Elkhart County, Indiana - Chapter 6: Schools of the County, 1916

Chapter 6: Schools of the County

Taxing Non-Residents for the Schools - The County's First Seat of Learning - Captain Beane and Other Pioneer Teachers - Hon. E. M. Chamberlain - School Centers Outside Goshen and Elkhart - Mrs. Chauncey Hascall's Recollections - Professor Myers on "The Log Seminaries" - Joel P. Hawks Describes Education at Waterford - The Middlebury Seminary - Founding of the Township System - - Explaining the Law to the People - Difficulties in the Way of Taxation^ - Fixing a Teaching Standard - Consolidation OF Common School Fund - Township Libraries Organized - General Development of the System - Founding OF Teachers' Institutes - Education of Colored Children - County Superintendency Created - Teachers Required to Be Adaptable - Uniformity of Methods and Text Books - The Teachers' Institutes of Today - Illustr.-\tive Extracts from Programmes - The Old Country Schoolhouse and the Centralized Schools of Today - Introduction of Agricultural Science, Manual Training and Domestic Science - The Present County System of Education - List of Superintendents - Statistics Showing Present Status of Schools.

For a quarter of a century after the first settlers of Elkhart County occupied the fertile lands in the valleys of the Big and Little Elkhart rivers, and in the beautiful and productive Elkhart Prairie, which stretched between, the increasing population of the central and eastern sections struggled, often unsuccessfully, to give the children an education befitting ambitious, intelligent and practical Americans. During that period there was nothing which, by the most painful stretch of the imagination, could be called a county-broad system founded upon the township unit. The schools and their teachings were crude and only uniform in that it was considered useless and foolish to go beyond the drilling of the pupil mind in any branch of learning outside reading, writing, spelling and arithmetic. Both men and women taught simply to pick up a few needful dollars - the males usually as stepping stones to either medicine or the law, and often as a means of enabling them to preach the gospel and support their families at the same time. Everybody was poor and struggling in those days, and no blame was attached to actual residents for the poor showing made by the schools.

quent liberality or financial ability of the neighborhood settlers. This was especially true of the districts east of the Big Elkhart River which were first settled. The lands west of that waterway were chiefly held by non-residents until the early '40s, when the pioneers who were engaged in actual development commenced to vigorously protest against slaving to increase the value of lands which were held by investors comfortably housed in Ohio, Pennsylvania or the farther East. The remedy for the imposition was successfully applied, and is described by P. M. Henkel, who came from Southern Ohio about the time it was devised, in 1843, and was auditor of the county during the period when the basis of the present township system of education was being laid. He says: "In the early '40s much of the western portion of the county was still in a state of nature. Large bodies of land were held by nonresidents with the hope that by the labors of the pioneers they would become valuable. That part of the county was then but sparsely settled. True the Walburns, the Sheetses, the McCoys, the Pippengers and the Ulerys had penetrated the forest, built their cabins, felled the trees and opened the roads, to be followed by others who should take up the work after them. For the time being they were willing to endure all the privations and hardships incident to pioneer life for the benefit of their successors.

"Dr. E. W. H. Ellis, then auditor of the county, conceived the idea of compelling the non-resident landowners to contribute by the way of taxation to the building of roads and schoolhouses. For this purpose he induced the Legislature to pass a law by which he could assess one and one-fourth cents on each acre of land for road purposes. The citizens had the privilege of working out the tax, while the non-residents had to pay the money. This money when collected was returned to the township from which it came, where it was applied to the purpose for which the tax was raised. The effect of this law was to induce the non-residents to dispose of their holdings and permit those lands to pass into the hands of actual settlers."

Elkhart Prairie was the first seat of learning in the county. Before Goshen was even platted it is said that a little log school stood on Wilkinson's Lane, on that prairie, and a few scholars

A few years afterward a boy of six years, William A. Beane by name, was brought from Ohio by his parents and went to several of these pioneer schools at and near Goshen. In his school days the teachers of the neighborhood were Capt. Henry Beane, his father, E. D. Smith, John Deutrow, Sylvester Webster and Nelson Prentiss, afterward of Albion, Noble County. In the fall of 1843, young Beane, then in his sixteenth year, became a resident of Goshen, attended the school of A. C. Carpenter, and soon afterward became a printer in the Democrat office. Samuel T. Young and T. G. Harris were also early teachers of Prairie schools.

At Elkhart Town one of the first to teach was E. M. Chamberlain, a young Maine man who had been admitted to the bar a short time previously. As is well known, he afterward became an honor to the bench, the Legislature and to Congress.

Then east of the Town of Elkhart and in the northern section of the prairie region, Middlebury and Bristol opened rural schools at an early day, while south of Goshen, Benton and New Paris came into the educational field. The first institution of the kind at Middlebury was a little frame structure, built in the late '30s, which went by the unusual name of the Red Schoolhouse. Private schools had been previously taught in several residences, but this was a village afifair.

