Stock Township (part 1 of 9)

Live Stock Breeding And Management 1-60 Cattle Production 7-60

Types and Breeds of Cattle, Dairy Cattle Production and Management, Score Card for Dairy Cattle, Feed and Care of The Dairy Cow, The Composition of Feeds, Buying Feed for Dairy Rations, Description and Definition of Concentrated Feeds, Barley, Oats and Rye, Buckwheat By- Products, Dairy Farm Organization, Beef Cattle Production, Score Card for Beef Cattle, Market Classes and Grades of Cattle, Stages, Baby Beef Production, Selection and Management of Bulls.

Diseases Of Cattle 62-100

General Symptoms, Anatomy of Cattle, Action of Drugs in Cattle and Horses, Drenching a Cow, Bandaging and Stitching Wounds, Castrating Calves and Bulls, Diseases.

Horse Production 101-138

Market Classes and Sub-Classes of Horses, Types and Breeds of Horses, Score Card for Draft Horses, Score Card for Light Horses, Mule Production, Classification of Mules, How to Tell the Age of a Horse, Teeth at Different Ages, Shoeing and Care of the Feet, Throwing or Casting a Horse, Care of the Sick and Injured, Castration, How to Locate Lameness, Blemishes Possible on a Horse.

Live Stock Breeding And Management

The Importance of Farm Animals. - The extent to which farm animals furnish food, clothing and labor, is perhaps sufficient to emphasize their importance. A long list of useful articles manufactured from their hides, hair, bone and other parts of the animal body give further evidence of how farm animals contribute to the welfare of the human race. Moreover, live stock production is the basis of most practical and profitable agriculture. Farmers have much to encourage them in the production of live stock where they understand its care and management. Well organized herds and flocks provide:

A profitable cash income from animals and animal products. A home market and profitable, prices for farm crops. A means of keeping up the fertility of land and a maximum production of crops.

How to Make Live Stock Pay. - There is evidence of serious misfortune or mismanagement when live stock on the farm does not pay. Misfortune and mismanagement resulting in serious losses are largely overcome and success in making live stock pay is assured by acquiring a knowledge of types and breeds of animals most useful in serving their purpose, and practicing a system of selection, breeding and management that has proved most successful in the production of farm animals. It pays to read the best live stock books and literature, to make the acquaintance of successful stockmen and learn of their methods of production, to practice consistently and persistently the best methods of breeding and feeding and to raise the standard of one's herds and flocks by selecting and keeping at all times the best animals one can secure.

The Necessity for Types and Breeds. - Differences in size, character of body and the purposes which animals best serve, make the differences in types and breeds. The type of an animal indicates its utility and is important for this reason. There may be several breeds representing a given type. Breed is important in that it represents a class of animals that reproduce themselves and their good qualities with a greater degree of likeness and certainty than do animals of no particular breed.

The types and breeds of animals maintained on a given farm are a reflection of the mind and the management of the farmer responsible for their production. Improved breeds of farm animals are the result of many generations of constant effort on the part of men who have had in mind types of animals best adapted for serving a given purpose. The true stockman endeavors to select and breed animals in a manner to preserve types that have been established. Mismanagement resulting in mixing breeds, and failure to properly feed and care for animals, lowers the standard of live stock production and makes results uncertain and disappointing. Natural laws that govern and control the reproduction of plant and animal life and which generally group plants and animals under district varieties, emphasizes the importance of selecting recognized types and breeds of farm animals.

The Best Breed to Select. - Many factors enter into the selection of a breed. Personal preference or no preference whatever accounts for the character of many farm animals. The farm organization, its adaptability for producing a given class of farm and animal products, its relationship to markets and local manufacturing plants like creameries, cheese factories, condenseries and abbatoirs, should be leading factors in deciding upon a breed. There are many advantages in buying and selling and in breeding and managing animals where a community agrees upon a given breed and co-operates in an effort to promote the breed. A lifetime is too short to accomplish all that one would like to do in developing a given breed. Therefore, one's choice in the matter of selecting and breeding should be carefully considered. A man is most fortunate when he can chose the breed that his father, and his grandfather developed and adapted to a given farm.

Definitions Applying to Animal Breeding. - Breeding as it applies to live stock is the art of reproducing and improving farm animals. Its prime object is the improvement of animals for meat, milk, wool and labor.

Promiscuous Breeding. - Mating animals without reference to type, breed or individuality, most often results in undesirable farm animals and should be discouraged.

Cross-Breeding. - This system of breeding refers to mating animals of two distinct breeds. It offers the advantage of increasing the size, vigor and productive quality of animals. These good results, however, are confined to only the first generation of animals. Cross-bred animals are not satisfactory for breeding purposes except where one desires to establish new breeds and types. The practice, therefore, tends to destroy the opportunity for preserving established breed type and character and the work of generations of time consumed in the development and perfection of given breeds.

Natural Breeding. - Mating animals not related but corresponding in type and breed, constitutes natural breeding. Where one has opportunity to use the best of sires this system of breeding is capable of producing very satisfactory results and may be regarded safer than breeding animals more or less closely related. It is the approved system of breeding most generally employed.

Line Breeding. - Mating animals within a given family, related to the extent of twenty-five percent and less than fifty percent of the same blood, is termed "line breeding." It is practically safe to practice line breeding where one does not allow the relationship to become too close and is careful to maintain definite standards relating to size and vigor. Line breeding tends to insure more uniform results than natural breeding.

Inbreeding. - Mating animals that are related to the extent of having 50 percent or more of the same blood, is inbreeding. When practiced by men who understand the nature and results of such breeding, it is a safe practice.

Live Stock Breeding And Management 3

There are many inbred animals which have become much noted for their excellence in quality, prepotency and production. There are also many sad disappointments that have been experienced. Over-refined, under size, non-breeding, malformed and idiotic animals are evil results which may accompany too close breeding. Inbreeding tends to intensify both good and bad characters and it is a safe rule never to inbreed when defects and characters that are not desirable appear in the makeup of the animals to be mated. One must be prepared to rigidly select or cull from the herd the undesirable types that follow this practice.

Out-Crossing. - Inbreeding and line breeding confine animals to one family or strain. When there is a tendency on the part of a herd thus developed to show indications of weakness, it is well to select from some other strain or family of the same breed, a sire that will overcome the weakness and instill into the family the character that is lacking. Such a practice is termed "out-crossing."

Grade and High Grade Animals. - A grade animal is usually by a pure bred sire and out of a grade or native female. It, therefore, has 50 or more percent of the blood of a pure bred class of animals. A high grade animal carries a relatively high percent of the blood of a pure bred. Grade animals are not eligible to registry in the herd books that record the names of pure bred animals.

Pure Bred Animals. - The term "pure bred" applies to animals having one hundred percent of the blood of a distinct breed. They are usually from registered animals and are eligible to registration in the herd books of the Association that promotes and preserves the records of animals of the breed in question.

Cross-Bred Animals. - Technically a cross-bred animal is the progeny resulting from the mating of pure bred animals of two distinct breeds. The type may be the same or different, for example, two breeds of cattle like the Shorthorn and Aberdeen Angus, or breeds representing beef and dairy cattle like the Shorthorn and Guernsey.

Mongrel and Scrub Animals. - Where animals have been promiscuously produced by more or less crossing or inbreeding and have been poorly managed or neglected, they are commonly known and termed mongrels or scrubs. They may represent a survival of the fittest, but at best are unprofitable and a poor foundation upon which to build for anything better. Time and money will be gained by selling such animals and purchasing grades or pure breds to serve as a foundation for breeding.

Factors that Insure Success in Animal Breeding. - Select the best foundation animals it is possible to secure, keeping in mind animals of the most useful and desirable types.

Breeders of Live Stock Classified. - Men engaged in the breeding of improved live stock do not all rank alike. The following classification may be made:

One's experience, knowledge and opportunity for successfully engaging in the breeding of pure bred live stock are factors that should determine in which class he should enter as a breeder of live stock.

One gains a knowledge and an experience necessary in successfully breeding any class of farm animals without incurring the danger of serious financial loss.

Advantages in Breeding Pure Bred Animals. - Excellent pure bred animals tend to reproduce themselves and their good qualities with a greater degree of certainty than do grade animals.

There is a satisfaction in producing the best and also in attaining a reputation as a stockman and in doing the most for the improvement of live stock that is worth while.

