Vermilion County, Illinois - Pontiac's War to Recover the Northwest from the English, 1879

Pontiac's War to Recover the Northwest from the English

After the surrender of Canada to the English by the Marquis Vaudreuil, Sir Jeffery Amherst, commander-in-chief of His Majesty's forces in North America, ordered Major Robert Rogers to ascend the lakes and take possession of the western forts. On the 13th of September Rogers, with two hundred of his rangers, left Montreal. After weeks of weary traveling, they reached the mouth of Cuyahoga River, the present site of Cleveland, on the 7th of November. Here they were met by Pontiac. a celebrated Ottawa chieftain, who asked Rogers what his intentions were, and how he dared enter that country without his permission. Rogers replied that the French had been defeated ; that Canada was surrendered into the hands of the British ; and that he was on his way to take possession of Detroit, Mackinaw, Miamis and Ouitanon. He also proposed to restore a general peace to white men and Indians alike. u Pontiac listened with attention, but only replied that he should stand in the path of the English until morning.'' In the morning he returned, and allowed the English to advance. He said there would be no trouble so long as they treated him with deference and respect.

Embarking on the 12th of November, they arrived in a few days at Maumee Bay, at the western end of Lake Erie. The western Indians, to the number of four hundred, had collected at the mouth of Detroit River. They were determined to massacre the entire party under Rogers. It afterward appeared that they were acting under the influence of the French commandant at Detroit. Rogers prevailed upon Pontiac to use his influence to induce the warlike Indians to disband. After some parleying, Pontiac succeeded, and the road was open to Detroit.

Before his arrival at Detroit Rogers had sent in advance Lieutenant Brehm with a letter to Captain Beletre. the commandant, informing the latter that his garrison was included in the surrender of Canada. Beletre wholly disregarded the letter. He declared he thought it was a trick of the English, and that thev intended to obtain possession of his fortress by treachery. He made use of everv endeavor to excite the Indians against the English. "He displayed upon a pole, before the veiling multitude, the effigy of a crow pecking a man's head, the crow representing himself, and the head, observes Rogers, 'being meant for my own.'

Rogers then sent forward Captain Campbell "with a copy of the capitulation and a letter from the Marquis Yaudreuil, directing that the place should be given up in accordance with the articles agreed upon between him and General Amherst." The French commandant could hold out no longer, and, much against his will, was compelled to deliver the fortress to the English. The lilies of France were lowered from the flagstaff, and their place was taken by the cross of St. George. Seven hundred Indian warriors and their families, all of whom had aided the French by murdering innocent women and children on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and New York, greeted the change with demoniacal yells of apparent pleasure ; but concealed in their breasts was a natural dislike for the English. Dissembling for the present, they kept their hatred to themselves, for the late successes of British arms had awed them into silence.

It was on the 29th of November, 1760, that Detroit was given over to the English. The garrison, as prisoners of war. were taken to Philadelphia.

Rogers sent an officer up the Maumee, and from thence down the Wabash, to take possession of the posts at the portage and at Ouiatanon. Both of these objects were attained without any difficulty.

On account of the lateness of the season the detachment which had started for Mackinaw returned to Detroit, and all efforts against the posts on the upper lakes were laid aside until the following season. In that year the English took possession of Mackinaw, Green Bay and St. Joseph. The French still retained possession of Yincennes and Fort Chartes.f

It always was the characteristic policy of the French to render the savages dependent upon them, and with that design in view they had earnestly endeavored to cultivate among the Indians a desire for European goods. By prevailing upon the Indians to throw aside hides and skins of wild beasts for clothing of European manufacture, to discontinue the use of their pottery for cooking utensils of iron, to exchange the bow and arrow and stone weapons for the gun, the knife and hatchet of French manufacture, it was thought that in the course of one or two generations they would become dependent upon their French neighbors for the common necessaries of life. When this change in their customs had taken place, by simply withholding the supply of ammunition they could coerce the savages to adopt any measures that the French government saw fit to propose. The policy of the French was not to force, but to lead, the savages into subjection. They told the barbarians that they were the children of the great king, who had sent his people among them to preserve them from their implacable enemies, the English. Flattering them, asking their advice, bestowing upon them presents, and, above all, showing them respect and deference, the French gained the good will of the savages in a degree that no other European nation ever equaled. After the surrender of the western posts all this was changed. The accustomed presents formerly bestowed upon them were withheld. English traders robbed, bullied and cheated them. English officers treated them with rudeness and contempt. But, most of all, the steady advance of the English colonists over the mountains, occupying their lands, driving away their game, and forcing them to retire farther west, alarmed and exasperated the aborigines to the limit of endurance. "The wrongs and neglect the Indians felt were inflamed by the French cotireurs de hois and traders. They had every motive to excite the tribes against the English, such as their national rancor, their religious antipathies, and most especially the fear of losing the profitable 'Indian trade." Every effort was made to excite and inflame the slumbering passions of the tribes of the Northwest. Secret councils were held, and different plans for obtaining possession of the western fortresses were discussed. The year after Rogers obtained Detroit there was, in the summer, an outbreak, but it was easilv quelled, being only local. The next year, also, there was another disturbance, but it, like the former, did not spread,

