Richardson County, Nebraska - Chapter 1, 1917

Chapter 1

The rolling prairies of wiiich Richardson county is largely made up, are an alluring feature which did not escape the eye of the early settler in quest of a home in this new countr}-. The recurring prairie fires of the period when it was only inhabited by Indians had retarded the growth of the timber to a great extent in large portions of the county, and those coming across the Alissouri were so impressed with the openness of the country that it was long known as a portion of the Great Plains.

It is traversed from west to east by streams of living water, the banks of which are well timbered. I'pon the coming of the white man and the breaking up of the soil, the prairie fire disappeared and the trees thus protected, together with those set out and planted by the thousands, now give the country the appearance of a woodland and especially is this noticeable in and about the towns, rivers and creeks, and farm homes- throughout the county. Tliis fact is now so prominent, that to the traveler passing through the country nor to those residing therein, does the w-ord "prairie" have any significance in a descriptive way and indeed it is no longer used in the vocabulary of the people. The prairie in the old sense is gone forever.

The forest gro\-es are made up of box elder, maple, cottomvood. walnut. oak, elm, ash, hickory and willow. In tlie east end of the county the Missouri river bluffs ha\-e always been and are today heavily overgrown with timber, and in later \-ears extensive orchards are replacing cleared portions and rank in ])roducti\'e cai)acit\- and f|u;dity and f|uantity of fruit with the liest in the I'nitetl States.

The \-alleys and low lantls adjacent to the streams were the first choice with the early settler and in the earlier years of less rainfall were most profitablv worked as farms, but the heavv rainfall of more recent vears has necessitated extensixe drainage s\stems for relief from overtlows. The uplands or early prairie farms ha\e proven most valuable for all purposes and are the most desirable of all and most productive at this time.

Inexhaustive quarries of first-class building stone are available in mamparts of the county and of easy access near the surface of the ground. Coal in numerous places over the county has been found, but never, so far. in sufficient (juantities to ser\e any great number of the people as a fuel.

The lowest altitude is found near Rulo, in the extreme southeast corner of the county, w here but eight hundred and seventy-five feet above sea level is registered. Passing toward the northwest and west end of the county a gradual and gentle rise is noted.

The county is now eighteen miles wide, north and south, and thirty-six miles long, east and west at the southern, and twenty-seven miles at the northern boundary, containing in the aggregate in round numbers, five hundred and fifty square miles, or three hundred fifty-two thousand six hundred acres. The townships, except in the eastern portion are six miles square and contain thirty-six sections, ^^'ithin this area the land is all tillable, except on the lowest river bottoms, which is now used as pasture and grass lands. So it may be stated that there is Init a very small per cent of the land which may not be utilized.

The Great Xemaha rixer. which traxerses the southern precincts, east and west, and empties into the Missouri river near Rulo, in its meanderings, prior to numerous cut-ofifs made by the drainage ditches to shorten it, was (iiie lunulred miles long. It is now reiluced to less than half that distance and is fed by numerous small streams from a \-ast watershed. The Mudd\- creek drains the east precincts, being fed by many small streams and empties into the Xemaha in Jefferson precinct.

Tlie most extensive valley is that of tne Great Nemaha, which varies from one to three miles in width and. being the repository for the rich soil of the uplands, is most fertile.

Tliere is excellent clay for the manufacture of brick, which on account of the absence of saw timber and the distance from the lumber regions, has been extensixely used as tlie principal building material and much of the output is in great demand at points outside the state.

The soil of the hills is perfectlv adapted for fruit culture and extensive iirchanls of apjjle, of all kinds, peaches, i^ear. plum and grapes are success- fully grown. The soil is a deep black loam from eighteen to thirty-six inches in depth. The "Ijlack land farm" is a reality the county over and its wellknown richness, after fifty years continuous usage, precludes the necessity for fertilization so much in vogue in Eastern states. Small grain of all kinds is raised in al)undance, and farming here is a pleasure rather than a drudgery, and well it may be, for the soil is easil\- worked, and the farmer has e\-ery assurance of a crop annually. 14'? ^ilfifi

The Great Xemaha river, of Richardson county, enters the Missouri near the southeast corner of the county and traverses its entire length. The river forks near the center of the county (near Salem), one branch coming from the Northwest, called the North Fork and the other heading in Nemaha county, Kansas, called the South Fork of the Nemaha.

The principal tributaries of the Nemaha and Muddy in this countv are Walnut, Long Branch, Four-Mile. Rattlesnake, Easley, Sardine, Half-Breed and Harvey Creeks.

The Nemaha and Muddy are mill streams, and there is timber imi all the branches. It will thus be seen that Richardson county is the liest timbered as well as the best watered county in Nebraska.

Good limestone for lime and building purposes abounds on the streams and coal of good quality has in other days been found on the Nemaha and its tributaries, the latter in quality as good if not better than that mined successfully for years in the \icinity of Leavenworth, Kansas.

.\11 the grains of this latitude flourish here, and it is without a doulit the best adapted for fruit, which is now being produced on a larger scale than in any section of the state.

Both spring and fall wheat do well, and it is doubtful if there be a better corn-growing region \\est of the Missouri. Oats, rye. ]iotatoes and other vegetables produce finely.

Description Of The Area

Richardson county is situated in the extreme southeastern part of Nebraska, about fifty-four miles south of the Platte river. It is bounded on the north by Nemaha county, on the east by the Missouri river, which forms the state line, on the south by Doniphan, Brown, and Nemaha counties, Kansas, and on the west by Pawnee county, Nebraska. The county is approximately rectangular in shape, with one irregular side, its greatest length from east to west being thirty-six miles and its widtii from north to south eighteen miles. It has an area of 545 square miles, or 348.800 acres. The northwestern corner of the county is about seventy miles from Lincoln and the southeastern corner approximately halfway between Omaha and Kansas City.

The surface features of the upland, which constitutes far the greater part of the county, are variable, though in general the topography is rolling. In the southwestern and extreme western parts of the county the drainage system is intricate and the surface is marked by numerous steep and precipitous slopes, largely the result of high rock ledges. The steep slopes occur largely along the stream courses of the Nemaha river drainage system. However, there are in this section gently arched divides or plains and gently sloping areas. The remainder of the county, except the bluff zone along the Missouri river, is gently rolling to rolling, with no abrupt slopes. The divides are gently sloping to almost flat, and in a few instances attain the elevation of the original constructional surface of the loess plains. These topographic features occur mainly lietween the Nemaha and Little Mudd\- Creek drainage systems, with their best development in Franklin town- -ship. In the eastern part of the county the upland merges through a narrow strip of hilly land into the Missouri river bluff zone, which in some places is two and one-half miles in width. This strip is characterized by V-shaped valleys with a depth of about three hundred and fifty feet. The roughest and most dissected topography occurs in the northeastern and southeastern parts of the county.