Wherein Breeding Pure Bred Live Stock is More Expensive. - There is considerable more expense in breeding pure bred live stock that must be anticipated by one who chooses to engage in breeding such animals. One should also take this fact into consideration in buying pure bred sires and other pure bred foundation stock. The items incurring greater expense are as follows :

Live Stock Breeding And Management 5

The expenses incident to keeping in touch with affairs and making the acquaintance of men prominent in directing the welfare of the breed in question.

Knowledge and Skill Required to Breed Pure Bred Live Stock. - The breeder of pure bred live stock must seek to acquire more knowledge and skill than is required by the farmer who breeds only grade live stock. Such knowledge and skill pertains to the following:

The true value of animals and prices commonly paid for animals of a given line of breeding and individuality in order that prices may be fair both to the seller and buyer.

The value and means of advertising and doing business in a manner to command the respect and to secure the orders of men seeking animals for breeding purposes.

The Live Stock Breeder's Calling. - The live stock breeder, whether engaged in the production of grade or pure bred animals, should consider his occupation as one of high and dignified calling. He is in closest touch with the work of Nature and cannot hope to succeed without being true to her laws and principles and to himself and his fellow beings. The breeding and selling of pure bred, registered live stock has been built and rests solely on honor. Men who do not have faith in their fellowmen cannot regard pure breds more valuable than grades of equal individuality. Pure bred animals of excellent individuality and of families excelling in type and production and preserved and reproduced by men of honor, will always be the most reliable for breeding purposes and command the highest prices paid for any class of animals.

Cattle Production

The production and maintenance of cattle play an important part in Agriculture. There are several lines 'of cattle production that offer good opportunities for'utilizing land and feed in a manner to insure profitable incomes and to keep up soil fertility. These lines of production may be enumerated as follows :

Cattle Production 9

Types of Cattle. - There are two distinct types of improved cattle, namely dairy and beef. Cattle of dairy type excel in the production of milk and utilize feed very largely for milk production. Good dairy cows will produce milk at the expense of body weight which weight they regain only when the milk flow is reduced and they are dried off. They are, therefore, comparatively thin and light in form.

Cattle of the beef type excel in the production of beef and in many instances do not give milk enough to pay the cost of milking them. In such instances the calves are allowed to run with their mothers until they are naturally weaned. Beef cattle consume large quantities of feed and utilize it for beef rather than for the production of milk.

General Purpose Type. - Many cattle do not conform distinctly to either of the two respective types of highly specialized cattle and for this reason and the fact that they serve in producing a fair amount of both milk and beef, have been termed cattle of general, or dual-purpose type. Theoretically, an animal might be expected to excel in both beef and milk and thus be most ideal. In practice, however, general purpose cattle excel in the product that is given most emphasis. It is unreasonable to suppose that animals could excel for a given number of generations in milk production and at the same time retain excellent beef forms. Beef cattle require liberal quantities of feed to maintain the amount of beef they are capable of producing and their milk production is cut short to the extent that they utilize feed for beef production.

It should be understood that any specific type of animal is determined by th disposition or temperament that governs the use it makes of the feed eatei The beef and the dairy animal when put side by side are both capable c consuming equivalent amounts of feed, granting that they have equal feedin capacities, but under normal conditions there will be a marked difference i the amount of milk and beef produced by them in a given year. The one wi excel in beef production and the other in the production of milk.

In aiming to keep cattle of general purpose type, it is regarded best 1 select large, roomy cattle which have natural tendencies to produce mil in liberal quantities during the early stages of their lactation and which ha-\ a covering and quality of flesh indicating that they will produce offsprir reasonably satisfactory for beef. As soon as one feels the necessity of en phasizing beef or dairy quality in his cattle, it will be best for him to choo: a specialized type and breed best adapted for serving his purpose.

Breeds of Cattle. - The development of the respective breeds of catt dates back to the latter part of the eighteenth century and began for the mo part in the British Isles. Limited space does not permit herewith of mo: than a tabulated statement of the various breeds and their distinguishir characteristics. Material giving a more complete description and account the breeds will be interesting and helpful. Secretaries of the National Bre( Associations in most instances are in a position to furnish material pertainir to the breed represented. However the above is sufficient for all practic

Types And Breeds Of Cattle

White with red, black or mahoga spots. Red may predomina Horns long, inclining upward a outward. Body well rounded a rather heavy In hind quarte Udder well attached and uniforn symmetrical. Teats someCin short. A hardy, rustling breed.

Dark to light brown or gray. Ligh color about nose along back a on udder. A hardy breed w comparatively heavy bone and hit Some strains beefy, due to di purpose qualities encouraged pr to 1907.

Yellow or reddish fawn with wh markings. Utility more th showy and type given spec attention in development of brec Milk of rich and yellow color.

Black and white. Either color m predominate. Largest of da: breeds, when well raised. Exc in quantity of milk. Capacity 1 large consumption of rougha makes milk production economic where pasture is abundant.

Fawn of light to dark shade. White spots sometime! present. Smallest of five breeds most commonly found on dairy farms American bred cattle larger than imported cattle Cattle excel in quality and in the economical productioi of rich milk Some families polled.

Black with white band about the body. Attention to perfecting the color marking in the early history of the breed resulted in neglect of other qualities that were more important to milk production.

Solid black or black with shade of yellow fawn, brindle or brown with black points. A very hardy breed well adapted to scant and hilly pastures.

Black, sometimes red. The "true Kerry" is known in Ireland as the "poor man's cow" and excels in milk production. The Dexter Kerry is more blocky and beefy, and may be black, red or roan.

Black.jnrareinstancesred. Some white on udder or navel, not objectionable. Head polled . Very smooth and evenly fleshed body Popular in the feed lot and on the market as beef cattle.

Black. A reddish or brownish tinge sometimes present. Hair long and shaggy, making hides very popular for robes and coats. Head polled. Breed very hardy.

Red, with white face, switch and underline. Horns, long and spreading. Hair more or less curly. Breed very popular on the range and for grazing purposes. Excellent for beef production.

Red, roan, white, red and white, a most popular and cosmopolitan breed, embracing several strains of beef cattle and some strains that possess deep milking qualities. Because of the crossing of the various strains, considerable variation in type is noticeable in herds where careful selection has been neglected.

Bright red. White not permissible except on udder of cow or on underline of body. Three hundred Ibs. butter produced in a year by mature cows. Small boned, moderate offal, and fine grain of meat make carcasses popular with butchers.

Red with white switch. White on underside of body permissible. Certain families of breed produce milk and butter fat in quantities that compare favorably with dairy breeds. Other strains excel in beef production to the extent that milKing qualities are impaired.

)airy Shorthorns are the result of strains of Shorthorn cattle that have been developed more especially for milk production as well as a moderate beef production.

William Dempster Hoard

A man of keen and farsighted intellect, who has expounded and demo strated the value of the dairy cow as a profitable farm animal and an economic producer of human food.

Cattle Production 13 Dairy Cattle Production And Management

Dairying as an Industry. - Dairy cattle and milk production is an industry in itself. The importance of milk and its by-products in supplying food for the human race has resulted in much attention being given throughout the entire country to breeding and maintaining herds of dairy cattle. The production and distribution of dairy products, engages the attention of many organizations, both of a local and a national character. Under suitable conditions dairying, though accompanied by considerable expense and labor, is highly profitable. The dairy cow utilizes farm grown crops for milk production economically, and gives the farmer a return at regular and frequent intervals. Dairy farming requires, however, an intelligent consideration of many details pertaining to the selection, care and management of the herd and providing conditions that insure milk products being handled in a manner to conform with standards that regulate it as a food product. The dairy cow has no competitor in producing milk in large quantities for commercial purposes, and with the increase in population there is every encouragement for the farmer who intelligently engages in the business of dairying.

Cows of Dairy Type and Breeds Essential for Success. - Choosing cows of dairy breed and type is fundamental to successful dairying. The development of dairy breeds has been the result of high ideals and systematic effort on the part of many generations of dairy men who realize the possibilities in a type of cattle especially adapted for large and economical productions of milk and butter fat. Cattle that are true representatives of the breeds generally recognized as most suitable for dairy purposes, are a very distinct type from the ordinary native cattle and cattle of the improved beef type. The distinct breeds of dairy cattle tend to reproduce themselves from generation to generation with a marked degree o-f uniformity and in this fact lies the importance of choosing high grade or pure bred dairy cattle for dairy purposes.

