. Each party brought charges against the other, and probably there was trouble on both sides.

At this time the Sacs and Foxes were divided into two factions. One, the larger, was Tor peace, and was under Keokuk, who had sound judgment, and who ultimately became sole chief of the nation. Keokuk, according to the stipulations of the treaty, withdrew across the river.

In the spring of 1831, Black Hawk, who commanded the hostile faction of the tribes, declared all treaties void, and with his families, some Kickapoo and Pottawatomie allies, and three hundred warriors, recrossed the Mississippi to take possession of their former village and the hunting-grounds thereabouts.

Black Hawk claimed that the treaty of 1804 was made by some chiefs after being made drunk. He said that these chiefs, while in St. Louis seeing about some prisoners, sold their land without the knowledge of the tribe, and that they came home loaded with presents, knew they had sold some land, but could tell nothing more. But be all this as it may, Black Hawk was among those to confirm the treaty when its full purport was known. It seems, then, that it was rather tardy patriotism mingled with his hate for the Americans which caused him to recross the Mississippi river.

When Black Hawk appeared again among the whites, tearing down their fences, taking their food, ordering them away and threatening them with death, the settlers were not tardy in making complaints to Gov. Reynolds. The governor hastened to notify Gen. Gaines, of the United States army, and superintendent of Indian affairs, of the Indian invasion. Volunteers were called for and 1.600 men answered the call.

The entire force was divided into two regiments, an odd battalion and a spy battalion. Col. James D. Henry commanded the first regiment ; Col. Dan Lieb, the second ; Maj. Nath. Buckmaster, the odd battalion, and Maj. Sam'l Whiteside the spy battalion. Maj. Gen. Joseph Duncan, of the state militia, commanded the entire brigade. This was the largest military force that Illinois had ever raised, and its appearance was truly grand as it traversed with anxious speed the far-reaching prairie.

In the short space of four days the army reached Rockport, about eight miles below the mouth of Rock river, where Gen. Gaines was met. The two generals formed a plan of operations for the morrow, and in the morning the volunteers started across the country toward the Indian town, while the steamboat ascended the river. It was supposed that the battle would be fought on an island opposite the Indian town, and their preparations were made accordingly. The steamboat approached the island, firing grape and canister to find if the enemy were there. While traversing the island, the spy battalion and main "body of volunteers became confused and mixed together, but no trace of the Indians was discovered. Some time was spent in ferrying the troops over the deep and rapid stream on the other side of the island, but when the village was reached no Indians were there. Long before the army reached the place the Indians had quietly departed for the western side of the Mississippi. It has been thought that fhis movement on the part of the Indians was partially anticipated by the two generals. There was a carelessness shown in the movement about the islands that would tend to confirm such an idea, but the exact facts of the case will probably never be known. In lieu of the enemy the feeling of vengeance prompted the soldiers to attack the village itself, and it was set on fire. Soon only ashes remained of the once flourishing village.

From this place the volunteers proceeded to Rock Island, where they encamped for several days. While at Fort Armstrong, on this island, Gen. Gaines threatened to pursue the hostile Indians unless they presented themselves for a peace council. Black Hawk finally was induced to make his appearance, and in company with many other chiefs of the British* band of the Sacs, signed a treaty in which they agreed to stay on the west side of the river, and to cross it only on permission of the governor of Illinois or the president of the United States. In such manner did the British Sacs finally ratify the old treaty of 1804.

Black Hawk, like Tecumseh, had his prophet. This prophet, White Cloud, had great influence among the tribe. He was cunning and used every means in his power to gain influence. Previous to the troubles about the Rock River village, he had gone to Canada, hoping to gain the British to their interest. Upon his return he reported favorably to the Indians, and soon after their crossing to the west side of the river in 1831, a murmur of discontent ran through Black Hawk's tribe. Ever since the last treaty they had been alert for some new excuse for beginning hostilities. White Cloud's assurance that not only the British, but the Ottawas, Chippewas, Pottawatomies and

Notwithstanding the sagacity and judgment of Keokuk, which prompted his bold and eloquent speeches, "Black Hawk's warlike and revengeful nature claimed for him all the daring and malicious warriors of the nation. Black Hawk, being quite an old man at this time, was easily flattered at thus seeing so many young braves flock to him for leadership.

He, accordingly, with flve hundred of the nation's chivalry, equipped for Indian warfare, again, in 1832, started across the Mississippi river. Their deceived eyes saw before them a ready and complete rictory over the hated Americans.

