Campbell City (part 2 of 13)

(2) Reason. O. C. 387. pavrevpactv - 'Yes, surely, father, by reason of the late predictions.' Aj. Q55. 851, 2. Tr. 755. O.C. 1265. mav | 1 testify that I am proved the vilest of men, by reason of thy misery.' Ant. 391. ais éxeyudoOnv - * Because of thy threats which stormed on me. Ib. 691. 'On occasion of such sayings as will be displeasing to thee.' (Cp. a. 2, ¢ p. 18. ) Tr. 1127. od ye Her former errors require not silence.' Phil. TOII. | ois 'Full of vexation, because of his own errors and my wrongs.' El. 334. What thoughts are mine by reason of the present state,' (unless here is masc.) 'Tr. 240. evxais - ' Because of his vow.'

O. T. 159-64. lyr. .. or - Calling first on thee - (I bid ye) - Appear.' Phil. 1385. pou - ' Being thy friend, - my speech is friendly too." So probably in O. T. 1354, 5. lyr. | adyos - ' For dying then - this grief had all been spared my friends and me!' (Cp.

O. T. 1284. Lamentation, misery, death, disgrace; whatever evil has a name, not one is wanting here.' In O. T. 1234. | To tell the briefest tale, Jocasta's royal head is sunk in death,' the apparent anacoluthon is accounted for by apposition. (See p.57, B.1e) And in O.C. I150. . 'A word has just fallen in my way, to which give heed, there is an attraction of the antecedent. (P. 59 B. 44.)

O. T. 819. | 6 And in all this it was I myself and no other that fixed these curses on myself.' Ib. 3747. pene. 74. TO Lb. 466. yap | Spav - For in a just cause it is not reason that two should be contentious, but rather they should hasten to act.' Here the neuter may be the subject of or the object of O. C. 1424. ws | Do you see then how his prophecies go direct to their fulfilment.' is accus. after and nominative to Phil. 863. lyr. | 6 For, to my apprehension, my son, the toil that alarms not is the best.' may be regarded either as accusative of respect, or nominative in apposition with the sentence. (Cp. O. T. 1234 quoted above.) El. 1071. lyr. Phil. 4071. | | Or, as regards my messengers, as is most like, methinks, they little recked of me, but hastened on their homeward voyage.' is either accusative of respect, or rather the subject of a clause for which the words are substituted.

O. T. 152. dyads OF8as - ' Camest to glorious Thebes.' Ib. 761. send him to the fields, and to the pastures of the flocks.' Tr. 58. Comes rushing to the house.'

'over,' e.g. Aj. 30. Bounding over the plain' - and, with an apparent ellipse of the verb of motion, Ib. 877. haveis - ' He has not been seen anywhere along the eastward path." (1. 6. B. Ke. .

time. In O. T. 1137, though after is still the accusative of duration of time. Sc. didEovra. Cp. Hdt. vii. 50, 3. re

The use of the accusative of the object is extended : - i.e. many verbs or verbal expressions acquire a transitive force which is not usually conceded to them: or a transitive verb acquires a second accusative.

O. T. 31. It is not that we hold thee equal with the gods that either I or these children besiege thy hearth.' El. 147. lyr. dpapev Ib. 556. Aj. 191. lyr. El. 98. lyr. | O. 583. | El. 1377. | ap' who oft honoured thee from what I had, coming before thee with unsparing hand. Ant. 211. | Kat Such is thy pleasure regarding him who is disloyal, and him who is loyal to this city' (=otrw or the like). Aj. 136. lyr. 1 rejoice in thy good fortune. Phil. 1164. lyr. Ib. 1314. was delighted by your praises of my sire" El. 1456. etras - ' You have given me great cause for gladness by your words.' See also O. T. 936. | dv; 'But, for the news which I shall quickly tell, you may well rejoice at it, yet perchance "twill grieve you.'

O.C. 113. | ddoos. - i. 6. 'Lead me out of the way and hide me in the grove.' ine~aye. Tr. 1221. réxvov - * This I enjoin on thee, my son (unless is an adverb). 123.

lyr. rdxeis ., oluwyav . .'Ayapéuvova ; - 'Why pourest thou this lament for Agamemnon?' Phil. 1188. lyr. | perériv - ' What shail I now do with thee in what remains of life?' Hence acc. after passive verb. Tr. 157. | A tablet written o'er with sentences.' in the accusative, even where it is the same with the subject of the principal verb, in cases where the same person is thought of with reference to different times or in different aspects.

O. T. 1512. is added for the antithesis, and the prayer is for the distant future. Tr. 706. p She is contemplating her own case guast ab extra. (Cp. Xen. Anab. iii. 1, 17.)

object,' in which the action of the verb is projected, and regarded as an object of the verb, is common in every period of Greek literature, but this idiom, like others, is extended by Sophocles.

Tr. 49. | | I have seen thee lamenting for the departure of Heracles in many tearful wailings.' Ib. 562. | When as a bride I first followed Heracles by my father's command.' Phil. 151. lyr. kaipo - 'To watch carefully for what is most opportune for thee' (or for thy time of advantage.) O. C. 449. kpaivew - ''To rule with the sceptre. (Cp. Phil. 140. lyr. 'Tr. 996. | They bear him heavily with noiseless tread.' Ib. 1004. lyr. dv iSoiunv - 'I would hail him with admiration from afar.'

Ant. 1273. lyr. | Took and smote me with mighty force.' (See note zz loco.) Tr. 982. 'The thoughts of my keen heart become an infinite load.' Phil. 1130. lyr. x.r.A. - ' Piteous must be thy gaze as thou beholdest.' Aj. 687. | 1 would have you equal her in that obedience.'

O. T. 904. lyr. avdoowrv - All-ruling Zeus;' ib. 475. lyr. - and occurs in combination with a verbal noun Tr. 338. éyo - ' For I have perfect knowledge of all this" Ant. 721. That a man should be full of universal knowledge.' The accusative in apposition to the action, i.e. governed not by the particular verb, but by the general verbal notion, which it is intended further to define, is also common in Greek, especially in poetry. |There are two chief cases of this idiom, corresponding severally to a participial clause and to an infinitive with In Sophocles this use helps concentration, e. g.

O. T. 603. And for proof of this, first of all,' &c.: and is curiously applied in O. O 1204. pe | You overcome me by your words with a sad pleasure.' 'Tr. g61. lyr. They say that he comes before the palace, causing boundless wonder.'

Ant. 289. But this was the meaning of those murmurs of malcontents in the city against me, who secretly shook the head.' See also El. 591, 2, O. T. 605, Ant. 167.

The chief peculiarity to be noticed here is the idiomatic use of e.g. El. 1125. Or a blood relation by birth.'

Aj. 472. yeyos - '* That being his son, I am not really a coward' (though I have been treated as if I were). O.C.270. How can I be proved a wicked man in my own character?' (whatever may have been my deeds). El. 1023. ye,

Tr. 1062. : i.e. the original thought was avnp. But being postponed, and the construction thus partially obscured, the sentence is continued as if the accusative had followed an active verb (e.g. In Aj. 760. the construction appears to be similarly modified from in which would be the accusative of limitation. 'The case of here may therefore be explained either as the accusative of limitation or as the cognate accusative.

The origin .of the Preposition is later and less obscure than that of the cases; and was certainly connected with notions of place. In for instance, the process can still be traced from the locative case of a noun (cp. the French ex face) of which the accusative appears in Homer, as in the phrase first to an adverb of place= and then to the prepositional use, which in the signification 'instead of,' passes out of the association of place.

As life and thought grew more complex, the variety even of local relations became greater than could be clearly expressed by the caseendings. Hence the preposition became more and more essential as a part of speech: the analytical mode of expression taking the place of the organic, or synthetical, by a process similar to that observable in the introduction of other auxiliary words, as in the etc.) and the modern Greek substitute for the infinitive mood.