Characteristics of Dairy Cattle. - Cattle of dairy type conform to the following peculiarities arid characteristics which enable them to produce large and economical yields of milk :

Large feed capacity, as indicated by a roomy and capacious abdominal cavity, a large mouth and sufficient strength of body to consume and utilize a large quantity of feed.

Dairy temperament or a disposition to convert the large portion of feed consumed into milk rather than body flesh. It is indicated by the absence of surplus flesh and a comparatively lean and refined appearance of the entire body.

A strong, healthy flow of blood to all parts of the body, giving vigor, alertness and constitution. These characteristics are indicated by prominent facial, udder and mammary veins, abundant secretions in the ears, skin of the body and at the end of the tail and a coat of fine, straight hair.

Establishing a Dairy Herd. - The surplus of dairy cattle in sectior where dairying is the principal agricultural industry, offers an opportunity fc the purchase of cattle suitable for establishing and maintaining dairy herd Time is too short to depend upon any other means of laying the foundatioi In many instances dairymen depend largely upon purchasing cows for the mair tenance of their herds. This system has the advantage of keeping the her filled with cows of mature age and capable of producing large and profitable quar tities of milk, if the dairyman is an expert cow buyer and can locate and secur at reasonable prices such cows as it will be necessary for him to purchase.

It is difficult to locate and induce men to part with their best cows. To secure the most suitable cows one must pay high prices. The expense of locating and transporting purchased cows is considei able.

Cattle Production 15

Good dairy calves are secured from the best cows of the herd mated to good, pure bred dairy sires. A calf must be well born as well as properly raised to become the right kind of a dairy cow. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon cows of good type and production capacity and sires that are of the best type and breeding. Knowing the best cows in the herd and being particular to save and raise well their heifer calves is the best way to get a profit-producing dairy herd.

Judging Dairy Cows. - The most successful dairyman is a good judge of dairy cattle. The ability to select profitable from unprofitable cows has always been a strong factor in successful dairying and in the future it will be even more necessary for men who engage in dairying to become good judges of dairy cows.

Although the consumption of milk and milk products is constantly increasing and the demand for bred-for-milk-and-butter-fat-production-cattle growing, the cost of feed and labor and the price of land is also rapidly increasing thus making it all the more necessary for the farmer to have better cows. It is becoming more and more important for him to know the family history of the cow, whether her ancestors were pure bred or grade and whether they were exceptional milkers or just ordinary or even poor producers.

The farmer who is a good judge of dairy cattle gains many advantages : Makes fewer mistakes in buying cattle. Gets better prices for his surplus stock. Selects and builds up a herd of cows of uniform size, type, breed and

Receives a higher and more uniform production of milk and butter fat. Makes greater returns over and above the cost of feed and care. Uses better sires and secures better calves.

Profit-Producing Cows. - A ready acquaintance with the qualifications for dairy type previously named, as well as with the line of breeding represented, will aid the dairyman in selecting profit-producing cows. It, of course, should be admitted that even the most expert judges of dairy cattle are unable, by relying solely upon the appearance to the eye and a study of family records, to foretell a cow's ability to produce milk and butter fat. That, in the end, is only told by the use of the milk scales and the Babcock tester.

Experiments and experience have shown clearly that as a rule, cows which possess certain so-called dairy characteristics are more economical producers of

Score Card For Dairy Cattle

GENERAL APPEARANCE - A dairy cow should weigh not less than 800 pounds, have large capacity for feed, a dairy temperament, well-developed milk organs, fine quality and perfect health, and be capable of a large production of milk and butter fat.

Scale Of Points

INDICATION OF CAPACITY FOR FEED - 25 POINTS Face, broad between the eyes and long; muzzle, clean cut; mouth, large; lips, strong; lower jaws lean and sinewy

Body, wedge shape as viewed from front, side and top; ribs, long, far apart and well sprung; breast full and wide; flanks, deep and full .... Back, straight; chine, broad and open; loin, broad and roomy . . .-

System, Health, Vigor And Milk

Skin, pliable; hair, fine and straight; secretions abundant in ear, on body and at end of tail . . Veins, prominent on face and udder; mammary veins, large, long, crooked and branching; milk and butter fat than those which lack these features. It is then importa: for the farmer who keeps cows for the milk and butter fat they yield, to see th as far as possible his animals have the qualifications for dairy type.

Cows usually fail in the production of milk to the extent that they h in one or more of these essential features. Each part of the body bears son relationship to one or more of these essential features and enabl< one to judge of its prominence and desirability. Where one is able to consid< all parts of the body and judge these essential features, he is not likely to e seriously in his judgment.

Cows Need Room for Digestive Organs. - A large body, more especial! the barrel, in proportion to the size of the animal, indicates capacity. The boc of the dairy cow should be wedge shaped as viewed from either the fron the side or the top of the withers. It should be wider at the hip points than ; the withers. The floor of the chest between the forelegs should also be wid< than the top of the withers. Again, the body should be deeper from the hi points to the bottom of the udder than it is at the fore quarters.

These characteristics of the body have led to the term "triple wedge shaj conformation," and in giving consideration to the digestive capacity of the co\ it should be remembered that it is the base ends of the three wedges rather tha the sharp ends that indicate feed capacity.

Ribs that are well sprung and far apart, an open chine, a back that is wic over the loins, a large barrel, hips that are wide apart, rear flanks that are fu and great depth from hips to lower line of the flank, all combine to indicate large digestive capacity. A wide forehead, a comparatively long face, broa muzzle, good sized mouth and strong, sinewy jaws, are also considered ind cations of a large digestive capacity.

The tail is often measured in judging a cow and to meet the standard requir* ment should reach to, or below, the hocks and carry a good switch. This rendei it most useful in brushing flies which is its chief purpose. Excepting as the loo: joints of the tail show an open condition of the vertebrae of the back, which desirable in the dairy cow, it is difficult to understand how the tail would indica' production.

Dairy Temperament and Milk Production. - The dairy temperament c dairy disposition of a cow indicates her ability to convert feed into milk rath< than into flesh. It is a feature which the dairy breeds have acquired through tr. process of selection and breeding for milk and butter fat production. It vari( in its degree of strength, even among pure bred animals, and, therefore, needs 1 be carefully considered in judging. A cow that is a large and economical produc< of milk and butter fat is almost certain to have a highly developed dairy ten perament.

Features about the head and face are clean cut in outline and indicative c fine quality ; eyes are prominent, bright and active ; neck is fine, clean, neatly joins to the head, not too full at the throat and comparatively long and thin ; shoulde; are oblique, comparatively bare of flesh and sharp at the withers ; the backbon hips and pin bones are prominent and sharp ; ribs are more or less prominent ar open ; thighs are thin and incurving, sometimes termed "cat hams ;" and bones in all parts of the body indicate quality rather than coarseness.

Sharp Wedges Indicate Temperament. - The lean, muscular tissue on the outside and underneath the shoulder blades and along the back accounts for the comparatively sharp conditions of the withers. The wedge-shaped conformation of the body is largely due to the absence of flesh about the neck and the fore quarters. It may be said, therefore, that the sharp end of the triple wedge-shaped conformation is indicative of dairy temperament.

In judging quality and condition of the muscular tissue of the body, consideration should be allowed for the size, age and stage of lactation of the animal. It should also be borne in mind that the bones and muscular tissues in a large cow are naturally heavier than in a smaller or younger animal. Then, too, there is not the natural refinement and spareness of form in the larger breeds that there is in the smaller ones. Marked coarseness, however, in any animal is undesirable and is usually accompanied by a sluggish disposition that in the case of the dairy cow prevents her from "performing at the pail" satisfactorily. Young heifers with their first calves usually carry more flesh than cows of mature form. All cows that are properly fed usually show a higher condition of flesh development toward the close of their lactation and prior to freshening than they do when four or five months advanced in lactation. This should be taken into consideration in judging dairy temperament.

A Well Developed Udder. - The udder is the milk secreting organ and its proper development is, therefore, essential. Cows, even of large digestive capacity and of pure dairy breeding, fail to make satisfactory productions when they have poorly developed udders.