Before Bristol was platted, in 1835, Miss Philossa Wheeler taught in a log cabin which stood on its site, the first schoolhouse erected in town being completed in 1838.

Benton, a short distance southeast of Goshen, just beyond the southern edge of the prairie and in an oak opening, was laid out by Capt. Henry Beane, the pioneer schoolmaster. In 1836 the post-

New Paris, which is directly south of Goshen, was platted in 1838, and a log schoolhouse was one of the first buildings erected John McGrew was the teacher who opened it.

Doubtless other schools were thrown open, away from these centers of population, large and small, but the educational movement throughout the county was sporadic, and not directed along continuous channels through an organized system. Among those who faithfully participated in such efforts, and bravely assisted in the task of tiding over the children of those times to the better period of organized and classified schools, was Mrs. Chauncey S. Hascall, wife of the pioneer merchant of Goshen. In a paper read before the Elkhart County Historical Society she says: "In the winters of 1839-40 and 1840-41 I taught school in the next district west of Goshen. I received twelve dollars a month, which was considered at that time a high salary for a woman. Of course it was the typical log schoolhouse, which the young people of the present day have read of, and the older ones hold in affectionate remembrance. The writing desks were shelves attached to the logs on the sides of the room, and the seats were long benches without backs, with a second row of the same kind, but lower, for the smaller scholars. A fire in a big box stove in the center of the room was kept in a roaring condition by the boys, who w^ere glad of the opportunity of getting a change of position and a breath of fresh air. The patrons of the school were mostly Pennsylvania Dutch and spoke their own language in home and neighborhood intercourses ; consequently English was almost a foreign language to many of the scholars.

"The Stouders, Studebakers, Cripes, Ulerys and ^Tannings I remember most distinctly among the scholars, as I boarded with each of their families a month, instead of taking, as was the custom, the rounds of the district. It was an experiment having the winter school taught by a 'schoolma'am,' and the trustees thought I might have some trouble governing it, but I had ven,- little. The girls and boys were model children, and must have been well trained at home.

"John and David Studebaker, Levi Ulery and Jacob Cline were the oldest pupils and were nearly grown men. All the older residents will remember Dave Studebaker, whose residence was in Goshen many years and who died here esteemed and regretted. I think there were almost thirty scholars in the school, and among them the Bartmess boys.

"The small scholars of that day, with their home-made garments, home-made from the shearing of the sheep to the last stitch in the clothes, made after the same pattern as their fathers' and mothers' apparel, would make a striking contrast to the little people of today, with their large collars, and knee pants of the boys, and the furbelows and fancy dress "fixings' of the girls.

"The three R's were the principal branches taught ; in fact the only ones. Grammar was an unknown study in the backwoods. One or two little 'Mannings' may have studied geography. There were different classes in reading and spelling, and the monotonous round was only varied by an occasional call to help solve some problem in sulatraction or long division. In arithmetic each studied by himself and could 'go ahead' as fast as he pleased without being kept back by slower ones in the class.

"Of course not one of the scholars could have passed a 'high school' examination, but the young farmers could 'reckon up' the value of their farm produce, read the Bible and weekly newspaper, properly sign all legal documents and spell better than half the high school graduates.

"There were none of the modern aids to teachers ; even blackboards were not in use in the country schools of that day. There were no normal schools for instruction in the art of teaching; no county or township institutes where teachers could meet and discuss the new ideas advanced in educational lines."

Prof. E. B. Myers, so long a teacher in the Elkhart city schools, when a boy of ten years was brought by his pai-ents to the home farm in York Township, where he had a taste of the country school of those days. He describes his boyhood experiences and observations thus : "[NIv first admission to one of the 'log seminaries' of

Elkhart county was in December, 1846. This spacious, well furnished seat of learning stood in York township, about two miles west of the village of \Tstula. It was built of logs hewn on both sides, the cracks chinked and daubed with clay (there was no lime for schoolhouses at that time), a horizontal window on each of the four sides and a stove in the center. This was an aristocratic schoolhouse; it had a floor made of boards, not your rough puncheons so common elsewhere, but nice inch-boards laid loosely on the rough-hewn sleepers. The boards were not nailed down, I suppose for two reasons : first, because in those days nails were scarce and cost money; secondly, anything that fell on the floor was pretty apt to go through one of the many wide cracks and could be recovered only by taking up one or more of the boards.

"The desks of this schoolhouse were marvels of mechanical skill. Two-inch auger holes were bored in the log walls, and large oak or hickory pins driven in, and upon these were laid boards, which were then called 'writing desks.' The seats were made of slabs, two legs in each and one in the middle to keep them from sagging when overcrowded. During writing time the pupils all sat with their faces to the wall and the teacher marched around looking over their shoulders, criticising or commanding as the occasion required. There were no shelves under these desks for books, but what few we had were piled upon the writing desks and around the comers, wherever convenient.