O. C. 55, 6. | Tpopnfeds - ' And there too is the God who brought the fire, Prometheus, Son of Earth.' Ant. 420. | El, 713. dpduos - where suggests also ' within.'

Tr. 206, | ira And at the same time let the men's shout therewith arise.' ! O. T. 181. lyr. 7 And wives there, and grey-haired mothers too.' Aj. 959. And, with him, the two kings.' Ib. 1288. And with him I being present to help.' El. 299. | 6 And with her, standing by, her notorious husband instigates her.' Tr. 787. | On the other hand which appears as an adverb in

So in Phil. 320. | Having in like manner found baseness in the Atridae:' seems to recover the adverbial force. In O. T. 175. lyr. 'Tr. 842. lyr. peydhav | : and possibly in Phil. 144. lyr. | Methinks you would see the spot hard by the shore ;' the dative is partly governed by

Ant. 432. | Onpdyef - ' And we arrest her.' Ib. 1107. pnd tpéme - And do not give the task to others.' EL. 746. 8 | he is rolled along with the straps of the reins.'

In O. T. 27. l oxnras - And_ therewith, descending on the city, the fiery God,' is still adverbial (supr. a), but so closely connected with as to suggest

19. The prepositional usage is less fixed than at a later time. Partly the conventional mode of expression has not been finally selected, and partly the relation to be expressed is more graphically conceived than in after use. 'This may be observed also in Herodotus, as compared, for instance, with Xenophon (Hdt. iv. 69. Exavoav : 11. 91. vill. 74. It appears : -

As the case is used without the preposition quasi-elliptically, so the preposition is sometimes added contrary to use, where such fulness of expression happens to be effective.

O. T. 1112. For both by reason of his great age he answers the description.' Phil, 185, 6 lyr. |

Ant. 1141. lyr. The city is plague-stricken.' El. 237. lyr. it well to be forgetful of the dead?' 108. lyr. With wailing. Ant. 759. Ib. 786. lyr. | And no one of the immortals can escape thee, no,

El. 780. | So that neither by night, nor out of the way of day, does sweet sleep cover me.' O.C. 250. dvropar - 'I entreat it of thee. Ant. 95. (cp. O. C. 453) - ' My folly.'

2. The same absence of fixity appears-in the freer choice prepositions, and in the occasional extension by analogy of idiomatic uses. Thus expressing the origin, is used of the agent or cause (cp.

Ant. 1219. We examined this as we were urged by our despairing lord, according to his bidding.' (Here the imperfect expression is supplemented by Ib. TOIB. 'And this disaster of the city comes of thy mind.'

O. C. 67. rod Kar These parts are governed of the king in the city." Ant. 63. dpyduer® kpecodvav- - ' We are ruled by those who are stronger than we are. O.C. 256. rpéuovres - ' But fearing what the gods may do.' [Cp. Hdt. viii. 15. | of the instrument (cp. 6d).

Ant. 961. xepropios ---- With reviling tongue.' Tr. 887. ropa By cutting with steel.' év of an occasion of stumbling (metaphorical).

with dative of the instrument, as often in Homer. O. T. 202. with the dative=év 'amidst,' 'half buried in.'

With similar picturesque force - ék= 'rising out of" Tr. 780. with the accusative has still in one instance the meaning of 'throughout.' Cp. Aesch. Suppl. 15.

with the genitive in the emphatic sense of ' breaking through' or 'transcending' occurs in Tr. 1131. [Cp. Plat. Rep. vi. 494 D. | with genitive of agent after active voice. O. T. 1488. What a life you will have to live at the hands of men.' almost= O. C. 746. pras - ' And with one attendant.' This becomes adverbial in én' El. ro60. [Hdt. vii. 50. | In most of the above instances there is a continuance or extension

El. 84. yap | 'This brings sure victory for us, and success in our enterprise.' Ib. 899. ev témov - And when I saw that all was quiet there" O.T. 828. ..

5. Peculiar uses of prepositions in composition will be noticed in the second part of this Essay, as belonging rather to the subject of diction.

FE]. 1178. It is, and full of wretchedness you see it:' and O.T. 1195. lyr. *ovder* (?) - *I count nothing mortal happy;' are characteristic of this tendency. (Cp. however Hom. Ven. 1. 34.)

2. The Attic preference for masculine forms may, in Sophocles, generally be traced to some special motive. Either (a) the masculine gender is selected as the ' worthier,' as in -

El. 977-983. ---- " Behold these two of the same stock .. whom all must honour for their noble spirit,' where it occurs seven times, - or (4) the common form is more expressive; either (1) where male persons are included, as in -

Or (2) where the more general word agrees better with the feeling of the passage (especially where a woman speaks of women). O.T.1472. pitow - ' My dear ones. Tr. rgr. | mpagw - ' Considering one's own fortune.' 160. 206. 6 (Cp. infr. p. 3%, 3.) Ib. 336. ovorwds Who they are, that you are leading within. Ib. 887. *uaraue* (?) - ' Helpless one!' Ib. 1062. OP. also El. 1026, yap

3. The Feminine and Neuter genders are combined in Ant. 105. lyr. .. and Phil. 902. peca - ' All is trouble.'

1. The use of the plural for the singular is a common feature of the tragic dialect. There is a tendency in poetry to the use of abstract words, which are expressive of feeling, as may be often observed in the substitution of the abstract for the concrete. In like manner the vagueness of the plural is frequently the expression of poetical feeling, as in the following instances : -

O. T. 1403-8. | | | O cursed marriage, that displayed the father, brother, son, and parricide, the bride, wife, mother, - all the deepest shames that live amongst men.' El. 1232-5. | | epedper', ods O thou dear issue of him most loved by me, thou art even now come; thou didst find, didst come, didst see whom thou didst desire." 1404, 5. id O halls, friendless and full of destroying hands.' Tr. g1I. And her childless existence for the future.' Other poetical usages are, See the Lexicons.

3. Of a wholly different kind is the interchange of singular and plural, which arises sometimes from a mere variation in the mode of expression, the indefinite singular being equivalent to the indefinite plural.

Ant. 1021, 2. Bods, | Nor does the bird clamour forth intelligible cries, since they have eaten the fatness of human carnage.' Ib. 1165-7. ras yap | od | GAN vexpdv- - ' When men have given up their pleasures, I do not count that man to live, but esteem him for a living corpse.' Phil. 305-7. Ib. 446,7. | ill thing never perished yet, but they are well protected by the deities.'

Tr. 547-9. yap | | For I see that the bloom on yonder cheek is advancing, while this is on the wane: - and from those the eye is wont to cull the flower, but from these he turns away.' [Cp. Thucyd.

a. As the Article is sprung from the demonstrative pronoun, and the relative pronoun has the same origin, it is right to consider them together, and the earliest grammarians understood this when they included them under one name as

It has been sometimes imagined, in accordance with a tradition of Aristarchus, that the article is always pronominal in Homer, and always, with certain fixed exceptions, merely attributive in later Greek. But the change was gradual, and can partly be traced. 'There are beginnings of the weaker or simply defining use, even in Homer : -

Il. 167. Far greater is that gift which falls to thee." Ib. 23. 325. Soxevee - ' But holds securely, and watches him the foremost.'

In these and other such instances, the use is no doubt more vivid than in later Greek; that is to say, an individual image is presented to the mind: but we perceive in them the transition to the usage which afterwards became fixed. On the other hand, there are remains of the pronominal use even in the later Attic 6 7 és, 7, Tod KT A). Plat. Legg. lil, 701 E, Ib. iv. 721 B. d

From the early Epic to the late Attic usage, there is a gradation, in which Sophocles comes about half-way. While he employs the article more largely as a pronoun than could have been done at a later time, he is more sparing in the attributive or defining use, which thus retains more graphic power than in ordinary language.

O. T. 1082. pyntpds - 'For she is my true mother.' El. 45. | 'For he is their greatest ally." = Phil. 154. lyr. aroxaiptuy - ' For to learn this were not unseasonable for me.'