The udder consists of two large glands which are more or less distinctly divided to correspond with each of the four teats. The duct of each teat enters a small cavity termed the "milk reservoir." The milk reservoir of each quarter is more or less surrounded by lobes of glands held in position and closely together by connecting tissue. These lobes may be likened to thick bunches of grapes since each lobe has several divisions called lobules, corresponding to the grapes. The lobules are made of small divisions called "alveoli" which correspond to the seeds of grapes. These alveoli consist of small cells surrounded by a fine network of blood vessels and nerves. The milk is secreted by these cells.

The best cows of all breeds have comparatively large udders with equally developed quarters extending well forward underneath the body and a good distance up behind and between the thighs. Swinging or pendulous udders result from poor attachment. Irregularity in the development of the quarters is a criticism to be offered on many udders. The first consideration, however, should be size and quality. The gland tissue should be fine and plastic rather than fatty or coarse and hard.

Good Circulation of Blood Important. - Only when there is a thorough circulation of blood and all parts of the body are active in performing their respective functions, can the dairy cow be expected to yield a large flowof milk. When the cow is sick, or, by virtue of her poor individuality, is dull and sluggish, there is an inactivity of all the glands of the body, resulting in a dry, harsh condition of the skin, a staring coat and a low production of milk. The circulatory system includes the heart, lungs, arteries and veins. These organs, respectively, force, purify and carry blood to and from all parts of the body.

When the feed which the cow eats is digested and assimilated, the blood carries it to all parts of the body including the glands of the udder which are abundantly supplied with blood vessels. A large amount of blood circulating to the udder is important to milk secretion. The size of the mammary veins and the openings or "milk wells" at the ends of the veins on the underside of the body are the best indications of how much blood passes through the udder. These veins, often called "milk veins," do not carry milk, as some believe, but rather carry away blood from the udder. Blood sometimes becomes gorged in the veins and as a result of too small milk wells, the size of the veins is misjudged. The blood passes into the udder through arteries located deep on the inner side of the thighs.

The oily condition of the skin and the oily secretion noted in the ears and at the end of the tail, are indications of healthy circulation of blood to all parts of body and a general activity on the part of all healthy glands of the body, including those of the udder. The large, open nostrils, protruding ample air passages to the lungs for purification of the blood, are also important.

The escutcheon, which is outlined by a mark made by the difference in direction in which the hair runs at the rear of the thighs above the udder, was thought by a French student of the dairy cow, Guenon, to be associated with the artery that carries blood to the udder, and, therefore, indicative of the dairy quality of the cow. If this is true, it should be given as much importance as the milk veins. Guenon also regarded the peculiar condition of spots of hair noted at the back side of the udders of some cows and termed "the thigh ovals," as an important point to consider in connection with the escutcheon. A lack of positive knowledge, however, concerning the relation of these features to milk production does not warrant giving them as much consideration as is given to the milk veins. An escutcheon which is wide and extends high up on the- quarters, is considered most desirable and usually is allowed one or two points on the score card for dairy breeds.

No Cow is Perfect. - No cow ever existed that could be called perfect in all respects when scored by a critical judge. It is expected that every animal will be more or less deficient and the eye of the judge should be quick to note the deficiency. In buying or selling, cows having deficiencies which tend to interfere seriously with their being economical producers should be discarded. Deficiencies in digestive capacity, dairy temperament, milk secretion and constitution should be given first consideration. Deficiencies in symmetry of form, breed characteristics and qualities which simply please the eye are more pardonable than those affecting production.

Some Common' Deficiencies in Cows. - A deficiency in one part of the body is usually accompanied by deficiencies in other parts which one acquiring the art of judging should soon learn. An expert is able to judge the character of an animal quite accurately by taking careful note of the head. A long, narrow head, for example, is usually accompanied by a long, narrow body. Good length of body is desirable in a dairy cow, but a narrow head usually has small eyes and nostrils and a small mouth.

A small, dull, listless eye expresses inability to do satisfactory work. Small nostrils indicate contracted lung capacity and poor constitution. A small mouth usually goes with small digestive capacity. Marked coarseness of bone, hide and hair are indicative of low producing capacity. Heavy, coarse bones over the tops of the shoulders, at the hip points, pin bones, in the tail and legs, are marks of poor dairy temperament.

A body which is short and lacking in depth due to close, short or straight ribs is objectionable because it detracts from the capacity for feed. The legs of an animal often appear long on account of a small body. The floor of the chest of a cow should be down to a point half way between the knee and elbow joints of the forelegs.

Deficiencies which are common to the hind quarters of the cow, include shortness and narrowness of rump, a drooping rump, narrowness between the thurls and pin bones and thickly fleshed thighs. Narrowness in the hind quarters, especially at the thurls and pin bones, is accompanied by thighs and hind legs which are too close together to permit proper development of the udder. A short rump and thick, heavy thighs are objectionable for the same reason.

There is practically always opportunity for criticising an udder on irregularity of quarters, handling quality, or attachment. An udder does not necessarily have to score perfectly to be capable of making a large production of milk, but it is desirable to have it large in proportion to the size of the cow and extend high up behind and well forward in front, with the quarters equally developed and of pliable handling quality. Teats which are too short, too close together or irregularly placed and inconvenient for milking, are often noted.

It is impossible to define perfection in the mammary veins, owing to the great variation in their development. Small, straight veins extending only a short distance forward from the udder and having very few, if any, branches, are characteristic of the veins on poor cows. A network of fair sized veins entering two or more wells on each side of the body, may be considered equal to larger and more prominent veins without branches and extensions.

Constitution and Breeding Essential. - A strong constitution is highly essential for the reason that the work of the cow is strenuous when she is fed for maximum production. A cow lacking vitality is rarely ever a good feeder, and consequently is unsatisfactory for milk production. The cow which has a constitution to enable her to be useful for a period of 10 or 12 years in making a large production of milk and regularly bearing offspring, is most profitable.

The breeding or ancestry of a cow largely determines her characteristics, the use she makes of her feed and the characteristics of her calves. The dairy cow, by virtue of her breeding, has the characteristics of some one of the recognized dairy breeds. Dairy breeding insures against disappointment when one buys or raises a cow for milk production.

Cattle Production 23

Records of Production a Sure Test. - The cow is very much like a race horse when it comes to judging her ability to perform. Both the race horse and the cow must be judged by means of the eye assisted by the record of performance. The milk scale and the Babcock tester assisted by judgment of the eye, are the best means of exercising judgment in building up a profitable dairy herd. Persistently following- this means of judging will lead to the establishment of a herd which is both pleasing to the eye and capable of a large and profitable production of milk and butter fat. Every dairyman can afford to weigh the milk from each cow at each milking and have a sample of the milk of each cow tested once a month. Results accurate enough for all practical purposes may thus be secured.

Milk Scale and Tester Increase Profits. - If judging by means of the milk scale and tester were employed on every dairy farm, feed worth millions of dollars, now being eaten by cows which do not pay their cost of keep, would be saved annually or converted into milk and the value of dairy products of the state would be greatly increased.

The Advanced Registry system, maintained by dairy cattle associations, records the milk and butter fat production of pure bred cows officially tested, and renders valuable aid in judging pure bred dairy animals on the basis of their ability to perform. A Cow Testing Association, which is usually a group of twenty-six farmers united to hire a man to weigh and test the milk and keep records of feed costs and milk production, is the best means for having entire herds of cows tested. It pays to belong to such an association. Only by eliminating the poorer cows of the herd can a high herd average be maintained. A breeder of dairy cattle who is particularly anxious to improve the quality and excellence of the herd will be careful to judge dairy cattle by means of the eye assisted by a careful consideration of milk and butter fat production. Furthermore, attention should be given to the pedigree of the animals.

A Good Family Tends to Insure Good Cows. - The pedigree of an animal is a record of its ancestors, or family. The ordinary pedigree usually shows the ancestors for five or six generations. The value of the pedigree lies in the fundamental law of nature that "like produces like." Where ancestors of a given animal are known to be good, one can judge more accurately than by the eye alone. The careful dairyman, who is anxious to build up the best possible herd, will find it profitable to study carefully the individuality, pedigree and performance of his cattle.