There are some alluvial terraces in the count)", l)ut tiiey are of \ery small extent and occur onlv in the southwestern section. Thev varv from

The greater part of the first-bottom land occurs along the Nemaha river and its branches. The Missouri river flows so near the west side of the valley that there is scarcely any first bottom along the course in this stream within the county. The surface of the bottom-land areas is level, except along the Missouri river, where the topography is relieved by low ridges with intervening depressions, sloughs, and ox-bow lakes.

The upland has an average elevation of about i,ioo feet abo\e sea level. The highest point, 1,220 feet, occurs in the northwestern part of the countv. The average elevation of the bottom land is about 900 feet above sea level and the lowest elevation is about 850 feet. The general slope of the county is southeastward.

The Missouri river flows along the eastern boundary and receives the drainage of the entire county. The Nemaha river is the only tributary of any consequence, and drains practically all the county. It flows in a southeasterh' direction through the area. The north fork and south fork of the Nemaha unite at Salem. Muddy creek is an important branch of this stream. The Nemaha river and its tributary streams are winding and rather sluggish, and have reached base level. The Missouri river is navigable. The streams in this region are not used for power development.

There is a complete system of drainage ways in the county, and adequate drainage is provided for all sections. Springs are numerous in the southwestern part of the survey, and on many farms furnish most of the water for the stock. All the first bottoms are overflowed annually, but rarely are the overflows of a destructive nature, and the water seldom remains more than twelve hours on the surface of the flood plain. However, in the season of 1915, a number of destructive floods occurred, and practically no crops were harA^ested.

The first permanent white settlements in Richardson county were made in 1855, about a mile north of Falls City, by settlers from Tennessee. The county was created in 1854, and reorganized in 1855 by the first territorial Legislature. When first created the county contained a large part of the area now included in Johnson and Pawnee counties, but within a few years it was reduced to its present size. Most of the early settlers came from Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Tennessee, and the New England states. Later some foreigners, including Germans, Swedes, Welsh, Bohemians, Irish, English and French settled in the county. Less than eight per cent of the population, however, is of foreign birth.

Richardsox Cointv. Nebraska

The mean annual rainfall of Richardson county is 32.71 inches, the highest mean annual precipitation recorded in the state of Nebraska. From seventy-five to eighty per cent, of the rainfall occurs during the growing season, from April to September, inclusive. About forty-five per cent, falls during the months of May, June, and July, with the maximum during July. December, January and February are the driest months, with a total precipitation of 2.53 inches.

Most of the rainfall in the summer occurs in the form of thunder showers, and the precipitation is very heavy within short periods of time, ranging from one inch to six inches in single storms. Something over one-half the rainfall of May, June, and July occurrs in quantities of one inch or more in twenty-four hours. The rainfall in May and June usually is well distributed, and droughts in these months are practically unknown. In July the distribution is not quite so favorable, though on the average rain falls at least once every four days during the months of May, June, and July. During August and September the precipitation is lighter and less favorably distributed. Periods of drought, of only occasional occurrence, are chiefiv confined to July, August, and September. The average annual snowfall is about twenty inches. Little snow falls Ijefore December or after March.

The mean annual temperature is about 53" F. January and February are the coldest months, with an average temperature of about 27 . July is the warmest month, with an average of "jf. The lowest temperature recorded at Dawson and Falls City, Nebraska, is 30^ below zero, and the highest III" F. The average date of the first kilHng fro.st in the fall is October 8, and of the last in the spring, April 24. The date of the earliest recorded killing frost in autumn is September 12 and of the latest in si)ring. May 27. There is an average growing season of about one himdred and seventv davs, which is sufliciently long for the maturing of all the ordinary farm crops.

The winds are prevailingly from the northwest. During the mouths of June. July, and .\ugust, however, they are mainly from the south and southeast. Tlie average velocity of the wind at Omaha is about nine miles per hour. Tn storms winds of thirty to fifty miles per hour are common. Tornadoes are of rare occurrence.

about seventy per cent. The humidity is about seventeen per cent, lower at eight o'clock in the evening than at nine o'clock in the morning. On the average there are one hundred and seventy to one hundred and eighty clear days and eighty to ninety cloudy days during the year, the remainder being partly cloudy.

The following table, compiled from the records of the weather bureau, gives the normal monthly, seasonal, and annual temperature at Dawson and precipitation at Dawson and Falls City.

Upon the basis of physiographic position, the soils of Richardson county may be divided into three groups, upland, terrace, and first-bottom soils. The upland group embraces the Marshall, Grundy, Knox, Carrington, and Shelby series, and Rough stony land; the terrace group includes the Waukesha series; and the first-bottom group the Wabash, Cass, and Sarpy series and Riverwash.

most of the Rough stony land. The upland originallj- was covered with a thick veneer of plains loess, which has been almost entirely removed by erosion. Where erosion has progressed enough to give rise to a rolling topography, as in the eastern part of the county, the loess subsoil as well as soil is loose and friable. Along the bluff line of the Missouri the loess has been modified by material blown from the sand and silt bars of the river. The loess beds vary in color from yellow or pale yellow to light gray, and are always more or less calcareous and blotched with iron stains. It is thought by the state survey that the plains loess was laid down in sluggish waters as outwash from the glaciers to the north.

Only two remnants of the original constructional surface remain, ami they are located in the northwestern part of the county. Owing lo the tlat to slightly undulating topography in that section, the clay has not been carried away by rain waters. Init has Ijeen washed down into the subsoil, forming a hardpanlike layer.

Below the plains loess lies the upjier or weathered phase of the Kansan drift, which is very similar to the loess. The material is yellowish brown or pale yellow to light gray, and is smooth and silty, and contains fewer lime concretions than the loess. It also contains some sand and « few small pebbles, which are absent from the loess. In a vertical section there is no well-defined line of demarcation Ijetween the loess and the weathered drift. However, the loess has a more decided tendency to weather in perpendicular walls than the drift. The soil derived from this phase of the drift has a heavier and more compact subsoil than that derived from the eroded loess.

Below the weathered phase of the drift is the Kansan drift proper. There is a sharp line of demarcation in color and te.xture between these two divisions. The upper part of the Kansan drift is thoroughly o.xidized, showing that it has been subjected to weathering. The Kansan sheet is distinctly till, and consists of a heterogeneous mass of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and bowlders. The upper part of the till varies in color from yellowish brown or brown to reddish brown, and the lower part from light gray t'> pale yellow, with numerous iron stains.

Below the Kansan drift lies the Aftonian material, which consists largely of stratified sand and gravel, witli a few bowlders. This does hot occur as a continuous stratum, but as sand or gravel trains. The material outcrops west and northwest of Humlioldt and northeast of .Salem. It has given rise to local sandy spots in the drift soils.

Inty, Nebraska

ing smell pebbles and large numbers of bowlders. It is exposed only in deep-cut banks. It may be seen north of Rulo and also west of Rulo in the railroad cut.