"When not writing or ciphering we were expected to sit facing the center of the room, and could then rest our weary backs against the edge of the board that was called the desk. In front of this and nearer the stove on each side of the room was placed a slab seat for the little folks who did not write. On these benches thelittle ones were compelled to sit by the hour, swinging their feet and waiting for their turn to be called up by the teacher to 'say their letters' or spell their 'a, b, ab's.' Books or busy work for beginners were not thought of.

"If a child learned his letters the first term he was supposed to be making satisfactor}' progress. Especially was this true if it was a winter term, when the larger pupils were supposed to be entitled to the greater part of the time and attention of the teacher. The range of studies was not very wide. A grammar was not seen in that school till some years afterward. 'It wasn't worth nothing but to learn folks to talk proper,' and so was summarily discarded.

A year later I took to the school a copy of Olney's Geography and Atlas which my oldest sister had used in Chicago. This atlas was very instructive to me in the way of local geography. All that the northern part of the map of Indiana contained was the word 'Pottawattamies,' printed in large letters diagonally across the page. The book undoubtedly saw the light long before I did. As I was the only pupil in the class I was always at the head. The recitations of those days were unique. The first class in the morning was the reading, the highest first and so on to the a, b, c's. Then followed the writing and the recess. After recess came more work for the little folks, the lowest first, and closing the forenoon session with the 'first class in spelling," which was always an important event in the each half-day session.

"There were no recitations in arithmetic. As the work consisted wholly in 'doing sums,' and as there was no such thing as conformity of text books, especially in arithmetic, each person worked away at his own sweet will. Such a thing as an explanation of a subject or principle was not thought of, much less considered necessary. If we couldn't do the sums we asked the teacher to show us how, but the showing how answered for that case only and gave us but little or no strength to cope with future similar difficulties.

"In those days blackboards and dictionaries were unknown in the ordinary country school. The teacher was supposed to know everything and freely gave of his or her knowledge. The teachers of those days never hesitated at the pronunciation of a long word, but spelled it through and gave us the pronunciation, which was law and gospel to us."

Waterford Mills, now a southern suburb of Goshen, was quite an industrial center and had gathered considerable of a population by the late '30s. Judge Elias Baker founded the settlement in 1833 by the building of his log cabin and grist mill. Several families soon settled in that beautiful neighborhood of Elkhart Prairie, but the place did not show a decided growth until the coming of the Hawks families. In 1838 David Gallentine and the senior and junior Cephas Hawks laid out the Village of Waterford. The milling firm of C. Hawks & Sons had succeeded to all of the Baker interests. Joel P. Hawks, the youngest son, in after years became the cornerstone of Waterford Mills, and when the family interests were transferred to Goshen was, for thirty years, one of the most prominent citizens of the county seat.

Mr. Hawks came to Waterford with other members of the family when he was about thirteen years of age, and thus describes some of his early experiences in gaining an education: "The first school I attended in Indiana was at Waterford, in the winter of 1838. The schoolhouse was a new frame affair and had been painted a gorgeous red. William Baker was the teacher. He was a man of superior education for those days, but lacked the adaptability for a teacher. Attention was principally given to the primary classes ; to spelling and arithmetic, neither grammar nor reading being taught. I suggested to the teacher the advisability of a class in reading, but he could not see the use of it; then stated that if I desired to read he would hear me. Accordingly I stood up alone and read from my old English reader, while the scholars listened. At the conclusion, the teacher remarked that he did not think he could teach me anything in reading, and that was the last that I heard of the matter. This omission was quite general in the schools of that day, and it has shown in later years as the scholars of those days are very poor readers, but fine spellers."

Among the early special institutions of learning in the county was one at JNIiddlebury. An advertisement in the Goshen Democrat in November, 1847, informs the public that the "Middlebury Seminary," under the direction of the Misses Casey, would be opened for young ladies and gentlemen on November 18th. and oft'ered a thorough course of English instruction at reasonable rates. Such private institutions no doubt furnished educational opportunities to many boys and girls of this county from that early day to the present time, and public education, which in the last century was so materially supplemented by private enterprise, is not yet so complete and comprehensive as to entirely displace a school conducted by individuals or certain societies.

school age, various provisions had been made by the constitution of 1816 and special legislative enactments for the support of the public schools. Under the constitution provision was made for the improvement of school sections and to apply the fund arising from their sale to the establishment and support of township schools and county seminaries. But the settlers were poor and the school lands neither sold nor leased to advantage. Several academies and seminaries were incorporated in the older counties between 1816 and 1820.

"In 1821," says Smith's "History of Indiana," "John BadoUet, David Hart, William W. Alartin, James Welsch, Daniel S. Caswell, Thomas C. Searle and John Todd were appointed by the General Assembly a commission to draft and report to the next Legislature a bill providing for a general system of education : and they were instructed to guard particularly against 'any distinction between the rich and poor.' The commission set about their work conscientiously, and when it was complete submitted it to Benjamin Parke, who had been at one time a delegate to Congress and was then the United States Judge for Indiana. The bill so reported was enacted into a law, and became the first general law on the subject of education passed by the Indiana General Assembly. It was passed in 1824, and bore the title: 'An .\ct to incorporate congressional townships and providing for public schools therein.'