Feed And Care Of The Dairy Cow

Feeding Dairy Cows. - The prime object in dairying is to convert feed into milk and money. Healthy cows of dairy type and breeding- and an abundance of feed suitable for dairy rations, are two equally important factors in mil'k production.

When prime grass pasture in abundance is available, good cows produce milk profitably and require very little of the dairyman's attention to the matter of feeding. Many cows are unprofitable, however, for the reason that they have been underfed, improperly managed, or allowed to live an easy, unproductive life.

That each cow requires a maintenance ration whether milking or dry, and that feed additional to the maintenance ration is required for milk production.

That feed is the source of milk and that cows produce milk throughout the greater part of their lactation periods in proportion to the kinds and amounts of feed supplied. Cows which are heavy feeders are usually large and economical producers*

Practical Suggestions on Feeding and Management. - Dairy cows require careful attention at all seasons of the year if one hopes to secure the most profitable returns from them. In order to have conditions suitable for successfully feeding and keeping up a full flow of milk, the following practical suggestions are offered :

At All Times. - Treat cows gently and avoid excitement. The treatment cows receive in these respects has a marked effect on their production.

Allow free access to salt daily. Granulated or lump stock sale" is most economical. Three-fourths of an ounce per 1,000 Ibs. of live weight daily, plus six-tenths of an ounce for each 20 Ibs. of milk, is regarded sufficient where salt must be mixed with the feed.

Give cows six to eight weeks rest between lactation periods. Feed them during the resting period in a manner to increase their weight and strength if they are in a rundown condition.

Discard the cow which has had a fair chance and failed at the end of the year to pay market prices for all the feed she has consumed. One cannot afford to feed and care for cows that do not pay expenses.

Belong to a dairy cattle breeders' association, a cow testing association and other organizations that will help to keep one posted and in touch with the best up-to-date methods of managing a dairy herd.

Be prepared to treat an attack of milk fever, which may occur within the first forty-eight hours after calving in the case of cows that have passed their first lactation period.

Cattle Production 25

Do not milk heavily producing cows completely dry for a few days after freshening. It is not Nature's practice and has often been the means of producing milk fever.

Feed fresh cows sparingly the first few days after calving. Water with the chill removed, a few quarts of scalded bran or oats, and good hay, is sufficient for a cow the first day or two after calving. The condition of the cow should determine the manner in which she is fed following the first two or three days. It ordinarily requires two to three weeks to gradually work cows onto full feed. For best results one should be cautious not to over-feed or allow the cow at any time to get off feed or out of condition.

In Winter Time. - Do not turn cows out to remain and suffer in cold or stormy weather. It prevents the right use of feed and reduces the milk production. Remember that cows do not have thick coverings of flesh like beef cattle to protect them from the cold.

Do not depend on frozen pasture for feed in late fall and the early winter. Cows that go off in milk production at this season are difficult to make profit-- able during the winter.

Provide water two or three times daily which is not colder than that from a deep well. A tank heater is a profitable investment if necessary to warm water for cows.

Feed daily three pounds of corn silage or roots and one pound of clover or alfalfa hay for each 100 Ibs. of live weight. These are approximate amounts and serve merely as a guide in feeding roughage to cows.

Feed cows 1 Ib. of grain mixture for^ every 3 to 4 Ibs. of milk produced. This will be equivalent to feeding about 7 Ibs. of grain for 1 Ib. of butter fat produced. Cows producing milk with high per cent of butter fat should receive the larger amount of grain.

Supplement poor pastures with corn silage or green soiling crops like rye, oats and peas, green corn fodder, and other available feed. Keep up the production by feeding hay and grain if necessary.

A Winter Schedule for Dairy Barn Work. - Cows as well as people are to a very large extent creatures of habit, and regularity in all work pertaining to management of the herd is most easily and successfully accomplished by following a definite schedule. Irregularity in feeding and milking times reduces the year's production of cows very materially. The following schedule for herd and barn work is offered as a suggestion :

The Selection of Feeds for Dairy Rations. - Dairy rations ordinarily consist of a combination of concentrated feeds and roughages. Concentrated feeds include farm grains, by-products of grains and a mixture of feeds offered on the market as commercial feeding stuffs. Roughages include various kinds of hay, silage, soiling crops, roots, fodder and straw. Straw and the poorer grades of hay and fodder should be fed to dry stock and the better grades of roughages saved for cows that are fresh and capable of doing the best work.

Home-Made Grain Mixtures for Dairy Cows. - These mixtures are more satisfactory and, at normal prices, less expensive for milk production than feeding farm grown grains exclusively. Dairymen in every community should co-operate with their local feed dealers or feed agents to secure these feeding stuffs at the most reasonable prices.

Cattle Production 27

A complete ration for a cow weighing approximately 1,000 Ibs. may be made by feeding 1 Ib. of grain for every 3 or 4 Ibs. of milk produced in addition to:

Cows which give milk of high percent of butterfat should receive 1 Ib. of grain for every 3 Ibs. of milk produced, and cows exceeding 1,000 Ibs. in live weight should receive a relatively larger amount of hay and silage or roots. If dried distillers' grains are not available, gluten feed, dried brewers' grains or malt sprouts, with preference in the order named, may be substituted for them. Barley, hominy, rye or Kafir grain may be substituted for corn. Equal parts of bran and corn meal are a substitute for oats when prices and the available supply necessitates. Cotton seed meal does not have the laxative property that oil meal contains, but with succulent feeds like silage and roots and other laxative feeds like bran, clover and alfalfa hay, may be fed to good advantage as a substitute in supplying protein.

The Composition Of Feeds

Feeds for dairy rations are selected and purchased largely on the basis of their values and composition. Feeding stuffs are composed primarily of water, crude fiber, crude protein and fat. The more important compounds that all feeds contain and that should be carefully considered in the selection of feeds for rations are: dry matter, crude fiber, protein, carbohydrates and fat

Dry Matter. - The portion of a feeding stuff "that would remain if the water or moisture contained therein were driven off by heat. It constitutes the main mass or bulk of feeds. An excess of moisture should be guarded against. It may incur the loss of feed and in buying one does not want to pay for more moisture than is necessary.

Cattle Production 29

Crude Fiber. - The woody portion of feeds having a low nutritive value. Farm grown grains of good quality range in fiber from 2 percent for corn to approximately 11 percent for oats. Wheat bran of good quality averages about 10. percent fiber, although it is most often guaranteed at 11 or 12 percent. As a rule it is not good economy to buy concentrated feeds containing more than 12 to 14 percent crude fiber unless there is some compensating factor like high protein content or a price per ton that warrants their substitution for other more expensive feeds.

Protein. - The portion of feeding stuffs which contains nitrogen. The whites of eggs and the casein or cheese part of milk are good examples. Feed containing a high protein content are frequently spoken of as nitrogenous feeds. Oil meal is a good example. Protein is used in the animal body essentially for the production of muscular tissue, tendons, hide, hair and the casein or cheese part of the milk.

Carbohydrates. - The elements of feed rich in carbon and containing oxygen and hydrogen. They do not contain nitrogen. Sugar and starch are good examples. Carbohydrates and fat serve the purpose of 'supplying the animal body with heat, energy for work, material for the repair of the body tissues, the formation of body fat and the fat in milk. Feeds containing a high percent of carbohydrates and a comparatively low percent of protein are frequently called carbonaceous feeds. Corn is a good example.

Buying Feeds For Dairy Rations

To have a suitable place for storing purchased feeds where their cleanliness and palatability will not be lessened by rats, mice and dampness.

Description And Definition Of Concentrated Feeds

A brief description of the concentrated feeds commonly used in mixtures for dairy cattle in the Northwest will be helpful in selecting and utilizing them.

Corn. - Corn in the form of meal or chops regardless of its being dent, flint or of various colors, is valuable as part of a dairy ration. It is palatable and one of the best sources of energy. On account of its low protein contents and heavy nature, it is best to feed it in combination with feeds of bulkier and comparatively heavier protein contents. Commercial corn meal, corn chop and corn feed 'meal may be considered equal in feeding value.

Corn meal may be the entire ground corn grain or corn meal and byproducts of corn grain. The corn feed meal is the sifting obtained in the manufacture of cracked corn and table corn meal. Corn germ meal or germ oil meal is the corn germ layer from which a part of the oil ha.s been extracted and is secured in the manufacture of starch, glucose and other corn products. It is not ordinarily used in dairy rations.