The loess and drift beds lie on a very uneven surface of bedrock belonging to the Pennsylvania division of the Carboniferous system. In many places the streams have cut through the loess and drift and exposed large areas of bedrock. Most of these are in the southwestern part of the county. In the northern and eastern parts of the county, the mantle of rock is from fifty to one hundred feet deep, with only local outcrops. The upper layers of the bedrock consist of well-defined beds of shale and limestone; in places the shale is wholly composed of clay and in other places it grades into sandstone. The rocks dip northwestward in the southeastern corner of Richardson county, then flatten out to near Salem, beyond which they are nearly level in an east-west section, remaining so to a north-south line just west of Humboldt. Between this line and Table Rock there is a sharp rise of the beds amounting to about four hundred feet, and some of the formations exposed in the eastern part of the county are again brought to the surface. The most important rocks are the Cottonwood, Falls City, .\spinwall, Tarkio, Preston, Fargo, Burlington, and Rulo limestones.

The lower limestones named above outcrop near Rulo and in an anticline southwest of Humboldt. The limestones are of use for building purposes, and are of value in road making. There are about thirty-five square miles of bedrock exposed, giving rise to a thin, stony soil, seldom more than two to ten inches deep.

The terraces .of Richardson county are very inextensive. The material forming them consists largely of silt, known in the State of Nebraska as valley loess. It was deposited at a time when the streams were flowing at a higher level. The material was largely derived from the plains loess and finely divided drift debris.

Distribution Of Alluvial

The main areas of alluvial soils occur along the Missouri and Nemaha rivers, with small areas widely distributed throughout the county. They are of recent origin and are constantly receiving additional sediments from the overflow waters of the streams. The material along the Missouri river represents waste mainly from the glacial and loessial Rocky Mountain and Great Plains provinces. The soils along the other streams represent reworked and deposited loessial and glacial material.

The Marshall series includes types with darJi-brown to black surface soils and a lighter, yellowish-brown subsoil. This series comprises the darkcolored upland loessial soils which predominate in the prairie region of the Central West. The soils are characterized and distinguished from those of the Knox series by the large quantity of organic matter in the surface soil. The topography is level to rolling. The series is represented in Richardson county by a single type, the silt loam.

The soils of the Grundy series are dark brown to black to. an average depth of about eight inches. The soiL becomes somewhat heavier with depth, more rapidly as it approaches the subsoil. The transition from soil to subsoil, however, is not abrupt. The upper subsoil is mottled, heavy, and rather plastic when wet and hard when dry. The mottling consists of dark drab and yellowish brown. This layer is six to ten inches thick and passes gradually into material of somewhat lighter color and texture. As a rule the mottlings are not well defined in the lower subsoil. This series is derived by thorough weathering from silty material overlying the Kansan drift. The silt loam is the only representative of this series in the county.

The Knox soils are prevailingly light brown and the subsoil is light yellow or light grayish yellow. These soils occur mainly in the central prairie states. They are derived from loessial deposits. The loessial covering where the Knox series is found is always thick enough to fonn a subsoil as well as a surface soil, the deeper lying glacial till being far enough from the surface to have no marked influence on the general character of the soil. The topography is gently undulating to rolling, and the surface drainage is generally good. The silt loam is the only member of the Knox series encountered in Richardson county.

The Carrington soils are derived through weathering of glacial till, with little or no modification from loessial deposits. The series is developed in the central and western prairie region and consists mainly of prairie soils. The soil generally is black, ranging in some cases to dark brown. The subsoil is lighter colored, generally light brown or yellowish. The topograpliy is gently undulating to rolling, though some areas are nearly flat. In Richardson county only the Carrington silt loam is recognized.

The soils of the Shelby series are dark brown to Ijrown ; the subsoil is a yellow, reddish-yellow or light-brown, tenacious, sandy clay. These soils are derived from the Kansan drift. Only the Shelby loam is mapped in Richardson county.

The surface soils of the Waukesha series are dark brown to black, and the subsoil is yellow. These soils occur in areas of deep glacial drift.

They are derived from water-assorted glacial debris deposited on broad filled-in valleys or as outwasli plains and terraces. The topograph}- is mainly flat to undulating. Drainage is good.

The Wabash soils are prevailingly black, ranging to dark brown, and contain a high percentage of organic matter. The subsoil is brown or brownish gray. These soils occur in the first bottoms of streams in the central prairie states. They extend for long distances along the Mississippi river. The material is derived principally from the loessial and associated soils of the region. The Wabash areas are flat and poorly drained.

The surface soils of the Cass series are dark brown to black. The subsoil is lighter in color and in texture. These soils are alluvial, and are most extensively developed in the bottoms along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries. They occur in association with the Sarp}- soils, occupying, however, areas which are somewhat less well drained, being subject to overflow. Between the high stages of the streams the drainage is good.

The soils of the Sarpy series range from light gray to dark brownish gray or nearly black. They differ from the Wabash soils in having loose, silty or fine sandy subsoils, distinctly lighter in texture than the surface soils. The material is alluvial in origin. Owing to their low position these soils are subject to overflow, although the nature of the soil and subsoil is such that drainage is thorough to excessive between flood stages of the streams. In general the topography is flat.

The Marshall silt loam is a dark -brown, moderately heavy silt loam, eight to fifteen inches deep, having a decidedly siuooth feel. It grades through a thin brown layer of silt loam, about four inches thick, into yellowishbrown material, the color changing with increasing depth to yellow. As a rule the color of the subsoil is uniform, though occasionally the lower part is slightly mottled with light gray and streaked with rusty iron stains. The subsoil is open and friable and becomes more so with depth; as a rule the fourth foot is highly calcareous, the lime occurring chiefly in the form of concretions. As the color indicates, the soil is high in organic matter.

The depth of the soil is variable, and depends upon the topographic position. In the flatter areas and on the gently arched divides it is fifteen to eighteen inches deep, while on the shoulders of hills and along gullies the depth is only six to eight inches, and often the yellowish-brown subsoil is exposed. On the lower parts of slopes the soil is darker in color and deeper, owing to the deposition of colluvial material, and at the foot it is commonly twenty-four inches or more in depth. Included with this type are small, narrow strips of colluvial material, occurring along intermittent streams. Where the Marshall silt loam gives way to the Knox silt loam, small spots of the latter tj^pe are included. In general, the color of the Marshall silt loam is lighter where the type adjoins areas of the Knox silt loam.

The Marshall silt loam dififers from the Knox silt loam in having a higher content of organic matter. It is very difficult to draw a definite boundary line between the two soils, because of their patchy occurrence where they unite. In texture and structure the two soils are similar. Both have the vertical structure and extremely smooth feel characteristic of loess soils.

The Marshall silt loam occurs as a belt about six miles in width in the eastern part of the county, running parallel with the Alissouri river bluff. On the east it gives way to the Knox silt loam, and nn the west to the Carrington silt loam.