During these two years one Indian alone, - Pontiac, - comprehended the situation. He read correctly the signs and portents of the times. He well knew that English supremacy on the North American continent meant the destruction of his race. He saw the great difference between the English and the French. The former were settlers, the latter traders. The French came to the far west for their beaver skins and peltries, while the English would only be satisfied with their lands. Pontiac soon arrived at the conclusion that unless the ceaseless flow of English immigration was stopped, it would not be many decades before the Indian race would be driven from the face of the earth. Well has time justified this opinion of the able Indian chieftain !

had doubts of final success. To encourage him, tbe French traders informed bim " that the English had stolen Canada while their common father was asleep at Versailles ; that he would soon awaken and again wrrest his domains from the intruders ; that even now large French armies were on their way up the St. Lawrence and Mississippi rivers." Pontiac believed these tales, for let it be borne in mind that this was previous to the treaty of Paris, and late in the autumn of 1762 he sent emissaries with black wampum and the red tomahawk to the villages of the Ottawas, Pottawatomies, Sacs, Foxes, Menominees, Illinois, Miamis, Shawnees, Delawares, Wyandots, Kickapoos and Senecas. These emissaries were instructed to inform the various tribes that the English had determined to exterminate the northwestern Indians ; to accomplish this they intended to erect numerous fortifications in the territory named ; and also that the English had induced the southern Indians to aid them.* To avert these inimical designs of the English, the messengers of Pontiac proposed that on a certain day all the tribes, by concerted action, should seize all the English posts and then attack the whole English border.

Pontiac' s plan was contrived and developed with wonderful secrecy, and all of a sudden the conspiracy burst its fury simultaneously over all the forts held by the British west of the Alleghanies. By stratagem or forcible assault every garrison west of Pittsburgh, excepting Detroit, was captured.

Fort St. Joseph, on the river of that name, in the present state of Michigan, was captured by the Pottawatomies. These emissaries of Pontiac collected about the fort on the 23d of May, 1763, and under the guise of friendship effected an entrance within the palisades, when they suddenly turned upon and massacred the whole garrison, except the commandant, Ensign Slussee and three soldiers, whom they made prisoners and sent to Detroit.

The Ojibbeways effected an entry within the defenses of Fort Mackinaw, the gate being left open while the Indians were amusing the officer and soldiers with a game of ball. In the play the ball was knocked over within the palisade. The players, hurrying through the gates, seemingly intent on regaining the ball, seized their knives and guns from beneath the blankets of their squaws, where they had been purposely concealed, and commenced an indiscriminate massacre, f

* The Chickasaws and Cherokees were at that time, though on their own responsibility, waging war aginst some of the tribes of the northwest.

Ensign Holmes, who was in command at Fort Miami/' learned that to the Miamis in the vicinity of his post was allotted the destruction of his garrison. Holmes collected the Indians in an assembly, and charged them with forming a conspiracy against his post. They confessed ; said that they were influenced by hostile Indians, and promised to relinquish their designs. The village of Pontiac was within a short distance of the post, and some of his immediate followers doubtless attended the assembly. Holmes supposed he had partially allayed their irritation, as appears from a letter written ftom him to Major Gladwyn.f