Corn and Cob Meal. - Corn and cob meal is the result of grinding corn and cob. In order to lighten and give bulk to the mixture, ear corn is often ground for dairy rations. It should be finely ground to insure best results and avoid digestive disturbances.

Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed. - Gluten meal is a corn by-product remaining afte'r the starch germ and bran have been removed in the process of manufacturing cornstarch and glucose. Gluten feed is the finely ground combination of gluten meal and corn bran. It is very frequently used in mixtures of considerable variety, to supply protein in dairy rations. A mixture of equal parts of gluten feed and wheat bran with corn silage and alfalfa hay has proven satisfactory as a ration for dairy cows.

Continental Gluten Feed. - This by-product is a dried distillers' grain and should be considered in a class with distillers' grains rather than as gluten feed.

Hominy Feed, Hominy Meal, Hominy Chop. - These feeds are a mixture of bran, the germ and a part of the starchy portion of corn obtained in the manufacture of hominy grits and brewers' grits. It is similar in composition to corn meal, is somewhat bulkier and keeps better in storage. It is a suitable feed to take the place of corn meal in dairy rations.

Wheat By-products. - Bran, shorts or standard middlings, flour or wheat middlings and Red dog flour are by-products of wheat suitable for dairy rations.

Wheat Bran. - This is the outer coatings of the wheat kernel. It is generally regarded one of the very best feeds for cows. It is slightly laxative, keeps the cow's digestive system in good condition and gives bulk and palatability to the ration. Bran contains a high proportion of phosphorus and potash in its ash content. 25 to 50 percent of a mixture for dairy cows can well be bran. The price and other available feeds should determine the amount used. Bran that is pure has a higher feeding value than bran with mill run screenings which is pure bran plus the screenings which are separated from the wheat used in preparing the bran. In buying large quantities of bran it is well to secure samples and buy subject to them.

Shorts or Standard Wheat Middlings. - Shorts or standard wheat middlings consist of the finer particles of bran with considerable flour adhering.

Red Dog Flour. - This is a 'low grade of wheat flour containing chiefly the wheat germs. It is comparatively rich in protein and more valuable than middlings. These feeds are less bulky, less laxative and contain a smaller quantity of ash than wheat bran. They are slightly higher in protein and in total nutrients than wheat bran and usually higher in price. Their pasty condition when moist necessitates using them in mixtures having considerable variety to insure palatability.

Wheat Screenings. - They consist of broken, shrivelled wheat kernels, weed seeds and other foreign material. Screenings should be finely ground to overcome the growth of noxious weeds from seeds which may pass uninjured through animals and be carried to -the fields in manure. They may be regarded as more valuable for sheep feeding than for dairy rations. Except as bran with mill-run screenings in the ration, they are not generally used for dairy cattle.

Barley, Oats And Rye

Barley. - Barley is a palatable feed and substitute for corn meal where the price permits. Like corn it should be ground and fed in combination with other feeds that increase the bulk and protein of the mixture.

Oats. - When ground oats compare with bran in price, they are well adapted for feeding dairy 'cattle. They are bulky, palatable and slightly laxative. The price should determine the amount included in grain mixtures.

Rye. - Rye is not especially palatable and tends to produce a tallowy butter. Its composition is similar to corn and if fed to dairy cows should be mixed with other feeds.

Ernmer or Speltz. - This grain is a part of the wheat family grown in semi-arid regions. In composition it is similar to barley and corn. Feeding trials with dairy cows indicate that its value is more than 10 per cent less than that of barley or corn.

Buckwheat By-Products

Buckwheat Middlings. - These are the part of the kernel immediately under the hulls which are separated from the flour in the process of milling. They are heavy and are best fed in comparatively small quantities in combination with other feeds. They are often a cheap source of protein.

Buckwheat Bran or Feed. - This is a combination of middlings and a given per cent of hulls, and possesses a feeding value considerably lower than that of middlings.

Dried Distillers' Grains. - The dried residue from corn obtained in the manufacture of alcohol and distilled liquors constitutes a bulky, palatable, high protein feed for dairy cows. Dried distillers' grains from rye possess less than two-thirds the value of dried distillers' grains from corn. 25 to 40 per cent of the grain mixture for dairy cows can well be corn dried distillers' grains.

Brewers' Dried Grains. - These grains are the properly dried residue from cereals used in the manufacture of beer. They constitute a bulky feed rich in protein. In combination with feeds that insure palatability they serve well in dairy rations. It is often necessary to develop the appetite of cows for them by gradually introducing them into the mixture.

Brewers' Wet Grains. - The freshly extracted residue obtained in malting and brewing grains for beer provides a suitable feed for dairy cattle. On farms near breweries where the grains can be secured and kept and utilized in a fresh, wholesome condition, 20 to 30 Ibs. per head daily may be fed with hay and other roughage.

Malt Sprouts. - As a source of protein, malt sprouts mixed with other feeds to insure palatability, may be fed to good advantage to dairy cows. They are the shrivelled sprouts from dried malt grains. The amount fed daily should not exceed 2 Ibs. unless they are soaked before feeding.

Linseed Oil Meal. - The ground residue of flaxseed obtained in the process of extracting oil from flaxseed, can well be 5 to 20 per cent of the grain mixture for dairy cattle. Old process oil meal refers to the residue obtained from crushing the flaxseed and pressing out the oil. New process oil meal is the result of crushing the flaxseed and dissolving out the oil meal with naphtha. In the United States nearly all the linseed oil meal is made by the old process which is regarded the better process from the feeder's standpoint. Oil meal is laxative and is valuable for conditioning animals as well as in furnishing protein.

Cotton Seed Meal and Cotton Seed Feed. - Cotton seed meal is the finely ground residue secured in extracting oil from cotton seed. The meal is graded on the basis of its protein content. Choice refers to meal excellent in quality, sweet in odor, yellow in color without excess of lint and contains at least 41 per cent of protein. Prime refers to meal similar to choice and contains only 38.6 per cent protein. Good refers to meal finely ground, not necessarily bolted, however, of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color and must contain at least 36 per cent of protein. Cotton seed meal is slightly constipating and is used largely as a source of protein. Prices often warrant using 5 to 20 per cent of cotton seed meal in mixtures for dairy cattle.

Dried Beet Pulp. - The dried residue of feeds used in the manufacture of sugar is commonly used as a feed, for dairy cattle. This feed is best used when soaked 24 hours prior to feeding it and fed in combination with other feeds. Approximately 8 Ibs. of dried beet pulp soaked 12 to 24 hours offers a substitute for green roots or corn silage. The pulp is often fed to good advantage, to give variety to rations for test cows.

Alfalfa Meal. - Commercial alfalfa meal is the entire alfalfa hay ground without an admixture of ground alfalfa straw or foreign materials, except in combination with molasses to keep down the dust and with feeds that require greater bulk and palatability, alfalfa is best fed to dairy cattle in the form of hay. Dairymen desiring to use alfalfa meal should consider the possibility of grinding their own hay and mixing it to suit their needs.

Mixed Dairy Feeds. - These vary in their character owing to the nature of the materials of which they are composed. Some possess merit and others cannot be considered desirable feeds. Mixed dairy feeds containing less than 8 per cent of crude protein and as much as 20 per cent of crude fiber, do not constitute good concentrated feeds even if sold at attractive prices.

Dairy Farm Organization

A well organized and well tilled dairy farm does much to provide suitable feeds and to reduce the cost of feeds for dairy cattle. A rotation that will provide an abundance of corn silage, alfalfa, clover or mixed hay, one or more cereal grains and pasture in rotation or of a permanent kind, should be adopted and secured as early as possible.

Pastures in most sections cannot be depended upon for feed throughout the summer and soiling crops or the silo for summer silage should be provided. The following tabulation of crops offers a suggestion on a series of crops that may be grown for soiling purposes. The acreage under average conditions is considered sufficient for ten cows that have the benefit of good grass pasture for right pasture.

A Succession Of Soiling Crops For Dairy Cows

Soiling Crops vs. Silage for Dairy Cows. - There are several reasons why the silo is a better source of feed for cows in summer than land seeded to soiling crops:

Cattle Production 35

The labor required to put up and feed a given amount of silage will be less expensive than the labor required to secure and feed soiling crops. The inconvenience of feeding silage will also be much less.