O. C. 742. And of them I in chief,' Tr. 1172. But, as it seems, this really meant merely. Ib. 134. lyr. And to him (or to another) comes successively.'

El. 1291. Drains, and part lavishes, part idly squanders'" Tr. 117. lyr. 'Nurtures (or surrounds), and in a manner glorifies." Ant. 1299. And again I see before my eyes this corpse.' This instance differs slightly from the others, because it has a definite meaning or reference. O.T. 1228, 9.

2. But the demonstrative use occurs also in a different connexion. O. C. 1699. lyr. Kat What time I kept him too in my embrace.'

3. The article as a demonstrative is used adverbially, by a continuance of the Homeric idiom, without the help of a particle. O.'T. 510. lyr. ppevds - ' Therefore,' etc. Phil. 142. lyr. évvene - ' Vhen tell me.'

4. The relative use of the article in tragic Greek is confined to the cases which have at the commencement (probably to avoid the confusion of and 6, and #); and occurs in these, as a rule, only where the is required to prevent hiatus. Exceptions are - reading is questionable) - ' Thou art come as an informant of the things whereof we doubt, to tell us of them.' Phil. 707. lyr. | adghynorai - Taking up of the things whereof we toiling men partake' (where the whole passage has an Epic colouring).

Phil. 371. yap And he said, - Odysseus said, for he chanced to be standing near;' where the noun is in apposition to the article, which still retains its pronominal force. El. 601. 6 He too.... Orestes.' O. T. 19. Pidov - ' There is another company which,' etc.

The defining article retains a greater liveliness, i.e. more vestiges of the earlier demonstrative use, than in later Greek, and even than in contemporary prose; and the limits of the usage are less fixed. Hence - a. It sometimes receives a strong emphasis. Especially remarkable in this connexion is Ant. 409, where the article is placed at the end of an Iambic line - onpavtes Tov | vexuv - ' Having wiped off all the dust which covered that corse.' Cp. Ib. 404. vexpdyv - ' 'That corpse that thou,' etc. Less marked but still emphatic are -

O. T. 864. lyr. The grace of pious purity in words, etc. Ib. 1050. 6 It is full time that this discovery be made.' It is omitted - (1) With one of two co-ordinate words, though added to the other. El. 265. Tb. 991.

by the gods do not torment me, the old manIam.' C. 205. lyr. (?) - ' Trouble-worn as we see you to be.' El. 166, 7. lyr. | Having this lot of unprevailing misery.'

Aj. 1107. Those high words of yours:' Ib. 312. . érn - ' Those terrible threats which haunt me:' Ib. 650. Phil. 576. ; the article refers more or less pointedly to the particular case.

Tivos, have been treated by Ellendt and others as inflections of 6, 7, but are now known to be anomalous cases (heteroclita) of ris, as from a nom. réos. In proof of this, it may be observed that Ionic Greek has red and rev and in the interrogative and indefinite meaning, but never as cases of the article.

antecedent or correlative has to be gathered from the context. El. 963. where the antecedent to has to be inferred from the adverbs dAexrpa . .

the first personal pronoun (0. 450, &c.), but as an indirect expression for the possessive pronoun of different persons.. (Cp. 'These hands shall tear her, Shak. Much Ado, iv. r).

Ant. 990. referring to | Phil. 288, | Wounding the feathered doves, and up to this, whatever my shaft might wound.' Ant. 668. : i.e. Phil. 436. |

In O. T. 1180. otros - 'If you are he, he says you are, the first is thus used, while the second is employed in the usual way. Cp. Shak. H. VIII. i. 1. 'Must fetch him in he papers,' where there is a similar ambiguity in the two pronouns,

The familiar distinction between and is not always preserved. They are sometimes used alternately with the same reference, for variety and to suit the verse.

O. C. 263. «.7.A. - ' And wherein have I found this true, when after raising me - ye,' etc. Ib. 864-6. aide | | k.7.A. - ' Nay, let not these deities prevent my uttering this curse, since, wretch that thou art, etc. Tr. 817. yap | Aj. 457- ; Phil. 60. ..

Sometimes, where there is an antecedent, the relative pronoun=«i with the personal pronoun. Phil. 255. See below, 28, p. 46. Sometimes, when there is an apparent antecedent, an indefinite antecedent is to be supplied; Tr. 250, 1, Phil. 342. The relative is sometimes to be referred to the former of two nouns or pronouns in the antecedent clause.

Aj. 217, 8. lyr. | k.7.A. - '* Ajax was disgraced - such a spectacle is there - '. Ib. 562. x.7r.A. - * Such a warder of the gate.' Tr. 46, 7. | And there is cause to fear some trouble - such was the nature of the tablet which he left with me in departing.'

Aj. 327. mos For to such effect are his words and moanings.' Ib. 433. xdvo - ' For such are the miseries I encounter.' Tr. 144. yap | For such is the region of its own where the young creature grows.'

4. The indefinite rs is used with covert reference to a person [cp. Thuc. 111. 2. ef (1. 6. of i5n - ' Unless one interfere immediately '].

El. 293. (1. 6. 'Opéorqy - ' Save when she hears one say, Orestes will come.' Phil. r10. In Ant. 751. (i.e. Well then she -will die, and her death will ruin I know whom,' use is made of this idiom to heighten the dramatic effect. Similarly O. 1034, Ant. 35 (cp. Hdt. vi. 109 alib.), refers to something which is quite definite, but is spoken of with feeling.

The indefinite pronoun may also mark as unknown something which from the nature of the case is definite, and therefore has the article: hence such combinations of definite and indefinite, as -

O. C. 288. But when he that is your lord is here' OO. T. 107. - 'To punish with violence certain who were the doers of the deed." Ant. o51.

Observe in passing the relative use of (?): El. 1176, Tr. 339; the allusive use of the possessives, e.g. 1110, and the generalized :- -

6. The reflexive of the third person is used for the first in Aj. 1132. with a glance at the general case, and this agrees better with od yap But in O. T. 138 the ard person is simply used for the rst. Cp.

With respect to the Adjective, as well as to the case-endings, the feeling of analogy was stronger in the age of Sophocles, and the force of convention weaker, than at a later time; and he is able to extend adjectival uses, from the same instinctive consciousness of the meaning of inflexions to which the extension of the case-idioms is also due. And speaking generally, the adjective is used by him (as by earlier writers) with greater freedom than in ordinary Attic Greek.

a, One obvious peculiarity which he shares with the other Tragic poets is the tendency to redouble epithets, often without any connecting particle; e.g.

El. 1085. lyr. etkov - ' You chose to share with many the tearful life.' Ib. 851. lyr. ... T aiéu - 'A life crowded in every month with fearful and hateful sorrows.' Ant. 891. | deippovpos - ' O cavernous abode, where I must keep my endless watch. Ib. 1204. | The maiden's hollow stone-built bridechamber of death'

B. The rule that the article or other determinative word should immediately precede an adjective when used attributively is apparently broken, by an epithet being introduced after a noun to which (1) the article or (2) an interjection has been attached. The adjective in this case may be regarded as placed in apposition to the noun, and as conveying an implied predication. It will be observed that in several instances there is a possessive pronoun preceding the noun.

xr. O. T. 671. yap | 'I have compassion, not for his voice but thine, which is full of pity." Ant. 881. lyr, addxpyrov - My lot, unwept of all' = Phil. 1456, 7. lyr. My head, in farthest nook.' Tr. 936. The hapless youth." Aj. 572. My injurer.'

On. The Language

O. T. 1506. ddopévas - ' Being thy kin, to wander poor and unhusbanded.' O. C. 1555. dei - ' May ye ever be fortunate, and remember me when dead." El. 1246. lyr. dvépedov You have taken away the veil, and thrust on me what can never be undone.' Aj. 259. lyr. éyee - ' And now that his senses are restored he has fresh sorrow. Phil. 361. 'ArpeiSas mp. b. To the Atridae as to friends" Ib. 1153. lyr. rat, | tuiv - This spot hath careless guard, and is no longer to be feared by you.' El. 1319. Sc.