After crossing the river they started to the Rock River country, expecting to continue their course up the river and gain the Pottawatomies and Winnebagoes as allies. The whites, knowing of Black Hawk's movements, were somewhat alarmed, and ere they reached their destination several couriers from Gen. Atkinson overtook the Indians, ordering them to recross the Mississippi. This they refused to do, stating that they were peacefully going to their Indian friends' ground to raise corn. Gov. Reynolds, upon becoming acquainted with the facts, immediately called for volunteers. The imminent danger to which the frontier settlers were subject caused, as in 1831, a goodly number of the state's brave and eminent men to respond to the call. In a few days' time 1,800 men met at Beardstown, the former place of rendezvous. The volunteers were organized into four regiments and a spy battalion. The first regiment was commanded by Col. DeWitt ; the second, by Col. Fry ; the third by Col. Thomas ; the fourth by Col. Thompson, arid Col. James D. Henry commanded the spy battalion. Brigadier Gen. Samuel W. Whiteside, who commanded the spy battalion in the former campaign, had charge of the entire brigade.

Gen. Whiteside, in company with Gov. Reynolds, took up his line of march April 27. Upon reaching the mouth of Rock river it was arranged that Gen. Whiteside, with volunteers, was to march up the river to Prophetstown and there await the regulars, who were to come with the provisions in keel-boats. Gen. Whiteside, however, set fire to Prophetstown and proceeded up the river to Dixon. Upon the arrival at Dixon Majors Stillman and Bailey were found with near three hundred men. These men were ready to win their laurels, and accordingly made known their desire to hazard danger. It being rumored that some hostile Indians were in the vicinity of "Old Man's Creek" now called Stillman's Run - Major Stillman was ordered to find the enemy. Soon after reaching the creek and camping for the night, a small party of Indians was descried about a mile away. Some of Stillman's men, thirsting for Indian blood, mounted their horses without orders and started in pursuit of the Indians, who retreated displaying in defiance the red flag. These brave men had not thought of the possibility of Black Hawk being near, and accordingly, when he rallied his men and started in pursuit, their valor changed rapidly to ungovernable fear and they retreated to camp with their horses on a full run. Hearing that Black Hawk was in pursuit the entire company precipitately joined in the retreat. Major Stillman tried in vain to have his men fall back and form on higher ground, but the "higher ground" was not found, and the entire company reached Dixon several at a time. Some of the boldest of the men, however, covered the retreat, fighting bravely, and eleven only of the men were killed.

The accounts given by the returning men were various. The most ludicrous was that given by a man from Kentucky, who, in a very bombastic manner, told of the wonderful mode of attack of the enemy and of the bravery of some of the men - of himself particularly. Although the retreat of Stillman's men caused a high degree of merriment for a time among the remainder of the troops, still no great blame could be laid upon Major Stillman or any of his men, as they were undisciplined and under the circumstances almost any company would have done" the same.

After this adventure a council was held in the camp at Dixon, and it was decided that the army should start toward Stillman's creek the next morning. When the volunteers arrived at the scene of the disaster of the night before, not an Indian was to be seen. Some had gone farther up the Rock river and some sought revenge on the nearest white settlers.

As soon as Shabbona, the Pottawatomie peace chief, heard of the murderous designs of Black Hawk, he hastened to inform the white settlers on Indian creek. They had had so many false alarms that the usual precaution was not taken. On May 20 a party of about seventy Indians massacred fifteen persons of the families of Messrs. Hall, Davis and Petigrew, and took two young ladies, Rachel and Silvia Hall, prisoners. The accounts given by J. W. Hall, who escaped, and by the Misses Hall - afterward Mrs. Horn and Mrs. Munson - are authentic and are rite with the horror of the massacre and the fear and suffering experienced by the two prisoners.* These young women, after a weary march of many miles, were finally bought for $2,000 worth of goods by some Winnebago chiefs, at the instigation of Mr. Gratiot. Mrs. Munson died in 1870 ; Mrs. Horn is still living in Nebraska.

General Whiteside, not finding the Indians where he expected, buried the dead found and returned to Dixon. The majority of the volunteers were now anxious to be discharged, and knowing that little could be done against the will of the men, they were first marched for a time in pursuit of the Indians and then on to Ottawa, where they were discharged.