In general the topography is rolling. Where the type adjoins the Kno.x silt loam, it is steeply rolling, and where it adjoins the Carrington silt loam it occupies rather gently sloping divides. In the vicinity of Zion church and in the area south of Preston the soil has a gently undulating surface. The drainage is good and the physical condition of the soil is such that it withstands protracted droughts. Where the slopes are steep there is considerable wash, though less than would be expected on such slopes on account of the favoral)le texture and structure of the soil. The tyi)e lies at an elevation of eight hundred and eighty to one thuusand one hundred and sixtv feet above sea level.

The Marshall silt loam originally supported a thick growth of the prairie grasses common to this region, but very little of the native sod remains. Approximately ninety-five per cent, of the type is under cultivation. It is considered by farmers the best upland corn soil of eastern Nebraska. About one-half the farm land is devoted to the production of this crop, and the remainder is largely in wheat and oats, with some clover and timothy and alfalfa. In average seasons corn yields thirty to forty bushels per acre, and occasionally as much as sixty bushels. Oats ranks second in acreage, and ordinarily yield thirty to thirty-five bushels an acre. The acreage in wheat is being gradually extended, as the crop has proved very profitable. Yields of twenty to thirty bushels an acre, and sometimes as much as forty bushels per acre, are obtained. Clover and timothy and alfalfa are the principal hay crops, though some millet and sorghum are grown.

In wet seasons clover does well, but in dry seasons it is difficult to get a stand. In view of this fact, alfalfa is coming more in favor, even though it does not fit nearly so well in the crop rotation. In favorable seasons clover yields one and one-half to two tons per acre, while alfalfa yields three to five tons. Small patches of barley and rye also are produced. About one-half the corn crop and all the wheat are sold. The remainder of the corn is largely fed to hogs. The oats and hay produced are chiefly fed to the work stock. The present tendency on the Marshall silt loam is to grow less corn, more wheat, and more leguminous crops, and to keep more live stock. In the vicinity of Shubert there are a number of commercial apple orchards. The apple does especially well on this type.

At present no definite rotations are followed on this type. The general practice is to keep the land in corn from two to three years, oats one year, and wheat one year, returning the field to corn. Occasionally the wheat field is sowed either to clover and timothy or to alfalfa. Tenant farmers pay less attention to the rotation of crops, and often use the same field for corn or wheat four or five years in succession.

This soil is friable, silty, free from stones, and very easy to handle. It can be cultivated under a wide range of moisture conditions, without clodding or baking badly on drying. Though the natural productiveness of the type is high, it responds readily to good methods of cultivation, fertilization, and the growing of leguminous crops. Only small quantities of barnyard manure are applied, and no commercial fertilizer is used.

The value of the Marshall silt loam ranges from one hundred ti) two hundred dollars an acre, depending on location, improvements, and tlie condition of the land.

The Marshall silt loam is a very productive soil and it is only in cases where the same fields have been devoted to the same crops for a series of years that the soil has materially deteriorated in productiveness. Deeper plowing is needed on most farms, and though the type is high in organic matter, it is advisable to rotate the cereal crops with leguminous crops e\ery four or five years in order to keep up the organic-matter content. On steep slopes where erosion is a serious factor the type should be kept in cover crops as much as possible. The Alarshall silt loam is well suited to the production of apples on a commercial scale, and within reasonable distances from railroad points this industry might be profitably extended.

Grundy .Silt Loam

The surface soil of the Grundy silt loam is a dark-brown, heavy silt loam, about fifteen inches in depth. It passes rather abruptly into a very compact, plastic silty clay of darb color, mottled with yellowish brown. When dry the upper part of the subsoil is tough and decidedly granular. Below twenty-four to thirty inches the color as well as the texture becomes lighter and the structure is more friable. As a rule the mottlings are not so conspicuous in the lower part of the subsoil. The soil is high in organic matter, and as a rule lime concretions are encountered in the lower part of the sulisoil. The upper subsoil layer is locally called "hardpan."

This soil is very similar to the extensive areas of Grundy silt loam mapped in Gage county, Nebraska. It appears heavier than that mapped in Seward and Polk counties, but not quite so heavy as that in Gage count}-.

The type is very inextensive; it occurs as two small areas in the northwestern part of the county, which extend into Nemaha county. It occupies a high, slightly undulating divide which undoubtedly represents the original constructional surface of the loess plains. The type is well drained in normal seasons. In wet seasons the drainage is somewhat deficient on account of the hardpan layer and in very dr\' years the soil is rather cIroug!u\- for the same reason.

The agriculture on the Grundy silt 1( vim is the same as that on the surrounding Carrington silt loam. The land is valued at one hundred and hft\ to two hundred dollars an acre.

The surface soil of the Knox silt loam is a yellowish-brown, lightbrown or bufif -colored, friable, smooth silt loam, from six to eight indies deep. It is underlain by a bro\vnish-}'ellow or yellow, open, loose, friable silt loam. Light-gray mottlings and yellowish-brown or reddish iron stains are frequent in the lower subsoil, and often occur throughout the substratum. Lime concretions are very common in the subsoil. The soil varies considerably with difiference in topographic position. On the sharp divides and upper steep slopes a light yellowish gray variation with numerous lime concretions occurs. Where erosion has been very severe, the surface has a whitish appearance. On the tops of divides or on the lower slopes of hills and in forested areas the soil is brown, and in places approaches a darkbrown color. In the timbered areas the color is due largely to leaf mold, which would soon disappear with cultivation. The soil has a vertical and open structure, a characteristic of the Missouri river bluff loess. The typical soil contains very little black organic matter.

The Knox silt loam is rather inextensive in this county, having a total area of 20.1 square miles. It is confined to the Missouri river blufifs. It is best developed in the northeastern and southeastern parts of the county.

This soil has an extremely dissected topography and is thoroughly drained. The valleys are V-shaped, with very steep slopes, and are two to three hundred feet deep, but steplike slopes are very conspicuous features in some places. The hills are usually rounded, a characteristic of loess soils. Along the Missouri river slopes are extremely steep to precipitous. The type is subject to severe erosion, though since the subsoil is of practically the same character as the surface soil, the washing away of the surface material does not greatly change the character of the type nor render it useless for agriculture.

Practically all this type originally was forested. The chief growth on the upper slopes and crests of the hills was hazel brush, sumac, and scrubbxbur oak, and in the draws elm, oak, hickory, bitter hickory, basswood, box elder, ash, and some black walnut, with an undergrowth of hazel brush, prickly ash, and dogwood. At least fifty per cent, and probablv more of the type is still forested, though it is slowly being cleared.

Owing to the steep slopes the growing of small grains is impractical)le. Some oats and wheat, however, are grown where the topographv is more favorable. Oats constitute the most important grain crop, and are used largely for feeding work stock. Oats yield an a^^erage of twenty-five bushels per acre, and wheat sixteen to eighteen bushels. At present corn is the principal cereal and is mainly a cash crop. On the lower slopes, and where there is sufficient organic matter, it does well and vields from twentv to forty bushels per acre. On the high crests and steep slopes the growing corn has a yellowish appearance and makes a stunted growth unless heavily manured. ^AJfalfa is grown very extensively and promises to become the leading cash crop. It does well, owing to the thorough drainage and favorable distribution of lime. On some farms it is produced extensively, and is baled and shipped to St. Joseph or Kansas City. Ordinarily alfalfa yields three to four tons per acre per season. Clover and timothy do well, but it is difificult to get a sand in dry years. Sweet clover grows luxuriantly on this type, and is found along roads and in uncultivated fields, but the crop is not utilized. Apples and small fruits are grown to a small extent. The type is too far from railroad points for the successful production of fruit on a commercial scale.