O. C. 132 I, 2. dcis - ' Named from the fact of his conception by his mother, erewhile a virgin.' | If this conducting art, which I possess from Hermes, be sure" El. 470. | pe Ib. 506. lyr. | ya - ' How full ---- Would not that a vain pleasure for you to obtain?' Phil. 720. lyr. avicee - ' He will attain happiness. 1504. pe 'I must see to it, that this have all bitterness for you. O. 1235. Ts allotted last.' (An extension of the common idiom etc., Aj. 1121. ov exrnoaynv - ' I did not acquire my art as a mechanic.' Ib. 461. 'ArpeidSas - ' And (leaving) the Atridae to themselves." El. 1200. The only 'one who ever pitied.' Phil. 587. Since your coming is friendly.'

Tr. 976. lyr. 7 For he lives, though on the verge of death. Aj. 47. épyaracx - He sallies forth in craft" Tr. 648 - so. lyr. | Whom we waited for, a twelvemonth space, beyond the sea:' (or 'lost to our ken'). Phil. 38, 9. y merat | And here besides are lying in the heat some rags.' Aj. 1292. Ib. 934.

e. A further extension of the predicative use occurs when the adjective is used for the case of a noun, or the meaning of a whole phrase is condensed into a single adjective in a way not possible in prose. This happens especially with words of place. (See this tendency exaggerated in Eur. Rhes. 713, 4. |

O. T. 1411, 12. | Or fling me away to the sea. El. 419, 20. | Fixed his staff upon the hearth.' Ant. 255. ov- - ' Not as in a grave. O. T. 477. (?) - * Wanders among rocks." And the singular expression in Ant. 1301. Bopia On the altar round about." Also O. T. 750. Went he with a scanty train?' Aj. 217. lyr. vixrepos . . Was disgraced in the night.' Ib. 229, 30. lyr. | Oavetraa - ' The man, tis manifest, will die.' Ib. 601, 2. lyr. *pnvav (9) . . Pining months numberless.' Tr. 573. Aepvaias The Hydra nature steeped the arrows in dark poison.' 165. BeBos. Ib. 927. Spopaia Baca. Ib. 957. lyr. Phil. 600. 412. (i.e. O, 142. lyr.

¢. In some very curious (pregnant) uses the exact meaning intended to be conveyed is only hinted by the formation of the adjective, and is left to be supplied by association.

El. 8547 lyr. . . | -dpwyai - The support ©" hopes which rested on common descent from a noble sire. Ib. 860-2. lyr. yadapyois | - 'In racings of swift hoofs to fall amid sharp-cut dragging reins.' Ib. 241-3. lyr. | ydov - 'Holding the wings of shrill lamentings from honouring my sire.' Ib. 1066. lyr. paza - ' Rumour that reachest mortals after death.' Tr. 840. lyr. The wounds inflicted by the Centaur through speech.' Aj. 935, 6. lyr. . (1.6. contest of noblest strengths." Phil. 693. 'lyr. (= Tois

The Adverb, like the preposition, to which it is allied (see above, p. 26, §.18), is. sometimes made to bear an unusual emphasis or stress of meaning; e. g..

O. T. 608. pe aireo - ' But do not on a vague surmise accuse me apart,' i.e. without the proofs indicated above. Ib. 1282. 6 | Bos Sixatws - ' Their ancient happiness in that former time was happiness indeed.' Ant. 70. Spans péra - ' Would there be any pleasure in: your doing it with me. Phil. 758.

Ant. 1069. And hast dishonoured by entombment a living soul' O. C. 428. So dishonoured with banishment.'

O. T. 675. hépeerx - ' With justice are hardest to themselves to bear.' Aj. 183-5. lyr. yap |... | For surely not of thy sane mind didst thou go so far astray. Ant. 637, 8. | For of right no marriage will.be a greater boon to me.'

Ant. 580, 1. | "Atdyv rod When they see Hades drawing near their life' Ib. 1180. see poor Eurydice at hand.' Ib. 933, 4. ddixrau - This word is nearest death of all that have come.' d, Also Phil. 26. od Aéyess - ' The task you set me extends not far.' Tr. 486. | obs eionxevat - Be willing that your word to her should be confirmed.' noun, an adverb is sometimes found modifying not a verb or sentence, but a single substantive. In the case of this happens in various Greek writers, as well as in -

Soph. Phil. 947: dAdos - ' A vain shadow.' 'Tr, 817: d\Aws - * The empty blazon.' The following instances are peculiar to Sophocles : - Ant. 721. Tr. 338. Universal, complete knowledge.'

O. T. 1043. Him once of old the despot of this land' 555, 6. | Onpés - ' A gift once given by the ancient Centaur.' y. An interesting feature of Greek syntax is the frequent transference of adverbs of place to denote time,. occasion, circumstance, and other relations; and of adverbs of time to: mark logical sequence. 'The following instances of this are noticeable : -

El. 958. To what point will you remain inactive?' QO. T. 390. Wherein (on what occasion) are you (have you shown yourself) a true prophet?' 0. C. 383, 4. | pabeiv - ' At what point (in their advance) Heaven will take pity on thy sorrows.' Aj. 1100. 'Where is the proof that you are his superior?' O. C. 335. What has become of the youths, your brothers, for this service?' Aj. 1365. 1 will come to this point,' i. e. will assent to his burial:

Aj. 1262. eyo. O. 1365. lyr. | One evil still exceeding evil.' Aj. 183. lyr. yap dpevddev - ' Surely not of thy sane mind,' following the analogy of ri

403. May I not be quite so void of wisdom.' Also perhaps O. 1. 105. - 'For I certainly never saw him.' But see note 27 loco.

In speaking of Particles we may notice a few of the more characteristic subtilties of expression, leaving other peculiarities to be observed in the notes (e. g. without Tr. 457, El. 61, postponement of re, O. T. 758, etc.)

As an adverb, marking the correspondence of ideas, has often a simply emphatic force, especially after interrogatives, relatives, and words of comparison, where expresses every degree of emphasis, from the strongest to the slightest. (Cp. Hdt. iv. 99.

Ant, 1314. Aj. 1290. O. C. 276. Aj. 917. one who loved the man.' An enemy would gladly gaze on his wounds, an indifferent person would not mind seeing them, but a friend could not look at them.) Ib. 1103. | Ant. 927, 8. | O.T. 94.

O. C. 1586. That (viz. the manner of his end) is the very point which deserves our wonder.' - Phil. 79. know indeed that you are not disposed by nature." El, 1251. tat? - ' 1 know that well.' Ant. 1253. py . . Ib. 687. Phil. 13.

Aj. 11247. That is a strange utterance, if you mean to say that you are living after death.' O. T. 305. If indeed you have not heard this from the messengers.' In Tr. 228. | marks the correspondence of and

O. T. 717. od | And as to the child, three days 'had not elapsed from its birth when he,' etc. Ant. 1186, 7. Kai pe K.T.A, c. Double and triple with adversative or cumulative force. O. T. 413. Ant. 399. Aj. 1396. x7. O.C. 629. ---- Not only these words, but others like them." O. T. a 89. | Phil.

6. is sometimes virtually disjunctive, as in Aj. 476. [Cp. Thue. v. 23. (in a public document.) Il. 3. 40, etc.]

is sometimes separated from the emphatic word to which it chiefly belongs, although in these cases it may be regarded as belonging rather to the whole clause. (Cp. Thuc. v. 45. vill.

2. The conjunction after rhetorical question implying a negative, has an emphatic force corresponding to 'nay' in English. TI. 804-7. dp' ....

3. ydp =' but then,' introduces a sentence of which the apodosis may be considered as suppressed. In other words, while marks opposition, shows that this opposition is a reason for modifying the preceding statement.

El. 595. Tr. 552. Cp. Phil. 1020, | x.7.A. Where the apodosis is expressed. 783-6.