Previous to this, however, the governor had made a call for more volunteers, and after the discharge a volunteer regiment was soon formed of the discharged men at Ottawa. Jacob Fry was elected colonel ; John Thomas, major, and James D. Henry, lieutenant-colonel. On June 15 three brigades, commanded respectively by Gen. Posey, Gen. Alexander and Gen. J. D. Henry, were formed at the place of rendezvous. The entire frontier force now amounted to over three thousand men. Soon attacks were made by Indians on Apple River fort, twelve miles from Galena, and on Fort Hamilton in the lead mines. Galena also was in imminent danger. The fears of the whites in this were soon somewhat quieted, for the Illinois forces were put into motion by June 22, and ere long were almost in the heart of the Indian country. Colonel Dement had pushed forward to Kellogg's Grove, where he, while endeavoring to find the whereabouts of the Indians, was attacked by about three hundred of them. The Indians, after losing near fifteen men, retreated under the well-aimed fire of the whites. After this battle portions of the troops were stationed at various places throughout northern Illinois, while Gen. Atkinson, accompanied by Gen. Henry's brigade, marched up Rock river toward four lakes, where he heard that Black Hawk had fortified his position for an attack. While traveling in this direction he encamped for one night at Turtle Village, a deserted town of the Winnebagoes. Frequent alarms were given that night by the sentinels, and the whole command was paraded for battle several times. The next morning the march was resumed, and at Lake Kush-ka-nong was joined by Gen. Alexander's brigade. After the surrounding country was examined in search of the enemy the entire force was marched up the Rock river to the Burnt Village, another Winnebago town, where Gen. Posey's brigade, Gen. Dodge's battalion, joined it.

During this march the scouts brought in frequent reports of Indian trails discovered. Much time was frequently spent in looking up these trails, but all to no avail. At one time the AVinnebago Indians assured the general that Black Hawk's entire force was fortified on an island opposite the Burnt Village. After examination this was proved to be another false -alarm. By this time eight weeks had been spent in search of the enemy. The volunteer force had been reduced nearly onehalf. Still the enemy were weeks in the advance, and owing to lack of provisions Gen. Atkinson thought it necessary to disperse his command for procuring supplies. Gen. Posey marched on to Fort Hamilton ; the governor went to his home at Belleville ; Henry, Alexander and Dodge went to Portage, Fox and Winnebago, while Gen. Atkinson made his headquarters at Lake Kush-ka-nong, where he remained until the volunteer general returned with supplies. An unfortunate circumstance happened to the forces bound for Fort Winnebago. The horses stampeded, and many were lost and others disabled. After reaching the fort two days were occupied in collecting food, when some Winnebago chiefs reported Black Hawk to be within thirty-five miles of Gen. Atkinson.

Gens. Alexander, Henry, and Maj. Dodge held a council, at which it was decided to inarch without orders direct upon Black Hawk. But at the time appointed to march Gen. Alexander reported his men unwilling to go, while Maj. Dodge reported his horses too much disabled by their late march. Gen. Henry was naturally indignant at such a state of affairs, and announced his intention to go alone if fifty men would follow him. Soon some mounted volunteers arrived, which augmented, somewhat, the number ready for duty. When Gen. Henry returned to his brigade he found his own men on the point of mutiny. A written protest signed by all except one of the officers was handed to the general. Gen. Henry, with the commanding sternness of a brave and complete soldier, made no other reply than to order the officers under arrest for mutiny, appointing a regiment as a guard to escort them to Gen. Atkinson. This action created a real sense of fear among the officers, and Gen. Henry consented to consult with them before the decisive step was taken. The officers very gladly returned to their duty, and from that time oji no charge could be brought against them.

Gen. Henry took up his line of march on July 15, in quest of the Indians. After three day's march they encamped upon the Rock river. Here, learning from some Winnebago Indians that Black