Owing to its dissected surface the type is hard to manage, notwithstanding its loose structure and favorable texture. As very little live stock is kept on this soil, very little barnyard manure is applied. Commercial fertilizers are not used.

For the improvement of the Knox silt loam it is necessary to handle in with considerable care in order to prevent erosion and gullying. The type should be kept in pasture as much as possible, the cuhivated areas should be plowed deeper, and more organic matter should be incorporated with the soil. Where sufiicient barnyard manure is applied, crops do as well as on the Marshall silt loam. As the timber is very stunted, the forested areas should be cleared and used for pasture or seeded to alfalfa. Grass crops do well, and dairying and stock raising should prove profitable on this type. With proper attention the commercial production of apples should meet with success, where transportation and market conditions are favorable.

Carrington Silt Loam

The soil of the Carrington silt loam consists of a dark-brown, heav)- silt loam, eight to fifteen inches deep. In the flatter areas the soil is darker and approaches a black color. The soil carries a higher j>ercentage of clay than the Marshall silt loam, and as a result breaks down upon drying into angular granules instead of a fine powder like the ^larshall silt loam. The subsoil is a yellowish-brown or liglit-brown, very compact silty clay. with a decided grayish cast. Below twenty-four to thirty inches the subsoil is ligliter in color, and the gray appears as light-gray mottlings. In the lower part of the subsoil Ijright }-ellowish brown iron stains are common. In places there is a la\er of material between the soil and subsoil, from two to four inches in thickness and consisting of a brown, heavy silt loam, heavier than the surface soil. There is a pronounced difference between the soil and sulisoil in te.xture, but the change is not abrupt, except in the flatter areas. The subsoil is moderately plastic when wet, though when dry it is very hard and compact and difficult td break down between the fingers. At thirty to forty inches the subsoil is likely to be looser in structure and lighter in texture. The soil is high in organic matter.

There are a number of patches of heavy soil in the Carrington silt loam, known locally as "gumbo spots." In these places the soil is a darkbrown, heavy silty clay loam, eight to twelve inches deep, with a grayish cast at the surface. The soil has numerous cracks aiid is extremely difficult to handle. The subsoil is a drab, plastic silty clay, mottled with yellowish brown. The drab becomes lighter, changing to light gray, and the mottling decreases with depth. Lime and iron concretions are numerous in the lower subsoil. Crops do not mature in these spots.

In the gently undulating region in Franklin precinct there is a variation of this type marked by a "hardpan" layer. This is similar to the fi^f phase of this type mapped in Gage county, Nebraska. It consists of a darkbrown, heavy silt loam, twelve to fifteen inches deep, underlain abruptly by a rather tough. Ijlack clay. The material is extremely difficult to penetrate with a soil auger and is decidedly plastic. At twent}- to twenty-four inches the subsoil changes to a drab silty clay. niLittled with yellowish brown. The lower part of the subsoil is not so compact and heavy as the upper layer.

On shoulders of hills and moderatel\- steep slopes the soil is not so deep and is usually lighter in color than typical. In places the subsoil is exposed, but downward along the slopes the soil becomes deeper and darker in color, and at the foot of the slopes it is a dark-brown to black, heavy silt loam from twenty to forty inches deep. The type also includes narrow strips of colluvial material along the intermittent streams. The variations I if this type are not sufficiently extensive to be shown on the soil map.

The Carrington silt loam differs from the Marshall silt loam in origin, texture, and structure. The Carrington is a glacial soil, while the Marshall is a loessial soil, free from stones. The Carrington soil, and particularlv the subsoil, is heavier than the Marshall silt loam. These soils also differ in that the Carrington silt loam does not stand up so well in vertical banks as the Marshall silt Inam. Even with these differences, the tvpes grade (-1)

The Carrington silt loam is the most extensive t}pe in the county, and covers about two-thirds of the western upland region. It is more or less broken with areas of Rough stony land and Shelby loam.

This type is gently rolling to rolling and is thoroughly drained. West and northwest of Humboldt, where it is associated with the Shelby loam, it occupies the gentler slopes and the divides. It has a similar topography in the southwestern part of the county, where most of the steeper slopes are occupied by Rough stony land. The gently undulating areas are confined to the divide between the Nemaha river and Muddy creek, which extends from Falls City northwestward into Nemaha county. Other areas with a gently undulating surface occur south of Falls City. It is only on the steeper slopes that there has been any serious erosion. With proper tillage and crop rotation this soil, owing to its rather high organic-matter content, is very retentive of moisture.

The type originally was prairie. About ninety-five per cent, of it is now in cultivation, the remainder being in permanent pastures and farm lots. Corn is the most important cash crop, though a large part of the corn produced is fed to hogs. About one-third of this soil is in this crop, and the yields average about thirty bushels per acre, though much higher yields are obtained with careful cultivation. Oats rank second in acreage to corn and yield from thirty to forty bushels an acre. The oats are largely fed to work stock. Wheat is strictly a cash crop, and is receiving increased attention. Ordinarily, yields of twenty to twentj'-five bushels per acre are obtained. Clover and timothy are grown more extensively than alfalfa, though alfalfa is becoming more popular. Clover and timothy do well in wet years, though in dry years considerable difficulty is experienced in getting a stand. In favorable years yields of one and one-half to two tons per acre are obtained. Some timothy and clover are grown alone for seed with very profitable returns. Alfalfa does well, and three to four cuttings per season are made, with a total yield of three to five tons per acre. The tendency on this type is to produce less corn and more wheat and alfalfa and to keep more dairy cows and other live stock.

A few potatoes are grown, but scarcely enough to supply the home demand. Some sorghum is produced for sirup. There are only a few commercial orchards on this type; they give profitable returns, though the trees do not do so well as on the Marshall silt loam.

The general practice on this type is to keep the land two or three years in corn, one year in oats, one or two years in wheat, and in every second or third rotation to grow clover and timothy. The land is usually kept two or three years in clover and timothy and seven to ten years or longer in alfalfa.

The four-hitch team is used almost entirely in the preparation of the seed bed on this type ; gang plows generally are used for turning the soil. Owing to its stone-free nature, favorable topography, silty texture, and granular structure, this type is very easy to handle. When plowed too wet it bakes and clods. Only small quantities of barnyard manure are applied, and no commercial fertilizers are used.

The price of farm land on the Carrington silt loam varies from one hundred to one hundred and seventy-five dollars an acre. In the vicinity- of the towns this land is held for two hundred dollars an acre.