Also in the poetical use with an imperative - O. 182. lyr. Ere | Kado. pointing to the force of something lately said.

O. C. 721. éry - Now, let me tell you, is the occasion for you to manifest the truth of these brave words.' Ant. 173. - ' It follows, that I, as you see,' etc. Ib. 726. of | ppoveiv- - ' Shall we, forsooth, at our age be schooled ?'

O. C. 1416. "Apyos ye - ' Yea, turn thine army back. to Argos with all: speed.' El. 941. 6 Phil. 1003, *y Ay, apprehend him.' 'Tr. 602. 688, that you may take for me this beautiful robe.' in emphatic confirmation of what has been said. Phil. 759. | O. C. 536, 7. XO. OIA, placed before a participle. Tr. 382. icropav- - 'Pretending he made no inquiry.'

1, is omitted (2) in hypothetical and relative clauses with the subjunctive: partly because the verbal inflexion is made to supply the meaning of the particle, and partly because of the poetical tendency to greater generalization. See above p. 30, 8, I: and below, p. go.

O. T. 874. lyr. parav - 'If so be that she is idly surfeited with many things.' O. C. 1443. 'If I be bereft of thee,' Ib. 509. rus - * Though one have labour.' Ant. 710. 7 O. T. 198. lyr. Ib. 911. (?).

But after seeing the light.' Ant. 1025. dudpry - ' But when one hath erred.' Aj. 1074. Séos - ' Where there is no settled fear.' 225.

lyr. pe Bios So long as I am held in life' Tr. 946. THY Till one have prospered through the present day.' 555. Ib. 1183, 4. |

(1) With the past tenses of the indicative. (Cp. 'Had he not resembled my father as he slept, had done it,' etc. viii. 86, 4. vo...

O. C. 1172. (Cp. Thuc. iii. 84 Though inference is here implied, the form of expression is rather hypothetical, analogous to ei Ib. 1418. yap | ; Ant. 604, 5. Phil. 895. ye. In these three examples the mood is rather potential than inferential. Aj. 921. ; Bain, podoc - ' How seasonable would his coming be, if he came.' 800. mpdéeas, | a. With the imperfect indicative in Phil. 572, to express uncertainty as to the subject of an action which is assumed as a fact. Who could this be, in quest of whom Ulysses himself set sail ?'

Different from this is the picturesque use of in description which occurs in Phil. 290 foll. as frequently in Hdt. and Xen. In Ant. 260, kav we have a singular combination of the inceptive meaning of the imperfect with the use of 'It was coming to this, that blows would have been the end of it.'

O. T. 12. yap Ib. 220. | For it could not be expected that if I had inquired 1 could have carried the inquiry far. J.e. yap «7.4. In both cases an epexegesis supplies the place of the protasis. The latter instance differs from the ordinary 'Else had I not,' (e.g. O. T. 318), in that the inference is not one contrary to fact, c. With the optative in relative clauses. In this case it adheres closely to the verb, to which it gives the same meaning of probable inference as in principal clauses.

O.C. 428, 6. | 'And such an end, that neither the present holder of the throne might remain ;' or, 'And then neither would the present holder of the throne remain.'

O. C. 45. ody On this condition, that I will not any more remove.' But is probably to be read. .

Aj. 405-8. lyr. dimaXros | But this is really an example of the return to the independent sentence, to be noticed under ' changes of construction.' See below, p. 64, 1,

d, With suppression of the verb, generally through the ellipse of a word to. be supplied from the context, but in Phil. 493, by an idiomatic abbreviation -

1., Ei has a peculiar ethical force with the present or future indicative, and in oratio obliqua, with the future optative=' when I think that,' 'at the very idea of - .' (Cp. esp. Thue. v. 30. In these cases.there is no exact correlation of hypothesis and inference -

O. T. 383-6. 'When I perceive that for this sovereignty Creon desires to drive me from it." Phil. 988. Big - 'That he should forcibly drag me off from your precincts.' Tr. 666. dupa | dm' Phil. 376. At the very idea of his robbing me of the arms that were mine.'

Phil. 1330. | ad the required meaning is obtained by supposing with the subjunctive to give indefiniteness to the ordinary temporal meaning of as - 'What time the sun unchanged shall rise on this, and set on yonder side.'

And in Aj. 1117, although may very possibly be similarly interpreted, 'So long as you are the man you are,' the words may be explained to mean more pointedly, 'However you may be the man you are:" 1. 6. Were you ten times Menelaus. In Tr. 715. Oiyn, has. the natural meaning of 'just as;' 'As sure as it strikes any creature it destroys them.'

In O. 1361, probably means, not 'as long as 1 live,' but, ' whatever may be my life,' alluding to Polynices' remorseful mention of his father's misery, [b. 1265. | fev. Oedipus replies, ' Whether I am in misery or comfort, I shall remember you equally as. my murderer.' 'Qs with the accusative absolute and participle differs from the more common use with the genitive absolute. Both express a cause or condition of an action in the mind of the agent; but the accusative is used where the condition is a part of the fact or assertion: the genitive where it follows or is derived from it. This is the difference between -

O. T. ror. ----- ' Since he tells us that this murder vexes the city ;' where the fact of the murder being the cause of the plague is part of the revelation, and the accusative depends on implied in and Ib. 241, 2. | dvros - ' Believing that this man is our pollution,' where the fact that had been already stated is merely adduced as a reason for the preceding command.

So in O. C. 380, 1. "Apyos | Proclaiming' (as a motive for the expedition) 'that Argos should forthwith either honourably conquer the plain of the Cadmeans, or exalt its fame to heaven,' - this reason of his expedition is also a principal part of the expressed resolution of Polynices.

There is no more delicate test of a language having attained grammatical precision than the requirement of perfect exactness in the expression of negation, and. (it may be added) of comparison. Such Shakspearian slips as 'Who cannot want the thought?' (Macb. iii. 6); 'No, nor a man that fears you less than he,' (Cor. i. 4); are familiar to the English scholar.

By Sophocles and other writers of his age the negative and prohibitive particles are used with great subtilty, but with occasional idiomatic deflections from strict accuracy.

- O. C. 274, 8. | And do not, by way of honouring the gods, put them far from any sort of honour,' originally the prohibitive particle, is adapted in Greek, through various uses, to express purpose, hypothesis, general or abstract notions, and also negations that are viewed not merely as facts, but as determinations of volition, feeling, or thought. Extensions of the use of in Sophocles arise partly from his love of refining on language; and partly from the tendency to more abstract modes of expression. <A few points are deserving of special notice.

O. T. 289. : i.e. Ant. 546. | Phil. 583, (with a preceding O. C. 496. & | El. 1014. Chrysothemis dwells on the idea of the weakness, which she adduces as a reason for her counsel.

Especially when the idea is one which excites strong feeling. Aj. 512. Tr. 412. ---- 'How should I be unjust?'

The tendency to make an implied negative explicit is a common feature of Greek syntax. Negative expressions are apt to be unduly emphasized in consequence of some latent consciousness that their significance is imperfectly realized. [Hdt. vii. 54. KT. |

The pleonastic od in this and similar idioms Hdt. iv. 118, v. 94, vii. 16 § 3, Thuc. ll. 62: Eur. Hel. 322) is caused by the difficulty of holding two negatives at once (or a negative with an interrogative or comparative) distinctly before the mind.

a. Where a negative or privative notion has been negatived, and is further explained, od is used with an epexegetic infinitive or participle; especially when the chief negation refers to circumstances actually present. [Plat. Rep. i, p. 354 B.

TI. 90. | OO. (, 359, 60. Seip' know you come not empty, or without some dreadful news for me.'

In the above instances the circumstances of the negation are actual and present: but in others, where the case is hypothetical, or actual but remote in time, alone is used.