Hawk was further up the river, Gen. Henry resolved to make a forced march upon them the next morning, and two men were sent with dispatches to Gen. Atkinson. These men had a chief, Little Thunder, with them as guide, and when eight miles from camp came upon the fresh trail of the enemy. The Indian guide was terrified and started back without permission. Upon reaching the camp he was about to effect the escape of the other Indians when they were stopped and taken to Gen. Henry's tent. Here they confessed that they had been deluding the army, hoping to give the Indians more time for escape. Gen. Henry succeeded in getting from them all they knew of Black Hawk's movements. The next morning other dispatches were sent to Gen. Atkinson, and the army, dispensing with everything that was not absolutely necessaiy, was ready for a forced march. Notwithstanding that upon the afternoon of the first day a violent storm overtook them, the army inarched cheerfully forward, inspired by the sight of the fresh trail to renewed energy. After four and a half days of weary marching, the advance guard came upon the rear of the retreating enemy. The Indians seemingly began to make feints of forming for battle, hoping thus to gain time. The Indians were not overtaken for three or four hours after they were first seen. The advance guard was fired upon by the Indians, but they were soon caused to retreat by a battalion and two regiments charging upon them. The fight was kept up for some time during their retreat until dark. The next morning when Gen. Henry advanced to the Wisconsin, he found that the Indians had all crossed it and escaped to the mountains.

On account of lack of provisions Gen. Henry resolved to fall back to Blue Mounds. Arriving at this place he found Gen. Atkinson with the regulars and Alexander and Posey's brigades. It became evident soon to Gen. Henry and his men that the regular officers and Gen. Atkinson did not enjoy Henry's success. They envied him. After a few days of preparation the army was again put on the inarch, Henry being placed in the rear to mind the baggage. Henry and his men bore this insult with grave dignity.

On the morning of the fourth day after crossing the Wisconsin the advance reached the Mississippi bluffs. When within about three or four miles of the camp the army was attacked by about twenty-eight Indians. They adroitly retreated up the river, followed by the entire army except Henry's brigade that was left without orders. After a council among his officers, Henry hastily concluded to continue on the main trail. Upon arriving at the foot of a bluff' Henry halted and the horses were left. When the advance men came within sight of the river they were tired upon by the Indians. Henry came up with the main body and a general battle ensued. The fifty advance Indians retreated upon the others and in the surprise all was confusion. The Indians were driven from place to place and finally, at the point of the bayonet, were forced into the river, some reaching an island in the river. By this time Gen. Atkinson with the other part of the men arrived. Gen. Atkinson soon formed the regulars and Dodge's battalion for an attack upon the island. Wading through the deep water a tierce battle began on the island. The Indian loss here was very great. A number of the Indians had escaped across the river ere the action began. Black Hawk, who led the twenty that Gen. Atkinson followed, escaped up the river. Black Hawk and his party were captured while on the Wisconsin river by some Winnebago chiefs, who brought them to Prairie du Chien and delivered them up to the United States Indian agent there. Gen. Atkinson, with the regulars, went to Prairie du Chien in a steamboat, while the volunteers went by land. Here Gen. Scott was met, who had been sent from the east to take chief command in the war. While on the way his army was afflicted with Asiatic cholera, so that he did not reach the Mississippi until the decisive battle was fought. Gov. Ford considers Henry tl ic hero of the entire war. From Prairie du Chien the volunteers were sent to Dixon, where they were discharged. The prisoners were sent down to Rock Island, thence on to Jefferson barracks. A treaty was here made with the Sacs and Foxes by which the United States gained a large portion of the territory between the Des Moines and Turkey rivers in Iowa. From Jefferson barracks the prisoners were taken to Washington. They were also taken to Baltimore, Philadelphia, Xew York and other cities, that they might see the power and number of the whites. They were returned to their own country in June, 1833. Black Hawk died in 1840, at the age of eighty, and was buried by his people on the banks of the Mississippi.

Indian Manners And Customs. '

The Indians depended, for their sustenance, upon hunting, fishing, and primitive tilling of the soil. They knew nothing about herding animals. They had but few domestic animals, the principal being the horse and the dog. They pursued their game with arrows tipped with horn, pointed stone, or some similar substance. Fish were taken in nets or witli the spear. Their meat was preserved by smoking. The fruit and berry season was a happy time for them and the young girls went joyfully forth to gather the luscious food. Nearly all the Indians of America cultivated the soil. The articles cultivated were few : maize, the tobacco plant, the squash and the bean, complete the list. Their women did the farming, and often, after their stores were collected, all was squandered in some great festivities. They made but little preparation for the future, thus showing their lack of thriftiness.

Everyone has heard of the hospitality of the Indian. A stranger may enter his cabin in the day or in the night, be freely entertained, and no questions, as to why he came or when he will go, are asked. An Indian will often give up his own resting-place that his guest may be comfortable.