On the 27th of May a young Indian squaw, who was the mistress of Holmes, requested him to visit a sick Indian woman who lived in a wigwam near at hand. "Having confidence in the girl, Holmes followed her out of the fort." Two Indians, who were concealed behind the hut, as he approached it. fired and "stretched him lifeless on the ground." The sergeant rushed outside of the palisade to learn the cause of the firing. He was immediately seized by the Indians. The garrison, who by this time had become thoroughly alarmed, and had climbed upon the palisades, was ordered to surrender by one Godefroy, a Canadian. They were informed, if they submitted their lives would be spared, otherwise they all would be massacred. Having lost their officers and being in great terror, they threw open the gate and gave themselves up as prisoners. According to tradition, the garrison was afterward massacred.:}:

Fort Ouiatanon was under the command of Lieut. Jenkins, who had no suspicion of any Indian troubles, and on the 1st of June, when he was requested by some of the Indians to visit them in their cabins near by, he unhesitatingly complied with the request. Upon his entering the hut lie was immediately seized by the Indian warriors. Through various other stratagems of a similar nature several of the soldiers were also taken. Jenkins was then told to have the soldiers in the fort surrender. "For," said the Indians, "should your men kill one of our braves, we shall put you all to death."

t Since my Last Letter to You, wherein I Acquainted You of the Bloody Belt being in this Village, I have made all the search I could about it, and have found it not to be True; Whereon I Assembled all the chiefs of this Nation, & after a long and troublesome Spell with them, I Obtained the Belt, with a Speech, as You will Receive Enclosed; This affair is very timely Stopt, and I hope the News of a Peace will put a Stop to any further Troubles with these Indians, who are the Principal Ones of Setting Mischief on Foot. I send you the Belt, with this Packet, which I hope You will Forward to the General.

Pontiao'S Failure

Jenkins thinking that resistance would be useless, ordered the remaining soldiers to deliver the fort to the Indians. During the night the Indians resolved to break their plighted word, and massacre all their prisoners. Two of the French residents, M. M. Maigonville and Lorain, gave the Indians valuable presents, including wampum, brandy, etc., and thus preserved the lives of the English captives. Jenkins, in his letter to Major Gladwyn. commandant at Detroit, states that the Weas were not favorably inclined toward Pontiac's designs ; but being coerced by the surrounding tribes, they undertook to carry out their part of the programme. Well did they succeed. Lieut. Jenkins, with the other prisoners, were, within a few days afterward, sent across the prairies of Illinois to Fort Chartres.

Detroit held out, though regularly besieged by Pontiac in person, for more than fifteen months, when, at last, the suffering garrison was relieved by the approach of troops under Gen. Bradstreet. In the meantime Pontiac confederates, wearied and disheartened by the protracted struggle, longed for peace. Several tribes abandoned the declining fortune of Pontiac ; and finally the latter gave up the contest, and retired to the neighborhood of Fort Miamis. Here he remained for several months, when he went westward, down the Wabash and across the prairies to Fort Chartres. The latter fort remained in possession of a French officer, not having been as yet surrendered to the English, the hostility of the Indians preventing its delivery ; and by agreements of the two governments, France and England, it was left in charge of the veteran St. Ange.

The English having acquired the territory herein considered, by conquest and treaty, from France, renewed their efforts to reclaim authority over it from its aboriginal inhabitants. To effect this object, they now resort to conciliation and diplomacy. They sent westward George Croghan.'"

After closing a treaty with the Indians at Fort Pitt, Croghan started on his mission on the 15th of May 1765, going down the Ohio in two bateaux. His movements were known to the hostile

* Croghan was an old trader who had spent his life among the Indians, and was versed in their language, ways and habits of thought, and who well knew how to flatter and cajole them. Besides this, Croghan enjoyed the advantage of a personal acquaintance with many of the chiefs and principal men of the Wabash tribes, who had met him while trading at Pickawillany and other places where he had trading establishments. Among the Miami, Wea and PianUashaw bands Croghan had many Indian friends whose attachments toward him were very warm. He was a veteran, up to all the arts of the Indian council house, and had in years gone by conducted many important treaties between the authorities of New York and Pennsylvania with the Iroquois, Delawares and Shawnees. In the war for the fur trade Croghan suffered severely; the French captured his traders, confiscated his goods, and bankrupted his fortune.