"After providing for the election by the people of each Congressional township of three persons of the township to act as school trustees, to whom the control of the school lands and schools generally were to be given, the law made the following provision for building school houses : 'Every able-bodied male person of the age of twenty-one years and upwards residing within the bounds of such school district shall be liable to work one day in each week until such building may be completed, or pay the sum of thirtyseven and one-half cents for every day he may fail to work.' The same act describes a school house as follows: 'In all cases such school house shall be eight feet between the floors, and at least one foot from the surface of the ground to the first floor, and be furnished in a manner calculated to render comfortable the teacher and pupils.' The trustees, in lieu of work, were required to receive lumber, nails, glass, or other necessary materials, at the current prices. No funds were provided for the pay of teachers ; so the schools were not free, but they were made open to all, black as well as white, and it was not until about 1830 that colored children were excluded from the schools, and then the exclusion arose from a prejudice excited by the slavery agitation. Under the law of 1824 the schools were kept open just as long each year as the patrons could or would pay for their maintenance.

"At nearly every succeeding session of the General Assembly some law was enacted on the subject of education, but still no general system was adopted. There was always an element of opposition that would find some way to get the laws before the courts, and thus to hamper the attempts to establish schools. Private citizens did much, and public meetings of citizens did more, but little could be accomplished in a public way. School officers had no funds with which to erect houses, or to pay teachers. They could not levy a tax, except by special permission of the district, and, even then the expenditure was limited to $50 by the act of 1834."

In the meantime various funds to be used in the establishment and support of the public schools were being formed and consolidated. The principal of these were the Congressional Township fund, raised from the sale of the sections 16, donated by the general Government from the public lands ; the Bank Tax fund, authorized by a provision in the charter of the State Bank of Indiana which taxed each of its shares owned by individuals 12J-2 cents annually (one-half of the stock was owned by the state) ; the Seminary fund, created by the sale of all properties of the county seminaries, ordered by the Legislature in 1832; the Surplus Revenue fund, donated by the general government in 1836 from the surplus in the national treasury, Indiana's share in the division among the states amounting to $806,000, of which the Legislature set apart $573,000 for the permanent school fund ; the Swamp Land fund, which included not only that class of lands, but all other granted to the state for which special provision was not made; the Saline fund, which had been formed in 1816, when Congress gave the state all salt springs within its borders with the lands reserved for their use, and in 1832 authorized the state to sell these properties and apply the proceeds to the common school fund : and the Contingent fund, arising from fines, forfeitures and escheats. These funds were gradually collected, so that with the adoption of the constitution of

1 85 1, the educators of the state feh that the time had come to organize a system of popular education of a fundamental and farreaching nature.

Although this law was passed in 1852, it did not become practically operative until the first ]\Ionday of April, 1853, when the township trustees for school purposes were elected throughout the state. The law committed to the township trustees the charge of all the educational affairs of the township. It gave them the control and disbursement of all the school funds; it intrusted them with the duty of determining the number and location of all the schoolhouses necessary for the accommodation of the children of the township; it left to them the making of all contracts for building, repairing and furnishing schoolhouses ; the purchasing of fuel; the employment of teachers ; and, lastly, they were to determine the time of commencing and the period of the continuance of the schools.

Immediately upon the passage of the law, it met with considerable opposition in all parts of the state. It was claimed that it would not be possible to select men in all the townships of the state capable of discharging properly the various duties required of township trustees ; and, that in many instances, the summary and discretionary powers with which they were to be clothed, would be injudiciously exercised. This opposition, however, resulted only in the complete success of the law, for through it the people of the state were awakened to the great importance of electing the ablest and best men to the office - a commendable practice to which they still earnestly adhere.

The trustees, on entering on the duties of their office, were in nearly all cases, greatly embarrassed by the general want of correct information among the people concerning the new system of public instruction. The law, in all points, was radically new, providing for a system wholly different from any to which the people had been accustomed. Few of the trustees, and still fewer of the people, had ever read, much less studied the law, hence they were unable to operate properly under it. To remove these difficulties a pamphlet of upwards of sixty pages, embracing the law, with its amendments and copious notes, explanations, instructions and forms of proceedings, was issued from the office of the superintendent of public instruction. A large edition was printed and distributed to the several townships of the state, so that any person, by simply calling on any of the county officials, would receive a copy without charge. By this means all soon became acquainted with the whole system.

The first duty of the board of trustees was to establish and conveniently locate a sufficient number of schools for the education of all the children of their township. In referring to this matter in his annual report of 1853, Hon. W. C. Larrabee, the superintendent of public instruction, made these remarks : '"But the schoolhouses, where are they? And what are they? In some townships there is not a single schoolhouse of any kind to be found. In other townships there are a few old, leaky, dilapidated log cabins, wholly unfit for use even in summer, and in winter worse than nothing. Before the people can be tolerably accommodated with schools, there must be erected in this State at least 3,500 schoolhouses."