Silos and Silage. - The organization of dairy and general live stock farms is not complete without one or more silos. Silos made of concrete, brick, wood and other materials which insure an air-tight wall, are in general use, and satisfactory. The chief differences between silos are in cost, durability and expense for repairs.

Crops Suitable for the Silo. - A silo is most valuable for the storage of corn that is harvested when the ears are nicely glazed or the crop is ordinarily ready to be put into the shock. Peas and oats cut when the oats are in the milk or dough stage, freshly cut clover and alfalfa, a mixture of corn and clover, alfalfa or soy beans, shock corn or stover mixed with beet tops, and refuse from canning factories, may also be stored in the silo to good advantage. Two bushels of peas and one bushel of oats mixed and sown at the rate of two bushels per acre, can usually be cut with a grain binder and handled very conveniently when ready for the silo. They make an excellent means for providing summer silage for dairy cows where there is not an abundance of corn silage. Clover or alfalfa is best made into hay and only when the weather does not permit good hay being made is it advisable to put these crops into the silo. Late cuttings of these crops mixed with corn, increase the amount and add to the protein content of silage.

Silage an Economic Feed. - Three tons of corn silage contain practically the same amount of digestible nutrients as one ton of hay and require only onethird as much storage space. The entire plant is usually put into the silo, thus there is the least chance of waste. The loss of dry matter from corn when shocked, husked and handled in the usual manner, ranges from 20 to 25 percent. Properly put into the silo the loss is only 5 to 10 percent, and the crop is preserved in a manner to yield a uniform quality of feed as long" as it lasts, and comes the nearest to being a substitute for good grass pasture of any other feed.

Corn silage is especially valuable for dairy and beef cattle, sheep and horses. Hogs like it, but do not utilize it in a manner to warrant their receiving it. All classes of animals need to be gradually accustomed to silage, after which dairy cattle may receive 25 to 40 pounds per head daily, beef and growing cattle 15 to 20 pounds, sheep 1 to 2 pounds, and horses 10 to 15 pound?. Horses must be fed judiciously and guarded against colic.

wise required. It provides excellent succulent feed with which to supplement or replace summer pastures that are short or spoiled by drought.

Silo Troubles Not Serious. - Mold, due to improperly mixing and packing the silage at time of filling, or not feeding it at a rate to keep the surface from spoiling, and freezing in winter are the chief difficulties experienced with silos. Moldy silage is injurious and must not be fed. Frozen silage is dangerous and should not be fed until after being thawed out, when it is perfectly wholesome if fed before mold develops. In winter time one should be careful to keep the surface level or the outer edges slightly lower. Silage freezes from the top and more about the edges than in the center. Covers to keep out the cold made with straw or blankets are helpful.

Location of the Silo. - The silo to protect the silage from freezing should be located if possible at the south side of the barn. In extremely cold sections it may be advisable to build the silo inside the barn. The diameter of the silo should be such that it can be fed down at the rate of il/2 to 2 inches over the entire surface each day. This rate of feeding is necessary to prevent mold and to insure the best quality of feed. A silo of small diameter is most suitable for summer feeding.

When to Fill the Silo. - Corn makes the best silage when the majority of the ears are dented or are just beginning to glaze. If corn is put into the silo before this stage of maturity is reached, the silage becomes very sour or acid and will have a low feeding value.

If the crop is allowed to get over-ripe or dry it does not pack well and being deficient in moisture is almost certain to produce moldy silage.

Moisture Necessary for Good Silage. - When the corn becomes dry from being allowed to get ripe or due to frost, good silage can be made from it if water is added at the time of filling. No definite rule can be given as to the right amount of water to add. A sufficient amount should be used to insure having the corn well packed. The water should be added during the process of filling, otherwise it may fail to reach all the parts and thus cause moldy silage. Water can be run into the blower or distributed in the silo by means of a hose.

Length to Cut Corn for Silage. - Silage is usually cut in l/2-mch lengths. If cut longer than this the cows refuse to eat the coarser portions of stalks and thus cause waste. Dull cutter knives increase the amount of power required to cut the corn and also leave it in a shredded condition which makes it difficult to properly pack the silage.

Distribution of Corn in Silo Important. - It is very essential that the cut corn be well distributed at the time of filling. If this is not done the heavier portions will fall in one place and the higher material in another. This will cause the mass of silage to settle unevenly and spoiled silage will result. Thoroughly mixed fodder and corn are also desirable to insure best results in feeding.

Silage Must Be Well Packed. - During the process of filling the cut material should be kept slightly higher at the edges than in the center and should be well tramped against the sides where the friction of the silage against the wall tends to prevent settling. Tramping in the center of the silo is not neces- sary for the weight of a man is small compared to the weight of the silage. Silos that are deep and of small diameter require less tramping than those of larger dimensions. Two competent men in a silo who understand the importance of securing well packed silage are insurance against loss.

Sealing the Surface. - It is not necessary to put on any cover after filling is completed. A few inches of the top will always spoil. If the ears are removed from the last few loads of corn nothing will be lost except the fodder. If there happens to be some refuse close by such as weeds, slew grass, or waste from the barn floor, to put on, the saving will pay for the extra labor. The usual practice of sealing is to wet down the surface immediately after filling and to tramp thoroughly several times during the first week. By this method a seal of rotten silage will form on the top and only a few inches will be spoiled. This crust should not be broken until feeding begins when all the spoiled silage should be removed and discarded.

Silage from Sugar Beet Tops and Shock Corn. - Sugar beet tops and shock corn have been successfully cut up together for silage at the University of Wisconsin. The silage had a slightly stronger odor than the ordinary corn silage but was not offensive. Cows relished it and did as well on it as they did on regular corn silage. Chemical analysis showed that this silage had practically the same feeding value as clear corn silage. Professor Henry states that the leaves of sugar beets have about half the feeding value of the roots. Taking into consideration this fact one is impressed with the importance of utilizing the beet tops for feed. Making them into silage with corn fodder proved so satisfactory that it seems worth while to publish the fact as a suggestion to the many farmers who grow large crops of sugar beets and who are undoubtedly facing the problem of how best to utilize the tops for feeding purposes.

After the beets were removed from the field, the tops which had been left in small piles were run through an ensilage cutter into the silo with about an equal quantity of corn fodder taken from the shock. By throwing beet tops onto a large layer of corn and running both through the cutter together, no difficulty was experienced in1 getting the beet tops cut. Enough water was added to the cut material to give it proper moisture and make it pack well when two men tramped it during the time of filling.

The Dairy Barn. - No cow can be kept in a healthy condition in a dark, poorly ventilated stable. Sunlight is a disinfectant and insures healthy cows and conditions under which milk can be produced in a most satisfactory manner. Barns 36 feet wide and extending lengthwise north and south are best lighted. Four to six square feet of window sash should be provided for each cow. The stable should be properly ventilated and kept clean as well as supplied with plenty of light. The King system of ventilation which provides a circulation of fresh air and at the' same time renders the stable comfortably warm, is highly recommended. This system admits air through flues with opening into the stable near the ceiling, and draws the stable air out through another set of flues with openings from the stable near the floor of the stable. The Rutherford system of having

Frequent applications of whitewash over the walls and ceiling of the stable, keep stables clean and disinfected. Cobwebs and dust should not be allowed to collect. Where hay is kept in a loft above the stable, there should be no cracks in the floor through which dust can sift. Dust that rises at feeding time and in the process of bedding cattle, should have settled before the hours of milking. The stable manure should be removed frequently and doors and windows screened during fly seasons. It pays to groom cows and wipe the udders with a damp cloth just prior to milking; use half-covered pails in which to milk and strain the milk through a strainer provided with a layer of absorbent cotton. These practices render milk most free from dirt and bacteria.

The Production and Handling of Market Milk. - To further insure the highest grade of market milk, the milkers should be provided with clean, white suits and have facilities for washing their hands before milking each cow. Dairymen should also be particular to have men in charge of the herd and employed to do the milking who are in perfect -health and who especially are free from contagious and infectious diseases. The expense of producing milk with bacteria reduced to a point beloyv 10,000 per cubic centimeter, the standard for certified milk, necessitates dairymen receiving prices for their milk that are considerably above the ordinary prices charged for market milk.