tribes. A war party of eighty Kickapoos and Mascoutins, " spirited up " to the act by the French traders at Ouiatanon, as Croghan says in his Journal, left the latter place, and captured Croghan and his party at daybreak on the 8th of June, in the manner narrated in a previous chapter.* He was carried to Vincennes, his captors conducting him a devious course through marshes, tangled forests and small prairie, to the latter place. f

After Croghan had procured wearing apparel this captors had stripped him well-nigh naked) and purchased some horses he crossed the Wabash, and soon entered the great prairie which he describes in extracts we have already taken from his journal. His route was up through Crawford, Edgar and Vermilion counties, following the old traveled trail running along the divide between the Embarrass and the Wabash, and which was a part of the great highway leading from Detroit to Kaskaskia ; £ crossed the Vermilion River near Danville, thence along the trail through Warren county, Indiana. Croghan, still a prisoner in charge of his captors, reached Ouiatonon on the afternoon of the 23d of June.§ Here the Weas, t Croghan, in his Journal, says: " I found Vincennes a village of eighty or ninety French families, settled on the east side of the river, being one of the finest situations that can be found. The French inhabitants hereabouts are an idle, lazy people, a parcel of renegadoes from Canada, and are much worse than the Indians. They took secret pleasure at our misfortune, and the moment we arrived they came to the Indians, exchanging trifles for their valuable plunder. Here is likewise an Indian village of Piankashaws, who were much displeased with the party that took me, telling them that 'our and your chiefs are gone to make peace, and you have begun war, for which our women and children will have reason to cry.' Port Vincent is a place of great consequence for trade, being a fine hunting country all along the Wabash."

X That part of the route from Kaskaskia east, from the earliest settlement of Illinois and Indiana, was called "the old Vincennes trace." "This trace," says Gov. Reynolds, in his Pioneer History of Illinois, p. 79, "was celebrated in Illinois. The Indians laid it out more than one hundred and fifty years ago. It commenced at Detroit, thence to Ouiatonon, on the Wabash, thence to Vincennes and thence to Kaskaskia. It was the Appian way of Illinois in ancient times. It is yet (in 1852) visible in many places between Kaskaskia and Vincennes." It was also visible for years after the white settlements began, between the last place, the Vermilion and Ouiatonon, on the route described. - [Authok.

§ Croghan says of Ouiatonon that there were " about fourteen French families living in the fort, which stands on the north side of the river; that the Kickapoos and Mascoutins, whose warriors had taken us, live nigh the fort, on the same side of the river, where they have two villages, and the Ouicatonons or Wawcottonans [as Croghan variously spells the name of the WeasJ have a village on the south side of the river." "On the south side of the Wabash runs a high bank, in which are several very fine coal mines, and behind this bank is a very large meadow, clear for several miles." The printer made a mistake in setting up Croghan's manuscript, or else Croghan himself committed an unintentional error in his diary in substituting the word south for north in describing the side of the river on which the appearances of coal banks are found. The only locality on the banks of the Wabash, above the Vermilion, where the carboniferous shales resembling coal are exposed is on the west, or north bank, of the river, about four miles above Independence, at a place known as "Block Rock,''1 which, says Prof. Collett, in his report on the geology of Warren county, Indiana, published in the Geological Survey of Indiana for 1873, pp. 224-5, " is a notable and romantic feature in the river scenery." "A precipitous or overhanging cliff exhibits an almost sheer descent of a from the opposite side of the river, took great interest in Mr. Croghan, and were deeply "-concerned at what had happened. They charged the Kickapoos and Mascoutins to take the greatest care of him, and the Indians and white men captured with him, until their chiefs should arrive from Fort Chartres, whither they had gone, some time before, to meet him, and who were necessarily ignorant of his being captured on his way to the same place." From the 4th to the 8th of July Croghan held conferences with the Weas, Piankeshaws, Kickapoos and Mascoutins, in which, he says, "I was lucky enough to reconcile those nations to His Majesty's interests, and obtained their consent to take possession of the posts in their country which the French formerly possessed, and they offered their services should any nation oppose our taking such possession, all of which they confirmed by four large pipes. "* On the 11th a messenger arrived^ from Fort Chartres requesting the Indians to take Croghan and his party thither ; and as Fort Chartres was the place to which he had originally designed going, he desired the chiefs to get ready to set out with him for that place as soon as possible. On the loth the chiefs from "the Miamis" came in and renewed their "ancient friendship with His Majesty." On the 18th Croghan, with his party and the chiefs of the Miami and other tribes we have mentioned, forming an imposing procession, started off across the country toward Fort Chartres. On the way (neither Croghan1 s official report or his private journal show the place) they met the great "Pontiac himself, together with the deputies of the Iroquois, Delawares and Shawnees,f who had gone on around to Fort Chartres with Capt.