Previous to the enactment of the township system, schoolhouses were erected by single districts, but under this law districts were abolished, district lines obliterated, and houses previously built by districts became the property of the township, and all new houses were to be built by the trustees, at the expense of the township and through an appropriation of township funds.

By the law of 1852, each township in the state was made a municipal corporation, with such powers and liabilities as, by common usage, belong to such corporations. Every voter in the township was made a member of the corporation. The business of the corporation was managed directly by the whole body of the voters ; in regular or special township meetings, or by persons chosen by the people, as directors of the corporation, called township trustees. Among the inherent and necessary powers of such corporations, stood first and most important, that of raising, by taxation on the property and polls of the township, an amount of funds sufficient to defray all the legitimate expenses of the corporation.

Under the new township system the authority to levy taxes, to build schoolhouses and to carry on all parts of the system of public instruction, might have been constitutionally exercised either by the majority of the members of the corporation, that is, by the voters of the township, or by officers elected by the voters, but no power was given to the township trustees to levy this tax without the consent of the voters of the township. This phase of the law, authorizing the vote of the township on a special tax was questioned, and gave rise, at first, to some impediment to the success of the system. Taxpayers who were opposed to the special township tax, refused to pay the assessment, thereby not only retarding the progress of the schools, but causing an unusual delinquency in the collection of taxes for general purposes. Contracts for building schoolhouses were thrown up, houses half finished were abandoned, and all operations were suspended in several townships.

In some townships a rumor was circulated by the enemies of the law, that the entire school measure had been declared by the Supreme Court unconstitutional. Believing this, the township trustees actually dismissed all their schools, and even considered themselves summarily deposed from office.

In reference to this state of affairs, Hon. W. C. Larrabee. superintendent of public instruction, spoke as follows in his report to the governor, in 1853: "As soon as information of these facts was received at this office, efforts were made, by private correspondence and by circulars, to correct public opinion and to arrest the downward tendency of the whole system. It is hoped that the real facts are now known and appreciated, and before any more serious evil shall arise, we hope for a decision to settle the whole question."

While the voting of special taxes was doubted on a constitutional point, it became apparent that it was weak in a practicable point. The existence of this provision in the law greatly retarded the organization and impaired the efficiency of the schools. In many townships the trustees, on exploring their territory, found few or no schoolhouses fit to be occupied. They proposed a township tax for the erection of houses, but the proposition was voted down. They renewed the proposition at subsequent meetings, but it was again and again voted down. Under these circumstances, the first year of the existence of the township system was not a very successful one.

Another impediment to popular education, in 1853-54, was the great deficiency in number and quahfications of teachers. In some townships teachers of no grade could be obtained in sufficient numbers to supply the schools. But few of the persons offering themselves for examination could pass according to law.

The scarcity of well qualified teachers was well understood by those who framed the school law of 1852. By its provisions the superintendent was required to appoint deputies in each county to examine all applicants for license to teach, and to license them, if found qualified, for one or two years. The law, however, erected no specific standard of qualification. It left to the examiner the right of determining, at his discretion, the amount and variety of knowledge the applicant should exhibit in order to entitle him to a license. The examiner in each case took into consideration any peculiar circumstances that might exist in the county or township in which the teacher was to be employed. In some counties and in some townships, where schools were few and teachers scarce, and the children few, young and backward, it was found expedient to employ persons to teach who were by no means qualified to take charge of schools in advanced towns.

But in this respect the school law was changed in 1853. The authority to appoint examiners, by the amendment, was transferred from the superintendent to the county commissioners, and a standard of qualification was determined. The committee on education who prepared the amendatory law, while erecting a standard of qualification for teachers, at which all persons proposing to teach should aim, at the same time made provision to meet the emergencies existing at that time, and authorized a temporary license, at the discretion of the examiners, to persons who might not be able to pass a rigid examination in all the branches constituting the standard.

The common school fund available in 1854 amounted to $2,460,600. This amount was subsequently increased to a ver>' great extent from many sources. The common school fund was intrusted to the several counties of the state, which were held responsible for the preservation thereof, and for the payment of the annual interest thereon. The fund was managed by the auditors and treasurers of the several counties, for which these officers were allowed one-tenth the income. It was loaned out to citizens of the county, in sums not exceeding $300, on real estate security.

Under this phase of the school law the common school fund was consolidated and the proceeds equally distributed each year to all the townships, cities and towns of the state, in proportion to the number of children therein. This part of the law met with great opposition in 1854.

In reference to the township libraries, which were organized in 1855, the superintendent of public instruction, in 1854, says: "Much time and labor, and thought, have been devoted to the selection of books to form the libraries. We have made copious selections of historical works, deeming the reading of such books both interesting and useful."

Caleb Mills entered upon his term of office as superintendent of public instruction at the close of the year 1854. In his report, presented to the Legislature in January, 1855, he says: "It is distressing to know that many localities can have no schools, because instructors cannot be obtained and it is but little mitigation of our grief to be assured by county examiners, that more than half the teachers could not be legally authorized to teach if a rigid construction of the statute on this point should be pressed." The superintendent, in this report, called loudly for some means by which teachers could be qualified for the important duties of conducting the schools.