In adding a negative ground or condition to a negative statement od is used with the participle. [Hdt. vi. 106. : 1.6. Plato, Lysis, 212 1). : but in Plat. Rep. vi, 494 10. the conditional nature of the whole sentence, introduced by has the effect of excluding od. |

O. T. 220, 1. | For I could not have pursued the inquiry far unaided, not having the assistance of a clue.' Le. c. A special case of the last mentioned idiom od giving a negative condition of a negative statement) occurs, where a supposed course of action is deprecated, or marked as blameworthy. In this connexion the infinitive is more frequent, but the participle is also used. [Plato, Prot. 352 D. enol... 1.6. painv. |

Here, as in the examples under a, the circumstances of the negation are present and actual ; but in O. T. 76, 7. | they are prospective and contingent, and is excluded ; as also in O. T. 1457. ni where they are remote in time.

[An imaginary example may help to illustrate in O. T. 13. Suppose that to Aj. 1330. a negative clause expressive of the ground or condition of this statement had been added, would have been in place. E. g. " yap | O | With respect to interrogative 'particles it is enough to mention that the long is sometimes equivalent to dp' od, or rather expresses a stronger certainty. This may be explained by supposing an ironical or indignant suppression of the negative, as unnecessary in so clear a case. Cp. the English, 'Is it so, or is it not?' which implies a more vehement asseveration than 'Is it not so?'

El. 446. dpa Ant. 632. dpa py... dpa occurs also in strong assertions where there is no reason for supposing even an implied question.

a. Voices. 'The tendency to subtle and indirect forms of expression leads to several exceptional uses of the active, middle, and passive voices.

a. There is a peculiar use of the active participle neuter, which occurs in Sophocles and some contemporary writers, though not at all in earlier, and rarely in later Greek.

A state of the person, generally mental, is expressed by the neuter participle with the article, which thus becomes a sort of subject; e.g. Thuc. i. 36. : ili. 9. yap : V. 9. ('the determination to stand firm'): vi. 24.

This idiom arises partly from the difficulty of finding expressions for mental phenomena, and partly from the tendency to express feelings as sfafes of emotion, and hence to employ the verb rather than-the noun. 'The only continuance of this use in later Greek is in such philosophical terms as TO TO TO

O. C. 1219 lyr. Géhovros - see note 27 loco. Phil. 674, 5. | 'For my diseased state longs to obtain thee as a supporter.' Tr. 196. For each wishing to feed with information his particular craving ;' that which is 'beating in the mind" (Shak. Temp. i. 2.) In this last example the feeling and its object are identified.

O. C. 266, 7. pou - 'Since for my actions, they have more in them of suffering than of doing.' Ib. 1604, 5. | épiero - ' And when he had satisfaction in seeing everything in act, and no part of his commands was any longer idle.' (Cp. Aesch. Prom. 57. para O. C. 74. 60° ---. All that I utter shall be full of sight.'

It is noticeable that five of the six instances (which are all that occur) belong to the latest period of Sophocles, which is most nearly contemporary with the work of Thucydides.

&. The absolute or otherwise intransitive use of active verbs will be considered as a point of diction (in Part II). But the following rare actives deserve notice here: - d(ov@ (O. C. 134), (Aj. 1037), (Tr. 754), (Ib. 255), (10. 1033). See notes zz 4, In each of these cases the active voice, marking the absoluteness of the action, is more dignified than the middle would have. been.

O.T. 296. 6 py' ore PoSet - 'A word has no terror for him, who is not afraid to do.' Ant. 274. | And to be the recipient of this boon the lot seizes upon hapless me.' Ib. 1078, 9. yap .. For the wailings of men and women in thy halls shall declare it' Phil. 864. The toil that gives no alarm is best.' actively states and conditions which are really passive, as in the familiar etc. Hence and other active verbs are used of passive states.

Ant. 354. He taught himself the tempers of civic life.' Aj. 1376. . . Henceforth I proclaim myself to be friendly.' Ib. 32. onpaivouac - Lit. 'In part I inform myself (though this might be regarded as passive). Tr. 21. Ib. 339. pe Bdow - ' Why do you check me in this my going to make me attend to you?' Aj. 869. *epiorarai pe And no place cries halt! to me that I may learn its secret.' Phil. 287. Perhaps also El. 1249. Anoduevov - That will not let itself be forgotten' (from the causative though this may be fut. mid. for pass.).

O. 244. lyr. Looking in thine eyes with eyes of mine that are not blind." Cp. infr.d. Tr. 908, 9. | If she might see the form of any one of her dear domestics, she wept, unhappy woman, as her eye beheld them.' Ant. 593. lyr. | x.t-A. - ' From of old I see with pain the calamities of the house of the Labdacidae" T. 1217, 18. lyr. *oe | Would that I had never had the unhappiness of seeing thee! Phil. 351. ido' yap

Ant. 713. ---- How they save their twigs.' Aj. 43. --- That he imbrues his hand in blood" O. 'T. 1487. Aj. 511. Tr. 103. (unless this is passive, as from a causative 156 'laden with regret.) Cp. Pind. Ol. 76. deidero Phil. 613. dyowro. Ib. 1325.

Aj. 644. Brings forth from the unknown, and when they are come forth, hides them in her own breast ;' where == eis 'hides in her bosom.' In Ant. 1093. rpixa - ' lam crowned with

This use of the middle voice is of much wider extent in Greek from Homer to Plato than has been commonly supposed. It may be familiarly explained as equivalent to the active voice with the genitive of the reflexive pronoun. I.e. if the directly reflexive middle=qoretvy re and the indirectly reflexive= then the subjective middle te Or Common examples are display one's own attributes,' provide from one's store, declare from oneself' Cp. Hdt. iv. 172.

Tr. 632. ---- " Before knowing matters in that quarter, whether we are an object of affection there" OO. T. 289. Oavpaterai - His absence has long been a cause of wonder.' Ib. 529. pov' Was this crime charged against me?' O. 1352. But now, ere he goes, he shall be vouchsafed this boon." Ant. 1165. mavra - All is cast away.' Phil. 48. oriBos, - ' His coming shall be watched.'

O. T. 997, 8. | --- Long since Corinth was removed far off from being my dwelling-place.' Aj. 1342. It is not right he should meet with indignity from you.' Phil. 1401. Troy has been enough descanted of in my laments': -

Or to the object of the action, by making this the subject of the passive form. [Hdt. iv. 105. . ws...

El. 1148. But I was ever addressed by thee as sister. Phil. 140. lyr. The staff of Zeus is swayed.' O. C. 759. ay - ' Your city at home would rightly receive more reverence. O.T. 1449. c. As the action is projected so as to form the cognate accusative (or 'internal object') of an active verb: so the subject of the passive voice is sometimes 'of cognate signification' to the verb.

Tr. 738. i.e. But what is there, my son, on my part, that excites your hate?' Ib. 169, 70. | i.e. (ek) beav - 'They say it is fated by the gods for the labours of Heracles to issue in such an end.' (See above, p. 25, ¢.)

O. T. 1457. was saved when at the point of death." Phil. 670. It was in doing a kindness that I gained them,'

By a similar use the present (or imperfect) participle denotes past time. [ Cp. Hdt. vit. 6. Thuc. lil, 84. (=

3. The continuous tenses are used to express endeavour. A strong instance of this ' conative' use is in - O. C. 992. | 'If here and now one were to come near and attempt your life, just man as you are. So QO. 688. kéap - In seeking to divert and blunt my wrath.'

Phil. 1052. ye was born with a desire for victory on all occasions. O. 456. No helper of this desire appeared,' Aj. 934. lyr. dp | mnudroy - ' That time was then a great beginner of woes.'

El. 342. And to care for the mother.' O.T. 1247. And left the mother an unhappy source of offspring to her own son.' Hence in O.C. 982, 3. (Cp. Eur, 1. A. 1234.

6. The use of the aorist in tragic Greek to point emphatically to something in the immediate past, where the present would be used in most languages, is well known. The momentariness of the tense favours this mode of speaking.