hundred and forty feet to the Wabash, at its foot. The top is composed of yellow, red, brown or black conglomerate sandrock, highly ferruginous, and in part pebbly. At the base of the sandrock, where it ioins upon the underlying carbonaceous and pyritous shales are 'pot' or 'rock-houses,' which so constantly accompany this formation in southern Indiana. Some of these, of no great height, have been tunneled back under the cliff to a distance of thirty or forty feet by force of the ancient river once flowing at this level." The position, in many respects, is like Starved Rock, on the Illinois, where La Salle built Fort St. Louis, and commands a fine view of the Wea plains, across the river eastward, and, before the recent growth of timber, of an arm of the Grand Prairie to the westward. The stockade fort and trading-post of Ouiatonon has often been confounded with the Wea villages, which were strung for several miles along the margin of the prairie, near the river, between Attica and La Fayette, on the south or east side of the river; and some writers have mistaken it for the village of Kethtip-e-ca-nak, situated on the north bank of the Wabash River, near the mouth of the Tippecanoe. The fort was abandoned as a military post after its capture from the British by the Indians. It was always a place of considerable trade to the English, as well as the French. Thomas Hutchins, in his Historical and Topographical Atlas, published in 1778, estimates " the annual amount of skins and furs obtained at Ouiatonon at forty thousand dollars."

t These last-named Indian deputies, with Mr. Frazer, had gone down the Ohio with Croghan, and thence on to Fort Chartres. Not hearing anything from Croghan, or knowing what had become of him, Pontiac and these Indian deputies, on learning that Croghan was at Ouiatanon, set out for that place to meet him.

Frazer. The whole party, with deputies from the Illinois Indians, now returned to Ouiatanon, and there held another conference, in which were settled all matters with the Illinois Indians. "Pontiac and the Illinois deputies agreed to everything which the other tribes had conceded in the previous conferences at Ouiatanon, all of which was ratified with a solemn formality of pipes and belts."*

Here. then, upon the banks of the Wabash at Ouiatonon, did the Indian tribes, with the sanction of Pontiac solemnly surrender possession of the northwest territory to the accredited agent of Great Britain. f Croghan and his party, now swollen to a large body by the accession of the principal chiefs of the several nations, set out "for the Miamis, and traveled the whole way through a fine rich bottom, alongside the Ouabache, arriving at Eel River on the 27th. About six miles up this river they found a small village of the Twightwee, situated on a very delightful spot of ground on the bank of the river.'' '^ Croghan's private journal continues: "July 28th, 29th, 30th and 31st we traveled still alongside the Eel River, passing through fine clear woods and some good meadows, though not so large as those we passed some days before. The country is more overgrown with woods, the soil is sufficiently rich, and well watered with springs."

On the 1st of August they "arrived at the carrying place between the River Miamis and the Ouabache, which is about nine miles long in dry seasons, but not above half that length in freshets." "Within a mile of the Twightwee village." says Croghan, "I was met bv the chiefs of that nation, who received us verv kindly. Most part of these Indians knew me, and conducted me to their village, where they immediately hoisted an English flag that / had formerly given them at Fort Pitt. The next day tiiey held a council, after which they gave me up all the English prisoners they had, and expressed the pleasure it gave them to see [that] the unhappy differences which had embroiled the several nations in a war with their brethren, the English, were now so near a happy conclusion, and that peace was established in their country. "§ t It is true that Pontiac, with deputies of all the westward tribes, followed Croghan to Detroit, where another conference took place; but this was only a more formal ratification of the surrender which the Indians declared they had already made of the at Ouiatonon.