On most farms deeper and more thorough tillage of this soil would prove beneficial. Leguminous crops should I)e grown in order to keep up the organic-matter content of the soil.

Shelby Loam

The surface soil of the Shelby loam is a dark-brown to brown loam, with an average depth of about eight inches. The subsoil is a yellowishbrown sandy clay loam, which becomes lighter in texture with depth. Below about thirty inches the material is almost yellow. In the northwestern part of the county and other localities where the Aftonian material is near the surface, the subsoil is considerably lighter in texture and the surface soil is often a sandy loam. This variation, however, is too patchy to be .shown on the soil map. In places the subsoil has a reddish tint, which is due to the color of the original material and not to oxidation. The content of organic matter is moderately high. The subsoil contains considerable gravel and rock deliris. Gravel is usually scattered over the surface, and a few bowlders are present, though in the most fields these are not sufficiently numerous to prevent cultivation.

The Shelby loam occurs as small areas scattered throughout the Carrington silt loam type. It is best developed west and northwest of Humboldt in the Long Branch drainage basin. The type usually occurs along the steep slopes between the Carrington silt loam on the higher land and the Wabash silt loam in the Ijottom land. The drainage is thorough, and is excessive in local spots where the Aftonian sands lie near the surface.

W'liere the snljsdil is typical the soil withstands dnjtight well. The type is subject to destructive enision, gullies ten to fifteen feet deep, with numerous branching laterals, being very common.

The Shelby loam is derived from the Kansan drift sheet, but is more or less influenced by the w"ash from the silty upland soils. The large bowlders and pebbles on the surface and the gritty or sandy cla\' subsoil distinguish it from the Carrington silt loam.

The native vegetation on the Shelby loam consists of the prairie grasses common to this region. Along the drainage ways a large part of the type is forested. About forty per cent, of the Shelby loam is under cultivation, and the remainder is largely in permanent pasture.- with some hay land. Xo farms are composed entirely of this type. The yields of crops are lower than on the Carrington silt loam, though the same crops are grown. Corn yields fifteen to thirty-five bushels, oats twenty to twenty-fi\e bushels, wheat fifteen to twent}- bushels, and alfalfa two and one-half to three and onehalf tons per acre.

No definite crop rotation is practi.sed on this type. The general methods are about the same as on the Carrington silt loam. Owing to the steeper surface and the larger quantity of stony material present, this soil is much less desirable than the Carrington silt loam, with which it is closely associated. When cultivated too wet, the Shelby loam clods and bakes, and large checks and cracks form. .\ heavv farm equipment is required in cultivating this type, except in the sand spots. Onl_\- small (|uantities of manure are applied, and no commercial fertilizers are used Land values on this t\"pe range from fift\ to ninety dollars an acre.

b'or the improvement of the Shelby loam consideral)le care is necessary to prexent gullying on the .^teej) slopes. The steeji areas should remain in permanent pasture or cover crops as much of the time as jiossible. The content of <irganic matter shoukl be maintaineed by turning under green crops and growing leguminrius cr<ips.

The W'aukesha silt loam consists of a ilark-brown. smooth, friable silt loam, having an average depth of about eighteen inches. The soil pas.ses through a brown, heavy silt loam into a brownish-yellow silt loam which is hea\-ier and more compact than the surface soil. The sulisoil liecomes lighter in color with depth, lieiiig yellowish in the lower pan. The sul)- stratuni is oi)en :ind verv triable, and the material in the fourth foot is calcareous. The soil section of the Waukesha silt loam is similar to that of the Marshall silt loam. As the color indicates, the Waukesha silt loam is high in organic matter.

In extent the ^Vaukesha silt loam is very unimportant, having a total area of only 1.8 square miles. It occurs as .small, isolated areas along the streams of the county.

This type occupies distinctly benchlike areas, modified to some extent by stream erosion. The terraces are from ten to fifteen feet above the present flood plain. The Waukesha silt loam is well drained and withstands drought over long periods.

Originally this soil was covered with a luxuriant growth of prairie grasses. Xearly all the type is now under cultivation to the staple crops commonly grown in the county. No farms consist entirely of this type. Corn yields twenty-five to fort)-five bushels, oats thirty-five to forty bushels, and wheat twenty to thirty bushels per acre. Leguminous crops receive little attention.

The methods of cultivation, rotation, and fertilization are similar to those on the Marshall and Carrington silt loams. The productive capacit\' of this soil has been somewhat impaired by the failure to grow clover and alfalfa.

For the improvement of this soil there is a general need for more, thorough cultivation and the growing of leguminous crops to maintain the organic-matter content.

Wabash Silt Loam

The soil of the Wabash silt loam is nearly black, and to an average depth (if about twenty inches consists of a heavy, smooth silt loam. This is underlain by a slightly heavier and more compact silt loam, which usually is somewhat lighter in color, though it is not uncommon to find little difi'erence in color or texture in the three- foot section. In places, usually along the edge of the bottoms, the subsoil is a black, compact siltv clav. Lime concretions and also iron stains are common in the lower part of the subsoil. In poorly drained situations the lower subsoil usually is gray, mottled with yellowish brown. A high content of organic matter is characteristic of the surface soil of this type. In section 24, township i north, range 17 east, and section ig, township i north, range 18 east, there is a variation of the

Wabash silt loam, characterized by the admixture of large quantities of sand. Otherwise the soil is similar to the main type. The higher sand content has given it a somewhat more friable structure.

This type is the most important bottom-land soil in the county and has a total area of 106.7 square miles. It occupies the first bottoms along the Nemaha river and its north and south forks, Muddy creek, and along the smaller streams of the county.

The surface is generally fiat, with only slight topographic relief where old cut-offs occur. Originally the drainage of this type was poor, but by clearing and straightening the channels of streams the drainage conditions have been very much improved. About sixty miles of ditches have been constructed. Practically all the type is subject to overflow in the spring.

Along the stream channels the type originally was forested with elm, box elder, willow, cottonwood, ash, linden, hackberry. bitter hickory, and black walnut, and a large part of this timber remains. Other parts of the type support a luxuriant growth of marsh grasses. About sixty per cent of this soil is devoted to the production of staple crops, and the acreage in cultivation is rapidly being extended. Corn is the dominant crop, and there are about six acres of corn to one acre of wheat and oats combined. Higher yields of corn are obtained on this land than on any other soil in the county. The yields ordinarily range from forty-five to fifty-five bushels per acre, but with good cultivation in favorable seasons as much as ninety bushels has been obtained. About one-half the corn is fed and the remainder is sold. Where this soil has been devoted to the production of corn for a numl^er of years, and is well drained, wheat does well, producng from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre. Wheat, however, is not grown extensively. Kherson oats do fairly well, yielding from thirty to forty bushels per acre. The long-straw varieties are likely to lodge. On farms that do not include some upland not enough oats are grown for the feeding of work stock. In well-drained areas alfalfa does well, although very little of this crop is grown. A large area of the type is hay land and pasture, ^^'ild ha\- vields from one to two tons per acre. Owing to the fact that this type affords good pasturage and produces good yields of hay, the raising of beef cattle has been more extensively developed than on the upland. No crop rotation is practiced, owing to the high natural productiveness of the soil. In many cases it is reported that fields have been in corn continuouslv fi>r ten \ears or longer. Occasionally is corn alternated with oats or wheat.

make it very easy to handle. In the spots of heavier material there is a tendency for the soil to form hard lumps when cultivated too wet. No barnyard manure or commercial fertilizers are used. The Wabash silt loam ranges in value from one hundred and twenty-five dollars to one hundred and seventy-five dollars an acre, depending on location and drainage conditions. The important problem confronting the farmers on this type is that of drainage. The installation of a standard drainage system to remove the excess soil moisture as well as the overflow water is needed. In the better drained situations ditches would serve the purpose, while in the low, poorly drained areas tiles should be laid about three rods apart.