An extension of this use occurs where something present is made the subject of inquiry or reflection. Here the principle seems to be that what is thought of must have a previous existence; the object must exist before it can be thought. (Compare the use of in such philosophical expressions as

Ant. 1307. am startled with dread" = Aj. 693. averrduay - 'I thrill with desire, and flutter with joy." Tr. 499. | mwapéBav - ' And I pass by what relates to the gods." Phil. 1289. By Zeus, whose worship is above all, I swear, No!' Ib. 1314. re It pleases me, that you speak nobly of my sire.'

Phil. 1219. co - You would have seen me going.' Ib. 459. | Shall suffice me.' Aj. 588. yévy - 'Do not desert us.' Phil. 773. Be the slayer of." Tr. 412. - ' What subtilty have you contrived?' Ant. 77. Hold in disparagement.' Ib. 469. papa 'To be acting foolishly." El. 586.

B. Peculiarities Of Compound Constructions

attempting to characterize, are observable also in the syntax of compound sentences. The smoothness of the begins to be stirred by reflective fancy, and the phases of construction which result are not easy to determine with perfect accuracy.

B. 1. Apposition

With apparent ellipse of as. O.C. 472. réyvn - ' There are bowls, a sample of some good workman's skill.' Phil. 25. | dvdpds - 'A rough wooden drinking cup, some bungler's workmanship.' 685. He entered, a distinguished form, the worship of all present.' O.T. 1342. lyr. * 'The universal pest.' El. 301. He who is utter mischief. Phil. 622. O. T. 196, 7. lyr.

--- followed by distribution - ' We, avoiding, etc., each stirring on the other with noisy altercation" (Cp. Hom. I. 3. 211. Phil. 645.

d.O.C. 787. | ' But this is thy portion, that my avenging spirit ever dwells in yonder region." = El. 271. | Their last insolence, that we should see the murderer in my father's couch.' Ant. 259. | PiAaca - ' Reproachtful words were bandied to and fro, the watchmen accusing each his fellow.' (Cp. Hdt. il. 133. of grea Phil. 1355. | Will endure this, that I should be together with the sons of Atreus?' Ib. 1367. | otkovs - ' Do as you have sworn, convey me home. Tr. 1206. | 'What challenge is this, my father, that I should become thy guilty murderer ?'

6. O.T. 1234. 6 Kal | xdpa - 'To shorten speech and hearing to the utmost, Jocasta's royal head is low.' Ant. 53. yuri, Mother and wife, doubly entitled.' Tr. 1136. This was the whole, she erred with good intent.'

J. Tr. 11-13. aidhos | Coming oft in proper taurine form; at otherwhiles a coiling glistering snake, or else with manly form, but bovine face." Ib. 70. moveiv - They say he toils, a servant.' Aj. 68, 9. | dvdpa - Nor receive him as your bane.' (See above, p. 38,1.) Ib. 1182. | wapéorar' - 'Be not women instead of men, as ye stand by.' (Cp. Ant. 578. | --- These must henceforth be (treated as) women, and not suffered to go loose.')

Epexegesis is frequent in classical Greek, arising partly from a fusile condition of language, in which the thought still moves, while it is being expressed, and also from a tendency to redundance, by which symmetry is often sacrificed to fulness and clearness. 'The act of expression tends to suggest some new aspect or point of view, which makes a sort of excrescence on the original construction, in the shape of an explanatory clause. a. The most common form is the epexegetic infinitive. [Hdt. i. 176. | 542. | had death some greater longing for my children than for hers to glut him?' Ib. arg. lyr. | But to contend with power is a hopeless strife to engage in" O.T. 1204. viv But now to hear of thee, who more forlorn?' 364. Aj. 2. Phil. 891, 2. ..

O.T. 1416, 7. | Creon is here to meet thy need, to act and to advise.' 1030. yd ypdvos - ' Long is the time for that decision, even all the coming time.' Ib. 1080.

Ant. 223. | .. That I come breathless with speed, having been fleet of foot.' Ib. 16. 1 know nothing further, either of more weal or woe.'

O.T. 1425-7. .. | | Let reverence for our lord the sun forbid your showing such an abomination unveiled" (See p. 63, (4) 4) O. C. 362. (nrotca Searching how or where you lived.'

The absence of a conjunction is rare in the dialogue except where there is a parenthesis or an apposition of clauses. (P. 57, B. 1. 6.) El. 525. dei, | For your father, this is always your excuse, died, as you say, by my hand.' Phil. 54-56. | | .. | mais - ' You must inveigle the mind of Philoctetes, - You must say, when he asks you, etc. Ib. 991. | O hateful man, what impious things you find it in your heart to say! You quote the gods, and in doing so make them liars' Tr. 53, 4. |

Examples of asyndeton occur, however, also in earnest or hurried dialogue, and are generally found (1) in commands, (2) in questions, (3) in interjectional expressions.

(1) O.T. 1056. Why ask of whom he spake? Regard it not' El. 986. | k.T.X.

(2) O. T. 1493. ; x,t. Who will be the man? Who will incur the ris<,' etc.? Ib. 815, 6. Ant. 921-23. | ti xpn | ; Evupdyov - ' And yet what ordinance of heaven have I transgressed ? - What cause have I, unhappy, still to look to heaven? What aid can I invoke?'

(3) O. T. 945-7. | .. ; iv gore' Aj. 172. lyr. "Aprepss, | | | Was it, then, cruel Artemis, daughter of Zeus, - O dread report, parent of shame to me! - that urged thee,' etc. Phil. 859. lyr.

O.T. 873. lyr. Ant. 368-72. lyr. | | | While holding firmly by his country's laws and the oath-observing righteousness of Heaven, he is high in the city: Ze is nowhere in the city who harbours unrighteousness for ends of crime." O.C. 1192. «t.A. Ib. 163. lyr. | Aa | adara; | x. A. - ' Long distance hinders - Hearest, O toilsome wanderer? Ifthou hast any word...' Phil. 631.

Attraction is the grammatical name for a very general tendency in Greek to draw words into apparent construction with the nearest word. In constructions the meaning takes the place of grammatical analogy; in Attraction the meaning and the grammatical analogy both give way to mere contiguity. A new analogy is thus created, and is sanctioned by use.

Tr. 283. O. C. 1150. ToKey But give us your thought ona matter that has just fallen in my way. 'Tr. 225. | *ppoupdy Nor hath it

Phil. 1140-2. | | give full utterance to a just sentiment becomes a man, but not in uttering it to thrust forth venom from an envious tongue.'

Aj. 488. Strong if any were so. O. C. 7324. 317. dis ; ; 1. 6. Aj. 1415. | him who was good every way, no one of mortals better." O. 870. ovroy is assimilated to Tr. 683. ypadiyv - Like writing on a brazen tablet, hard to erase:' was the first thought, but has been drawn into construction with Svevurrov.)

It is part of the same tendency when, as often happens in similes, the thing compared is expressed in terms suggested by the comparison; e.g.

The principle of attraction might be extended so as to embrace all cases in which constructions are determined, not by strict logical or grammatical considerations, but by superficial associations (hypallage, etc.) Thus in Aj. 114. should have been but is 'attracted' to the nearest word. In O. T. 1376. And in Phil. 630. the more exact construction would have been depending on but having come first, (SUP. 10) in construction with is preferred, i.e. mi. So an answer often follows the structure of the preceding speech though another construction would be more logical. Instances of this will be pointed out in the notes.

. The uses of moods were tolerably fixed before the age of Sophocles. Still there are some peculiarities and deflections from common usage which deserve to be noticed.

in its nature impossible or contrary to fact, the same tenses appear, in two cases, to be employed in expressing with a negative wish applied to past time.

O. C. 539-41. | | gift, which would that hapless I had not benefited the city so as to receive from her.'

Here the place of the relative conjunction or is supplied by the relative 6,and the unusual construction is perhaps assisted by an echo or 'harmonic' from suggesting

O. C. 1712. yas Ah! would that thou hadst not desired to die on foreign soil. Here the interjection takes the place of an introductory particle; and the harshness is again softened by the sound of suggesting oe. In both places is very emphatic. (Cp. Aesch. Choeph. 363 foll. Tpalas . .