J The Miami Indian name of this village was Ke-na-pa-com-a-qua. Its French name was A l'Anguille, or Eel River town. The Miami name of Eel River was Kinna-peei-kuoh Sepe, or Water Snake (the Indians call the eel a water-snake fish) River. The village was situated on the north bank of Eel River, about six miles from Logansport. It was scattered along the river for some three miles.

canoes. "About ninety miles, continues the journal, from the Miamis or Twightwee we came to where a large river, that heads in a large Hick,' falls into the Miami River; this they call 'The Forks.' The Ottawas claim this country and hunt here.* This nation formerly lived at Detroit, but are now settled here on account of the richness of the country, where game is always to be found in plenty."

From Defiance Croghan's party were obliged to drag their canoes several miles, "on account of the riffs which interrupt the navigation," at the end of which they came to a village of Wyandottes, who received them kindly. From thence they proceeded in their canoes t<> the mouth of the Maumee. Passing several large bays and a number of rivers, they reached the Detroit River on the 10th of August, and Detroit on the following morning. f

As for Pontiac, his fate was tragical. lie was fond of the French, and often visited the Spanish post at St. Louis, whither many of his old friends had gone from the Illinois side of the river. One day in 1767, as is supposed, he came to Mr. St. Ange (this veteran soldier of France still remained in the country), and said he was going over to Cahokia to visit the Kaskaskia Indians. . St. Ange endeavored to dissuade him from it, reminding him of the little friendship existing between him and the British. Pontiac' s answer was : "Captain, I am a man. I know how to fight. I have always fought openly. They will not murder me, and if any one attacks me as a brave man,

1765: "The Twightwee village is situated on both sides of a river called St. Joseph's. This river, where it falls into the Miami River, about a quarter of a mile from this place, is one hundred yards wide, on the east side of which stands a stockade fort somewhat ruinous.'1'' The Indian village consists of about forty or fifty cabins, besides nine or ten French houses, a runaway colony from Detroit during the late Indian war; they were concerned in it, and being afraid of punishment came to this post, where they have ever since spirited up the Indians against the English. All the French residing here are a lazy, indolent people, fond of breeding mischief, and they should not be -suffered to remain. The country is pleasant, the soil rich and well watered."

*The place referred to is the mouth of the Auglaize, often designated as "The Forks " in many of the early accounts of the country. It may be noted that Croghan, like nearly all other early travelers, overestimates distances.

f Croghan describes Detroit as a large stockade "inclosing about eighty houses. It stands on the north side of the river on a high bank, and commands a very pleasant prospect for nine miles above and below the fort. The country is thick settled with French. Their plantations are generally laid out about three or four acres in breadth on the river, and eighty acres in depth; the soil is good, producing plenty of grain. All the people here are generally poor wretches, and consist of three or four hundred French families, a lazy, idle people, depending chiefly on the savages for their subsistence. Though the land, with little labor, produces plenty of grain, they scarcely raise as much as will supply their wants, in imitation of Indians, whose manners and customs they have entirely adopted, and cannot subsist without them. The men, women and children speak the Indian tongue perfectly well." At the conclusion of the lengthy conferences with the Indians, in which all matters were "settled to their satisfaction," Croghan set out from Detroit for Niagara, coasting along the north shore of Lake Erie in a birch canoe, arriving at the latter place on the 8th of October.

I am his match." Pontiac went over the river, was feasted, got drunk, and retired to the' woods to sing medicine songs. In the meanwhile, an English merchant named Williamson bribed a Kaskaskia Indian with a barrel of ruin and promises of a greater reward if he would take Pontiac's life. Pontiac was struck with a jxi-kama-gon - tomahawk, and his skull fractured, causing death. This murder aroused the vengeance of all the Indian tribes friendly to Pontiac, and brought about the war resulting in the almost total extermination of the Illinois nation. He was a remarkably tine-looking man, neat in his person, and tasty in dress and in the arrangement of his ornaments. His complexion is said to have approached that of the whites." St. Ange, hearing of Pontiac' s death, kindly took charge of the body, and gave it a decent burial near the fort, the site of which is now covered by the city of St. Louis. '"Xeither mound nor tablet," says Francis Parkman. "marked the burialplace of Pontiac. For a mausoleum a city has arisen above the forest hue, and the race whom he hated with such burning rancor trample with unceasing footsteps over his forgotten grave."

*I. N. Nicollet's Report, etc., p. 81. Mr. Nicollet received his information concerning Pontiac from Col. Pierre Chouteau, of St. Louis, and Col. Pierre Menard, of Kaskaskia, who were personally acquainted with the facts.