Wabash Silty Clay Loam

The soil of the Wabash silty clay loam is a black silty clay loam, ranging from twelve to fifteen inches in depth. It grades into a hard, compact silty clay, which does not smooth out, but breaks into small aggregates when crushed between the fingers. The subsoil becomes heavier and denser with depth. At twenty-four to thirty inches the material is lighter in color, being dark drab, mottled slightly with yellowish brown. The soil as well as the subsoil has a granular structure, a characteristic of soils consisting largely of clay. Locally this type is called "gumbo." The soil is very high in organic matter.

The Wabash silty ciay loam is an extensive bottom-land type. It has a total area of 21.2 square miles', and occurs in the first bottoms of the Nemaha river and the north and south forks of this stream.

The topography is flat to slightly depressed. The drainage is very poor, owing to the impervious character of the subsoil. The type is subject to annual overflow.

The original growth on this type consisted of slough grasses and waterloving plants. Most of the type is in hay land and pasture; about 20 per cent, of it is under cultivation. Corn, wheat, and Kherson oats do well. except in wet years. Corn yields forty to fiity bushels per acre, wheat about thirty bushels, with a maximum of forty-five bushels per acre, and Kherson oats about thirty bushels per acre. This soil is particularly well adapted to wheat, owing to its heavy texture. In dry seasons a fairly good quality of wild hay is produced on this tj'pe, yielding from one to two tons per acre, though in wet years the hay is too coarse to be of much feeding value. In very wet seasons crops are practically a failure because of the frequent over-

The Wabash silty clay loam is much harder to handle than the Wabash silt loam. Under favorable moisture conditions it granulates and works up into a mellow seed bed, but when worked too wet it bakes and forms intractable clods. The type receives no fertilization of any kind. This land is \ alued at twenty-five dollars to eighty dollars an acre, depending largely on the drainage conditions.

The establishment of efficient ilrainage b}- supplementing the present ditches with tiles alxmt three rods apart is necessarv nver a large part of the type.

The Wabash clay is a black, waxy, plastic clay, fifteen to eighteen inches deep, underlain by a dark slate colored subsoil of the same texture. The subsoil becomes lighter in color with depth, and below thirty to thirtysix inches is gray, mottled with bright yellowish brown. Small iron and lime concretions are encountered in the subsoil. Both soil and subsoil have a granular structure and are very high m organic matter. The soil checks and cracks considerably during periods of dry weather. The AVabash clay is similar to the Wabash silty clay loam, except that it is heavier in texture.

This type is relatively inextensive, and is confined to the southeastern part of the county. It occurs in the first bottom at the mouth of the Xemaha river.

The W^abash clay has a flat to depressed topograph}- and is ver_\- poorly drained. The type has been provided with several ditches, although additional laterals are needed to remove the surface water. It is subject to annual overflows, which usually occur early in the spring. It is sometimes inundated in the growing season.

The Wabash clay is largely utilized for pasture land. In dry seasons it furnishes good pasturage, but during wet seasons or when overflows occur little or no pasturage is available. About one-half the cultivated area is in wheat, which in dr_\' seasons produces fnun tliirt\- to fort}- bu>hels per acre. Corn does well, but is less extensively grow n than in former years. It yields from thirty to forty-five bu.shels per acre. The soil is too rich for the production of oats. Wild hay yields from one ton to one and one-half tons per acre. The hay is mainly fed. Most of the stuck raised on this type consists of beef cattle, few dairy cattle being kept.

equipment is required. When cultivated too wet it forms clods, though under favorable moisture conditions the soil works up into a mellow seed bed. No fertilizers are used. The value of this land ranges from twenty dollars to sixty dollars an acre, depending mainly on drainage conditions.

Cass Clay

The surface soil of the Cass clay is a dark-drab to black, sticky clay, six to ten inches deep. It is underlain by a drab or gray clay, faintly mottled with brown and rusty brown. In places the mottling is reddish yellow. Below twenty-four to thirty inches a yellowish-gray mottled with reddishyellow ^'ery fine sandy loam is encountered. This t)-pe differs from the Wabash clay in that it has a sandy subsoil. The soil is high in organic matter.

The Cass cla_\- is inextensive in this county, having a total area of less than one square mile. It is encountered in the Missouri river first bottoms. occurring north of Rulo and in the northeastern part of the county.

The surface is generally flat, with a few meandering sloughs. Owing to the underlying light-textured material, this type possesses fair drainage. The sloughs occasionally are inundated.

Practically all this type is reclaimed. It is largely devoted to the production i>f corn, wheat, oats, and alfalfa. Corn is by far the most important crop, and yields from forty to fifty bushels an acre. Oats do fairly well, but are likely to lodge. Wheat does well, yielding about thirty btishels per acre. ^ Alfalfa is grown cjuite extensively with seasonal yields of three to six tons an acre. Owing to the natural productiveness of this soil, the rotation I if crops receives little attention, and the fields usually are planted in corn until an appreciable reduction in crop yields takes place, when some small grain crop is substituted for a few years. Corn, wheat, and alfalfa are cash crops.

This type is difficult to handle, although easier than the \\'abash clay. A heavy farm e(|uipment is required for thorough tillage. No barnvard man-iu'e is applied and no commercial fertilizers are used. The Cass clay is valued at sixt\- dollars to one hundred dollars an acre, depending on the extent to which it is subject to erosion by the Missouri river.

Sarpy Very Fine Sandy Loam

As it occurs in Richardson county, the Sarpy very fine sandy loam consists of a light-brown to brown very fine sandy loam to a depth of ten to fifteen inches, containing an appreciable quantity of coarse silt. This is underlain by a yellowish-gray, lighter textured very fine sandy loam which contains but little silt or clay. Below twenty-four inches the subsoil is mottled with light gra}' and shows bright yellowish brown iron stains. The low percentage of organic matter is indicated by the light color of the soil.

This type is very inextensive, occurring as small areas in the Missouri river bottoms. It lies usually about eight feet above the normal flow of the stream. The surface is generally flat, though marked by slight ridges. Between stages of high water, the drainage is good; at high stages of the stream the low areas are overflowed.