In regard to the township libraries, which had previously been established under the new law, Mr. Mills remarked: "There is a peculiar felicity in this provision of the system inasmuch as it will prove, in no slight degree, especially in the rural portions of the commonwealth, an important substitute for the living teacher, and answer the purpose of a school of uninterrupted session. These volumes will be like gushing fountains to minds thirsting for knowledge. They will furnish to our youth, and adults of every age and pursuit, intellectual nutriment and mental stimulus. The wearied apprentice, the tired ploughboy, the exhausted clerk, and the secluded domestic, will find in them encouragement and solace under all their toils, privations and discouragements." And again, in the same report, in relation to school buildings, he says : "Among the pleasing signs of progress in educational matters, may be named the tasteful and commodious school structures that have been erected, or are now in the process of erection in various parts of the commonwealth. They have risen in all their beauty and symmetry of proportion, not only in the towns, but they have gone up in some of the rural portions of the State."

During Mr. Mills' term as state superintendent the public schools progressed, and attempts were even made to establish graded schools in some localities. These met with much legal opposition and a strong general sentiment arose in opposition to the entire law of 1852, which resulted in the courts declaring it unconstitutional in 1858. Soon came the Civil war and for years the cause of the public schools was submerged under the greater necessity of preserving the life of the nation. This period, which so tested the faith and endurance of the friends and leaders in the cause of popular education, was composed of almost equal portions of destruction and neglect - destruction by the judiciary and neglect by ' the state, with palliating circumstances to be advanced in excuse of the latter body. The facts are so well stated in Smith's '"History of Indiana" that the writer will not attempt to improve upon their statement.

"The State had entered upon a new era, and gave promise of soon having a public school system that would be the pride of all and would reflect great credit upon the people," says that work, in referring to the promulgation of the law of 1852. "But every community must, of necessity it seems, be inflicted with people who oppose all progress. Those who drafted the constitution of 1850 no doubt meant wisely, but they were not always happy in finding the right words to convey their meaning, and they let slip into the constitution a clause that has been productive of untold litigation and vexation to all legislatures. In declaring the powers of the Legislature, the constitution provides that all laws shall be general and of uniform operation throughout the State. That poor, unexplained word, "uniform,' has been made to cover many an attack upon laws that were good and wholesome. So it was in the case of the school law of 1852. Taxpayers were found who objected to being taxed to educate the children of the State, and a suit, or rather two suits, were brought to overthrow the law on the plea that it was not of 'uniform operation' throughout the State ; that it gave to incorporated cities and towns rights and powers not given to the country districts, and that even in the country districts there was not uniformity, for one district might levy a tax and another not, or one might levy a tax of twenty-five cents and another one of fifty cents, or that through this tax one district might keep open its school for four months, while another that did not tax would only have two months."

Strange to say, a court was found to uphold such objections. The court could not distinguish between "uniform operation" and uniform execution. The operation of the law was uniform, for it gave to all the same rights, and it left all equally free to exercise the rights thus given, or to let them sleep, as they saw fit. Its application by the people was not uniform, and with that the constitution had nothing to do. The law gave all the children the opportunity to learn, and the court might as well have declared that the law was unconstitutional, because all the children did not, or could not, learn in a uniform degree. As stated, the court did overthrow the law, and by its action greatly retarded the growth and prosperity of the state for more than a decade. It went through all the land that the people of Indiana were opposed to education, notwithstanding they had voted for free schools by a majority of more than 80,000. The decisions of the courts were a death blow to the graded schools. They had been started in many of the cities, but for the want of funds had to be discontinued, and all the schools of the state were relegated to the general fund, and when that was exhausted they were compelled to close.

The friends of popular education were disheartened for a while, but they soon rallied and began to devise means to overcome the objections to a common school system, and contemplated for some time making an effort to change the constitutional provision which had been declared to stand in the way, but the war with all its excitement and horrors came, and the attention of the people was for the time called away from everything else to the duty of saving the Union. It was not until 1865 that a new law was enacted. When it went into operation no one was found with temerity enough to

Into the law of 1865 some new features were introduced, one of the most important being the establishment of teachers' institutes. These institutes have been a great power for good, and have accomplished a great work in raising the character of the schools. They have not only improved the standard of the teachers, but have stimulated a thirst for knowledge among the children, and have made the schools more popular than ever before. In fact, they have been the nerve, the very marrow of the public school system. The law of 1865 has been supplemented by others, each one calculated to perfect the system and to widen its scope. The power of taxation has been increased, and trustees have been authorized to issue bonds to procure funds for the erection of new and more commodious buildings.