The Indians are sociable creatures. Their living together, many families in one cabin, and the collecting of houses into towns, proves this statement. Polygamy was allowed, but there was an unwritten law in regard to who should marry. An Indian could not marry his own kinfolks, those who used the same totem or family symbol, but his wives could bear the closest relationship. The marriage ceremony consisted of the groom making a few presents to the bride's father. If the presents were accepted the contract was complete, and for a time the husband lodged with his wife's family. Divorces were allowed, and the marriage tie could be severed as easily as it was made. When divorces occurred, the mother, of necessity, claimed all the children. If a mother died, the innocent little babe shared her grave. Thus she alone had care of the babe in death even as in life. No restraint whatever was put upon the Indian children. They, by exposure, became hardy. The Indian boy learns to be courageous by hearing the daring tales of Indian exploits told around the wigwam fire. The bow and arrow are among his first playthings. His ear early hears the war song, and its purport soon is recognized. With exquisite joy he looks forward to joining, for the first time, in the war-dance. While the Indian boy, from the example of his elders, thus becomes a warrior, and learns to be proud of idleness, in like manner the girl learns to be a drudge. The wife is but a slave.

The Indian's idea of a Supreme Being is very indefinite. A spirit lies in everything ; he recognizes it in every action and in every object. Yet they believed in the Great Spirit. It is said that the Illinois worshiped a god under the name IhuiHou, and this they found in every animal. The medicine-man boasted of a power over the spirits, and was a sort of magician. The Indian had great faith in his subverting every evil and curing all ills.

The waking Indian recognized his dreams as glimpses into the invisible world. It was thus he received messages from his god. They professed no fear of death ; they believed the dead still lived, and therefore buried with them their earthly belongings. The superstitions among the different Indians of America are various. Some of the southern tribes, upon the death of a lord or chief, killed two finely formed Indians that they might act as servants to the lord of shadows and death.

Bancroft quotes from Brebeuf, a Jesuit missionary, the substance of a statement in regard to the living sometimes visiting the remote region of the shadows. Orpheus-like, a brother went in search of his Eurydice, in this case a sister, and but for his uncontrollable curiosity would have secured her from the society of the dead and restored her to her family. Festivals were often held in honor of the dead. Some of the tribes every few years gathered and cleansed the bones from their various burial-places, and amid their most .solemn ceremonies buried them in a common grave.

The red man imitates rather than invents. He equals the white man in the acuteness of the senses, but his moral and reasoning faculties are inferior.

The Indians had no musical genius among them equal to a Mozart, nor did they have a Raphael as an artist ; but all recognized music, and danced ofttimes with grace to their wild melodies, and the decoration on their clothing and bodies was harmonious and sometimes elegant. "We call them cruel, yet they never invented the thumb-screw, or the boot, or the rack, or broke on the wheel, or exiled bands of their nations for opinion's sake ; and protected the monopoly of the medicine-man by the gallows, or the block, or by fire. There is not a quality belonging to the white man which did not also belong to the American savage ; there is not among the aborigines a rule of language, a custom, an institution, which, when considered in its principles, has not a counterpart among their conquerors. The unity of the human race is established by the exact correspondence between their respective powers ; the Indian has not one more, has not one less, than the white man; the map of the faculties is for both identical."

In this great age of improvement the Indian, too, has caught the spirit. The Indians of to-day are greatly in advance of those the whites first found here. The gun with modern improvements has in a measure replaced the deadly arrow. The white man's ax and knife soon pushed their primitive counterparts into the background. Among some of the tribes the water of the stream has been made to subserve their purpose, and water-mills have taken the place of the old-time stone mortar.

The old plan of writing hieroglyphics on pieces of bark has in a degree been abolished, and some of the Indians of to-day make use of the printing-press. Instead of traveling mile after mile of forest and prairie for all their game, herds and flocks are now kept by them. They have learned the use of the plow, and their agriculture is more extensive. The idea of one ruling Great Spirit is now prevalent in every Indian wigwam. The felicity of the white man's home-life has been noised abroad, and the Indian is beginning to cherish his one wife as his equal. When one remembers the slowness with which the peasantry of Europe have advanced, even when surrounded by that country's greatest intellect, and then reflects upon the length of time the American Indian has been in contact with the white man's intellectual culture, he is compelled to pause and give a tribute to the red man, confessing that he, in spite of all the war of words to the contrary, deserves a good shai'e of' credit for his position of to-day.