The greater part of this type is under cultivation, and is almost entirely devoted to the production of corn. In seasons of favorable rainfall corn does well, yielding from twenty-five to thirty-five bushels per acre. Some wheat and oats are grown. Wheat yields fifteen to twenty bushels, and oats thirty bushels an acre. Potatoes of good quality are produced on this soil, though the crop is grown only to supply the home demand. Some alfalfa is grown and does fairly well.

The Sarpy very fine sandy loam works up into a very mellow seed bed and can be tilled under any moisture conditions as long as there is no water standing on the surface. Small quantities of manure are added to the reclaimed areas; no commercial fertilizers are used. T-and values range from thirty dollars to eighty dollars an acre.

For the improvement of the Sarpy very fine sandy loam it is recommended that green crops be turned under to increase the organic-matter content.

Sarpy Silt Loam

Areas of the Sarpy silt loam are indicated on the soil map b\- inclusion symljols in the Sarpy very fine sandy loam color. The soil of tlie Sarpv loam is a light-brown to brown silt loam, twelve to fifteen inches deep, containing a high percentage of very fine sand. The subsoil is a yellowish or brownish-gray very fine sand>' loam with streaks of coarser as well as heavier material. The change in color between the soil and subsoil is not marked In- a distinct line, nlthougli as a rule the lower subsoil i.^ a shade lighter in

The type is flat, but owing to its sandy subsoil it is well drained between stages of high water. It lies about eight to ten feet above the normal level of the river. Owing to the high water table, it is very drought resistant.

Practically all this type is under cultivation, being devoted mainly to com. This crop does well, yielding from forty to fifty bushels an acre. Some alfalfa is grown, and this is a very profitable crop. The value of land of this type ranges from eighty dollars to one hundred dollars an acre, depending on the extent to which it is subject to erosion by the Missouri river.

Rough Stony Land

The areas mapped as Rough stony land consist of land too stony and rocky to permit cultivation. The soil is seldom deeper than eight inches, and over large areas the bedrock is exposed. What little soil has remained is chiefly a black silt loam to silty clay, underlain by rotten limestone or shale of the Pennsylvania formation which vary in color from white to red. In local spots the soil contains some sand and is a loam in texture. Considerable coarse material, such as bowlders and gravel, is scattered over the surface. It is probable that most of the soil is derived from the bedrock and not from glacial debris.

Rough stony land is rather extensive in this countv. It occurs as small areas mainly in the southwestern part of the county, scattered throughout areas of the Carrington silt loam.

The topography is broken and marked by an intricate drainage svstem. Along streams the slopes frequently are precipitous. The areas- mapped include rock blufifs along streams and occasional low -knobs in the higher lying land.

Along the drainage ways most of the Rough stony land supports a scrubby growth of bur oak. The other areas support a fairh- luxuriant growth of the prairie grasses common to the region.

This land is used only for grazing. Beef cattle, mainly Herefords, are raised, and are sold chiefly in Kansas City and St. Joseph. Land values range from ten dollars to forty dollars an acre.

Riverwash

Ri\er\vash, as mapped in Richardson count}-, comprises mainlv areas of mud, silty tiats, and sand bars in the Missouri river. The material is very light colored and ranges in texture from a clay to a fine sand. A large part of the Riverwash supports a growth of young willows, and is in the transitional stage from Riverwash to soil of the Sarpv series.

There are two and six-hundredths square miles of Riverwash in this county. The surface is only a few feet above the normal level of the river, and the areas are overflowed with slight rises of the stream. The Riverwash changes with each overflow and even during the normal flow of the stream the outlines of the areas are constantly changing. The new deposits are considerably modified by wind action, and in stormy davs form dust clouds.

Summary

Richardson county lies in the extreme southeastern corner of Nebraska, bordering the Missouri river. It has an area of five hundred and forty-five square miles, or three hundred and forty-eight thousand eight hundred acres.

The topography varies from gently undulating to steeply rolling or broken, though most of the area is rolling. The elexation of the county above sea level ranges from eiglit hundred and fifty to one thousantl two hundred and twenty feet. The greater part of the area lies between one thousand and one thousand i;)ne hundred feet above sea level. The general slope of the county is southeastward. .\11 sections are provided with adequate surface drainage by a complete system of drainage ways belonging to the system of the Nemaha river, an importaiit tributary of the Missouri.

According to the census nf igjo, Richardson county has a population of se\-enteen thousand four hundred and forty-eight, of which eighty-one and three-tenths per cent, is classed. as rural. The principal town is Falls City, the county seat. The transportation facilities, except in the northeastern corner of the county, are gotxl. Tn general, the countx is pro\ided with excellent dirt roads. Kansas City. St. Joseph, and Omaha are the

The climate of Richardson county is pleasant and is well suited to agriculture. There is an average growing season of about one hundred and seventy days. The mean annual precipitation is about thirtv-three inches, and the mean annual temperature about fifty-three degrees ¥.

Grain farming is the main type of agriculture. Corn, oats, wheat, timothy and clover mi.xed, alfalfa, and wild grasses are the principal crops, ranking in acreage in the order named. The raising of hogs and beet cattle and dairying are important industries. The farm buildings are substantial and the surroundings present an appearance of thrift and prosperitv.

Systematic crop n nations are not practiced. On!\- small quantities of barnyard manure are applied, and scarcely any commercial fertilizers are used. There is an abundance of farm labnr, but it is hard to obtain efficient help. Most farms consist of one hundred and si.xt_\- acres, though the average size is reported in the 1910 census as about one hundred and fiftvcit^ht acres. About fifty-three per cent, of the farms are operated b\' the owners, and practically all the remainder i)y tenants. About ninety-fi\e per cent, of the area nf the county is reported in farms and of the land in farms eight\-six ])er cent, is reijorted impnned. The value of farm land ranges from twenty dollars to two hundred dnllars an acre. Land is rented mainh by the share SN'stem. Cash rents range frdui aliout three dollars to si.\ dollars per acre.

The county lies almost entirely within the glacial and loessial region, with only a small area belonging to the River b'lood Plain province. The .soils of the glacial and loes.sial region are deri\ed from the weathering of the loess and drift. The loess material has given rise to the Marshall. Grundy and Knox soils and the drift to the Carrington and Shelby soils. The second bottoms are occupied b\' the Waukesha soil. The recent deposits along the streams are classed with the W.abasb, Cass, and Sarpv soils, antl Riverwash.

Small areas closely iissociated with the drift have l)een formed through the tlisintegration of the shales antl limestones of the I'enns\l\ani;i formation. This material is classed with Ri)ugh stony land.

The Marshall silt loam is one of the extensive soil types in Richardson county. It is well suited U> the production of corn, oats, wheat, and hay. The utilization of the (irundv silt loam is simila.r to that of the Marsli:dl.

The Carrington silt loam is by far the most extensive and important type of soil in the county. This soil, together with the Marshall silt loam, dominates the agriculture of the county. The Shelby loam and Rough stony land are best used for pasture.