The education of the colored children was also provided for in 1869. As stated in a former part of this work, up to 1830 the colored children were entitled to admission to the public schools on an equality with the whites. In fact, the constitution of 1816 provided that the common schools should be open to all, but in 1830 a prejudice arose against the colored people and it found its way into the legislation of the state, and into the schools, and colored children were barred from the right to participate in what was the common property of all, until after slavery was destroyed and the colored man became a citizen; then once more he could send his children to the public schools.

Space will not permit giving in anything like detail the various laws which have been enacted from time to time for the betterment of the school system, nor, in fact, to mention them, and we will have to confine our remarks to those points in the laws which have been the most potent for good. Going hand in hand with the teachers' institutes in the work of improving our school system, and in raising the standard of education in Indiana, has been the establishment of the office of county superintendent, and the organization of the county boards of education. The legislators have always paid willingly. At first teachers were employed without any examination at all; then the trustees were authorized to examine all applicants before employing them to teach. Then another advance was made, and a county examiner was appointed for that purpose. It was generally some business man who had but little time to give to the work, and often times cared but little about it; so examinations were seldom thorough. Then, too, each trustee was an autocrat in his own peculiar province, deciding upon what textbooks should be used, and governing the schools according to his own ideas, and hence there was no uniformity anywhere. Trustees themselves were often men of very limited education, and did not always have the good of the schools at heart.

The Legislature, in 1873, determined to take one step in advance, so it passed a law providing for the election of a county superintendent, and all the schools in the county were placed directly under his supervision. About this time, also, a diiiferent and better system of examinations for teachers' license was adopted. The people began to realize that it was not the one who could always answer certain questions, taken from the textbooks, that made the best teachers. An acquaintance with the best methods of conveying instruction, of assisting the dull scholar while not unduly holding back the bright one ; the power of governing children and drawing out of them all that was best, and restraining that which was not good, are now deemed essential qualifications for teachers. Many learned people absolutely lack all faculty of conveying to others, especially to children, any part of what they know. Such a person would be a failure as a teacher, while some one else who did not possess a tithe of his actual knowledge, but did have the faculty of imparting what he knew to the child, would be successful. All these points began to be taken into consideration in the selection of teachers. Adaptability is of as much importance as ability.

The introduction of the county superintendent helped very materially in all these improvements, and it also brought about a uniformity in the county which was altogether lacking before. Nor did the improvement stop there. By frequent consultations between the county superintendents and the state superintendent, there came to be, without hardly perceiving it, a uniformity between all of the schools in the state. In this great work the organization of the county boards of education had much to do. The county boards are composed of the county superintendent, the township trustees and the presidents of the boards of schools trustees of the cities and towns in the county. The county superintendent did not meet with complete favor at first, and several efforts were made to abolish the system, but all were thwarted, and now the superintendents are so rooted and grounded into the school system as to be immovable.

Another step forward was the law of 1889, providing for a uniform system of textbooks, under the management of the state board of education. Before that law was enacted the textbook question was a very vexatious one, to parents especially. The books they purchased one year might not be good the next, and the books their children used in attending school in one township might be useless to them on moving into another. The buying of books was a heavy burden to parents, and many efforts were made to find a solution of the difficulty, and finally the Legislature put the whole matter in the hands of the state board of education, and textbooks for the entire state were to be advertised for, and the price to purchasers was fixed by law. This has been a great improvement on the old system.

There is no single feature of the township or county system of education more pronounced in its development and far-reaching influence than that which relates to the teachers' institute. Fully recognizing that fact the state, the county and the township have co-operated to give it ever greater expansion, and those in educational authority have earnestly brought to the notice of the teachers the necessity of attendance upon its meetings.

laws making such attendance obligatory, under penalty of both fine and revocation of license, and neglect on the part of the township trustee to have a specific contract with each teacher under his jurisdiction providing for such attendance is cause for removal from office.

The act passed by the General Assembly of 191 5 provides that at least one Saturday in each month during which the public schools are in progress "shall be devoted to township and city institutes, or model schools for the improvement of teachers ; and two Saturdays may be appropriated, at the discretion of the township trustee of any township, or the Board of School Trustees or Board of School Commissioners of any city. Such institute shall be presided over by a teacher, or other person, designated by the trustee of the township, or by the city superintendent, or other person designated by him."

In the last publication on the subject prepared by the state superintendent of public instruction, Charles A. Greathouse, are the following suggestions :

"The school exists as an institution of society in order that the teacher may be furnished the most favorable conditions for the act of teaching. The teaching act is the crowning process in all school work. The Township and City Institute should be a model school for teachers. There is no better place for the mind of one teacher to come into vital touch with the mind of another teacher. In these institutes the city and county superintendents may observe, to a great extent, the thinking the pupil is doing in school ; the thinking the teacher is doing and the process of handling questions, directions, objects, assignments, etc., or the manipulation of means in teaching.