O. T. 314. | With such means as he has within his power. Ib. 979. As best one may. Ant. 666. Whomsoever the city at any time appoints." 'Tr. 93. When one has heard the truth" Ib. 115. lyr. ido. [Cp. Hdt. 1. 32. of |

O. C. 799. reproipeOa - 'If we might but be content." Phil. B29. wreiv - ' And to whatever may be our desired haven.'

Here the preceding imperative hypothetically expressed is equivalent to a wish; and the optative marks the uncertainty of the blind wanderer, who knows not if there be a place to sit, or whether, if seated, he will be able to learn where he is.

Here the optative is occasioned by the strain of reflection to which the aorists and infr. 1264, are also due. (See above, 55, § 32,6.) Similarly with the relative i in O. C. 189, 90, the optative gives a turn of remoteness to the expression ; «7.4. - ' To where we might tread without impiety, and

Phil. 617. AaBwv - ' Most probably, as he said that he thought, obtaining him by his consent.' (Cp. Plat. Rep. B. ii. p. 360 B.

(4) The following special uses of the infinitive deserve notice, besides the general epexegetic use mentioned above (p. 53), in which the infinitive may be regarded as an accusative in apposition to part of the sentence.

Tr. 855. oixricaa - '* There came a calamity for our pity' O.C. 12. yap For we are come to a point where we must learn.' Aj. 535. - 'I have kept watch so far as to secure that.' Ib. 869. "epiorarai pe réros - ' And no spot bids me halt, - that I may share its secret' Ib. 673. .) ty For Day's white horses to advance his fire' O.C. 790. = Phil. 1034. Was your pretext for casting me forth.' Ib. 891. Ant. 523. - ' My nature is to take part in loving. Phil. 88.

Hence expressing possibility, nature, quality, desert. Phil. 854. (SC. aS in x70.) Tr. 694. Beyond human thought to guess of. O. T. 1293. | 1. 6. Not quite deserving to be felicitated on the highest fortune.' (See note zz loco.)

Phil. 1407. Ib. 836. 1. 6. O.C. 335. What has become of them for this service?' i.e. Where are they that they fail in this service?

O. C. 1211, 12. lyr. tod | where is added in a secondary construction with Ant. 1173. 1. 6. Aj. 1322. Phil. 47.

El. 47. ----- " declare with the addition of an oath.' O. C. 1406. *radr' Ye hear these harsh words of my father in cursing me. Ib. 1321, 2. . . (See above, p. 38,

a. The construction where a word or clause is placed in agreement not with the form of expression, but with that which has been signified or implied, is not so much a mode of construction as an explanation of various modes, including several of those which have been described (A. 1, 3, B. 1, 2, 5). Instances not falling under any of the foregoing heads are - The term might be extended so as to embrace most forms of anacoluthon: but it is convenient to distinguish the following : -

. | Here there is a confusion of the two meanings, ANd

El. 1124. | 'How differently from my hopes,' and, 'With what different hopes.' The change is assisted by a confusion of the two meanings of

é. The change (which occurs in all Greek writers) from a more dependent to a less dependent construction, from the infinitive or participle to the finite verb, from the participle to the infinitive, from the optative or subjunctive to the indicative, etc. (Il. 111, 80. re Hdt. 1. 77. Ib. ii. 116. ili, 74. Ib.

iv. 148. Plat. Soph. 230 C. yap . . A few examples of this idiom will be sufficient here.

r90 - 2. lyr. | decked | ANt. 234. (where with in apodosi is substituted for Tr. 676, todr SidBopov | Phil. 51, 2. part, | (Here the regular construction would be in subordination to

Phil. 696-700, lyr. .. - - 'No one to soothe his bleeding wound with healing herbs or to take them from the nourishing earth.'

Introduction of after a sentence is begun. Phil. T41T, 2. O. C. 551-4. & O.T. 78.

Ant. 707-9. 'Tr. 547--. | |

On The. Language

O. C. 1649, 50. | (Cp. Il. iii. 103, Od. v. 265, Phil. 390. & El. 1364. yap | | al - 'Since, for what comes between to tell of, many rolling days, and nights equal to them, shall clearly declare all this to thee.' So in Ant. 31. | yap See below, p. 78, «.

with which of two words or clauses some word or clause is to be joined, and the true solution sometimes is that it has a connection with both, being joined with one in a primary, and with the other in a secondary construction. - This is a general phenomenon, the observation of which is especially important inthe more minute study of Sophocles. The poet or speaker has two constructions or rather analogies in his mind, and instead of decidirig upon one or other of them, as would be done bya writer of a grammatical age, he fuses both together or allows the expression to shift from one to the other. The well-known (O. ay 543); (a conversational idiom not confined to Sophocles), some such explanation, viz. as a confusion of and etc. The tendency is one which prevails widely in the Greek of this period, and has a proportionate effect on the subtle language of Sophocles.

vowels Here is first put absolutely with the ellipse of but is also connected with vopeds which supplies the place of though primarily. joined to by as. Ant. 995.

(1) after but (2) connected also with whence the participle 'Tr. 4, 5. . x? K.T.A. Ib. 164. (1) after but (2) to be resumed with The construction is then (3) changed to Phil. 154. lyr. is (1) subj. of (the inf. being epexegetic), or (2) object of ; i.e. the construction is ambiguous between and 76. Aj. 2. Onpapevov- - Hunting for some adventure, to snatch some attempt upon thy foes.' after (1) and (2) Onp.

governed by (2) epexegetic of Ib. 345. is strictly to be construed with but also suggests In construction with : Le. 792, 3. i.e. at once and slight harshness of the ellipse in the first construction is softened by which was necessary to the second. Phil. 380. | ob probably i in construction, in different. senses, with and : i.e. is supplied as the object of Nes by an echo from . 0.0. 1551, 2. | : (i.e. Aj. 659. is first a vague genitive of place ('in earth'), but is afterwards helped by which supplies a partial construction. El. Tojo. lyr. ra wey | iS at first the subject of the sentence, but is thrown out of construction by the expansion. Aj. 805. éomépous | Cyreir' Here the construction is made more definite by the addition of which is not distinctly thought of at first.

O. C. 385. | rw' &ew - ' That the gods will take any care for me." 'Tr. 1238. | Confusion of and O. T. 543. ; O. C. 15: El. 525. del, | 672. and

. 520. = Ib. .21, 2. [ Here adheres more closely to than to which is introduced Tr. 394. &pmovros - 'Since you see I am going.' Phil. 46. | Here is intermediate between the two meanings of 'choose,' and 'take for a prey.' {For the latter cp. O. T. 887. lyr. 476. lyr. where does double duty=ydpw In Phil. 1032, 3. | aidew is connected .both with (' will profess') and

B. 8. Parataxis

While the subordination of sentences becomes more exact and complex, there remains, in Greek of all periods, a form of sentence, in which a notion essentially subordinate is coordinated with the main predication. A familiar example occurs in the New Testament, where the idiom is retained in the English Authorised Version: 'But God be thanked, that ye were the servants of sin, but ye have obeyed from the heart that form of doctrine which was delivered you.' Rom. vi.17; cp. Matt. xi. 25. A parallel instance may also be quoted from Shak., Jul. Caes. i. 3: 'Let it be who it is, for Romans now | Have thews and sinewslike their ancestors; | But, woe the while, our fathers' minds are dead.' Cp. esp. Il. 1. 182 ff. K «7A. Plat. Rep. ii. 367 H, .. .. «Td.

Under this head are included those modes of expression which, though capable of being generally described, do not fall under any rule of syntax, and belong rather to the province of rhetoric than to that of grammar. In these the individual genius of an author is more apparent than in peculiarities of syntax, although both alike may be ascribed to general influences.