"Man improves education, as he improves any other human activity, by open-minded thought about it, by learning the results of existing forms of it, by experimenting with other forms, and by making reasonable our notions of what changes should be made and how to make such changes. In former years only the township teachers were required by law to hold these institutes. The General Assembly of 191 5 saw the need for extending the provisions of the law and enacted a law not only requiring those teachers teaching in the townships, but also teachers teaching in our cities to attend and participate in these institutes. This change should be valuable to the city teachers. It may not be desirable to all, but yet, if it is valuable to the majority of teachers, it should be desirable because it is valuable. Therefore, the value of these institutes largely depends upon the spirit manifested by the teachers and superintendents when participating in them.

"School trustees should grasp this opportunity and be in attendance at each institute. Here they become better acquainted with their teachers and ascertain, through their relation to the institute, the character of their work in the schoolroom. It will be an additional incentive for teachers to put forth every effort to make a successful institute, if they feel that some one, to whom they are responsible, is present and interested in their progress. One of the controlling elements in success is a feeling of responsibility to some one, and a desire for recognition of faithful work. It would give a fresh impetus to the teacher's work if, in some way, the county or city superintendent will express his approbation of their individual efforts to those teachers who are always punctual, wide awake, and active workers.

"The Township and City Institute is a convenient and appropriate center to discuss the organization of schools, the course of study, methods in classroom, co-operation with patrons, and other important agents in the schools. Patrons should be invited to be present and participate in the discussion. Especially is it the duty of the teachers and school officials to secure the needed co-operation of the patrons on the prevocational work that has been introduced in the schools.

"The practice of preparing and reading a paper should be discouraged. Brief pointed introductory talks by able leaders, followed by discussion in which every teacher takes part, will give life to the institute and inspiration to the teachers. Actual observation of actual teaching is ever productive of good results. In most localities a class of children can be secured and an actual recitation given. If this is done with proper care, it will be very valuable to the institute.

"The year 1916 marks the one hundredth anniversary of the admission of our State into the Union and bespeaks an appropriate recognition. The matter is in the hands of the Indiana Historical Commission, appointed for the specific purpose of conserving the historical interests of the State and for providing for the observance of the Indiana Centennial. Some knowledge and appreciation of State and local history is implied on the part of all as a basis of good citizenship and a liberal education. It is an essential element contributing to our broader and larger patriotism. National history is largely a composite of local history and cannot be properly understood without having followed to some extent the development of some community, region, or State. Special incentive is offered for such study in Indiana in the ensuing school year. The teachers of the State will gladly co-operate with the Indiana Historical Com-

Illustr.A.Tive Extracts From Programs

To those who are not teachers and, presumably, have not had access to the literature issued by State Department of Public Instruction on this important subject of "The Township and City Institute," the following extracts are taken from the programs of the ten institutes for which provision has been made, as fairly illustrative of the scope of their work: -

"Public Schools ; Private ; Colleges ; Universities ; Education in Benevolent and Penal Institutions; Newspapers; Clubs; Leading Educators."

"Indian Wars; in the War of 1812; in the Mexican \\'ar; in the Civil War (politics in Indiana during the Civil \\'ar) ; in the Spanish-American \\'ar."

Under the law the county board of education consists of the county superintendent of schools, who is its head ; the presidents of the city and town boards, and the township trustees. Since the abolition of the examinership in 1873 the superintendents have been as follows: A. S. Zook, David Mowry, Piebe Swart, S. F. Spohn, Geo. W. Ellis, A. E. Weaver. Mr. Zook served one year and then resigned ; Mr. Ellis served for eighteen years and was suc-

The trustees of the sixteen townships are : Herschel P. Dodge, Baugo Township (P. O., Elkhart); James A. Brown, Benton (Ligonier) ; W. L. Chamberlain, Concord (Elkhart), secretary of the board; W. F. Stiver, Clinton (Goshen) ; D. W. Neu, Cleveland (Elkhart) ; Robert E. Chatten. Elkhart (Goshen) ; Xoah Dausman, Harrison (Goshen) ; Israel Immel, Jackson (New Paris) ; John E.

A general idea of the condition of the county schools may be obtained through the figures compiled by A. E. Weaver, the county superintendent, which exhibit the following items: Number of commissioned schools, 9 ; number of non-commissioned schools, i ; number of township teachers, 122 ; number of town teachers, 35 ; number of city teachers, 152; number of teachers in county, 309; total cost of education in county. $379,419.02.

The qualifications of all the teachers have been of an improved kind since 1907. In that year a law was passed which has had this effect. All our teachers began teaching before the fall of 1908 or else are graduates of high schools and have had from twelve weeks to three years of normal work, or a year or more of college work.

The vocational education law, passed in 191 3, has brought about a decided change in the results that schools are striving for. This law requires the teaching of agriculture and domestic science in the seventh and eighth grades of all rural schools, and domestic science and industrial arts or agriculture in the town schools. The plan is not to reduce the amount of academic work required in the past, but rather to supplement it with the prevocational studies. In exceptional cases, however, substitutions are allowed.

The state board of education is increasing the efficiency of the teachers by additional requirement in regard to training, and will ask the next state legislature to pass needed laws to assist them in reaching the goal of greater efficiency.