"Milk is highly perishable and susceptible to foreign odors and flavors. Every precaution must be taken to avoid contamination. All utensils used for milk should be carefully washed by using washing powders, sterilized with boiling water or live steam and kept where they will not come in contact with dust or dirt Pails, cans and containers of all kinds should be constructed in a manner to have all cracks filled with solder or the surface with which the milk comes in contact perfectly smooth, to prevent the collection of dirt or stale milk that is the source of contamination.

The milk room should be separated from the stable, and be provided with walls and floors which are easily washed and cleaned. The doors and windows should be screened and ventilation provided to insure the circulation of pure, fresh air. A milk room provided with hot and cold water, racks for utensils and arranged for the convenient handling of milk, is essential to the successful handling of milk.

As soon as milk for the market is drawn from the cow, it should be properly cooled and bottled or put into containers and kept cool. The quicker this can be done after milking, the less difficulty there will be in keeping the milk sweet and wholesome. Warm milk should never be mixed with cool milk. Milk that has to be separated for producing cream or for standardization purposes is best separated immediately after milking and then subjected to the cooling process.

The care and handling of market milk does not cease with the delivery on the part of the producer. The patron who is supplied must see to keeping the milk where it will remain cool and be free from bad odors, flies and other sources of contamination. The producer should emphasize this fact to safeguard his business.

Raising Dairy Calves

The best way to get a profit-producing dairy herd is to use only good, pure bred sires, take good care of the cows, and keep the calves "coming" right from birth. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon a good sire.

He should be a well developed, strong, vigorous, individual possessing depth and length of body indicating feed capacity and a muscular and angular condition of body indicating a dairy disposition.

His dam should be of ideal type and character and capable of a large milk and butter fat production. The proof of the value of every sire is in his get. It is desirable to select mature sires that have proved themselves capable of producing heifers that are of the most desirable type and character. Too many sires are sacrificed before one has an opportunity to appreciate their value.

The Calf Should Be Well Born. - To give the calf as well as its mother a fair chance, a cow should be carefully dried off six weeks before date of calving. This allows her to feed well her unborn calf and to get ready for her period of milk production. Cows that are not given such rest usually produce weak and undersized calves. In such cases both the cow and her calf are seriously handicapped.

From two to four pounds of grain a day, equal parts of bran and oats and one pound of oil meal, make a good feed for the cow during the dry or rest period. The amount of grain to be fed will, of course, depend upon the condition of the cow. She should be placed in a clean and comfortable box stall several days before calving.

Give Calf Colostrum, or "First Milk." - The calf should be left with its mother for the first two to four days so that it may get the colostrum, or "first milk." From then until it is four weeks old it should be fed from two to five pounds of its mother's milk three times a day. Many experienced breeders feed calves which are weak a smaller amount but give it four times a day. It is well to remember always that there is more danger from overfeeding a young calf than from under-feeding it. Have the pails clean and the temperature of the milk as near as possible that of freshly drawn milk, or about 95 to 100 degrees F.

Feed Skim Milk and Silage During Fifth Week. - During the fifth week change gradually from whole to skim milk. Do not increase the amount fed until about the eighth week, when the calf needs from 6 to 10 pounds twice daily. Froth, which rises on separator milk, should not be fed to calves. It is almost sure to produce indigestion, bloat, and scours. ' If available, skim milk can be fed profitably until the calf is a year or more old. In order to get the greatest returns from the milk, the amount fed to any calf should not exceed 20 pounds per day. Corn silage, free from coarse cobs and butts, and fed in small amounts, makes a good feed for calves which are a month or six weeks of age.

Feed Hay and Grain Carefully. - When the calf is from ten days to two weeks old give it a small amount of choice mixed clover or alfalfa hay. A little later feed a very small amount of grain and increase the allowance gradually as the young animal develops. It is well to keep a calf a little hungry, rather than to tax its digestive organs. A calf's appetite and the condition of its bowels are the two arms to the guide-post which mark the course the feeder should follow.

Prevent young calves from eating coarse butts of fodder or cobs from silage as these will cause serious indigestion and scours. Nothing of this kind should be left in the feed or bedding. Occasionally, a craving appetite for hay and straw results in too much being eaten and indigestion follows. In such cases separate the ailing calf from its mates and reduce its feed until the appetite becomes normal.

Don't Allow Calves to Suck One Another. - The calves should be separated and penned in groups according to their ages. They can be fastened in stanchions when milk is fed and grain can be supplied them immediately after they drink. Feeding the grain at this time and keeping them locked in the stanchions until the grain is eaten, helps to overcome the habit of sucking. Calves that continue to suck one another after being turned loose should be separated or some other means taken to prevent the practice. Heifers often have their udders injured by being sucked.

Grain Mixture for Calves. - A good grain mixture for young calves consists of 50 parts of whole oats, 30 parts of wheat bran, 10 parts of corn meal, and 10 parts of oil meal. After calves are six months old less grain will be wasted if it is ground. The amount of grain fed should vary from a small handful for the young calf to three pounds, or possibly more, in some instances, to heifers from 24 to 30 months' of age. If, for any reason, a heifer is thin, an extra amount of grain should be fed to get her in good condition.

Feed Calves Regularly the First Year. - During the first year feed the calves regularly in the barn and turn them out for exercise in shady paddocks or during the nights only. This will insure satisfactory growth at an age when it may be secured at lowest cost. Supply water and salt to the calves daily.

Grow Well and Breed the Second Year. - During their second year feed or pasture the heifers in such a way as to get the maximum growth. It has been found that the most productive and profitable cows are produced by getting the maximum growth from birth to maturity. Heifers which are bred at from 16 to 20 months of age and that are in good flesh at calving time usually develop satisfactorily.

Keep Stables Clean. - Calf pens should be kept clean and comfortable. The calves should be protected from cold cement floors by board overlays. Cold draughts of air often prove fatal and should be carefully avoided. Abundant window space lets the sunlight in during the winter and in the summer can be darkened to keep out flies and heat. The stable needs ventilating so as to supply fresh air and to regulate the temperature. Young calves should never be exposed to a hot, burning sun. Watch the calves carefully and whenever necessary, treat them for lice and ringworm.

Raising Calves on Oil Meal Gruel. - Where skim milk is not available for feeding purposes, calves are likely to suffer and make an unsatisfactory growth. However, if care be taken calves may be grown successfully without skimmilk. In one of the prominent cheese districts of Wisconsin it was an interesting fact that very few calves were fed whey. The whey is fed to pigs and the calves raised on whole milk, oil meal gruel, and hay and grain. The usual practice is to feed whole milk regularly until the calf is from four to six weeks old. Then a tablespoonful of oil meal, thoroughly cooked, is added to a pint of water and substituted for a pint of the whole milk. Every third day following, an additional pint of water and a tablespoon ful of cooked oil meal is substituted for a pint of the whole milk until half the milk ration consists of oil meal and water. This half and half mixture is usually continued until the calf is from three to four months old and able to do well on the ration of hay and grain.

The Whole Milk Method. - In a prominent condensery district a breeder of fine Holstein cattle who gets splendid size in his cows, feeds whole milk until the calves are twelve weeks old and then depends on whole oats, hay and pasture.

In all instances calves should be encouraged at as early an age as possible to eat grain and hay. Oats alone, or bran and oats, or a mixture of 50 parts oats, 30 parts bran, 10 parts corn meal, and 10 parts oil meal make a good grain ration. Hay of fine quality, and preferably well cured second cutting of clover or alfalfa, should be fed. Pure fresh water should be supplied daily. Calves should have free access to salt at all times and everything should be done to provide clean and comfortable quarters.

How Whey May Be Used. - If whey is used for raising calves, it should be sweet and clean and fed at about the temperature of freshly drawn milk. Each patron of a cheese factory should have special cans for getting as much whey each day as will be needed for the calves and have these filled directly from the cheese vat. Whey from the general whey vat is likely to be sour or otherwise unfit to feed to calves. Sweet whey should only be fed after the calf has been well started on whole milk.

One man reports good results from feeding sweet whey and shelled corn. If a handful of shelled corn is thrown into the whey the calf soon learns to eat this immediately after drinking the whey. Whey, shelled corn, good hay and pasture, when in season, together with good care, gave good results for this stockman.

Treating Calves for Scours. - Calves that scour may be treated successfully in several ways if the case is not too serious. It is well to have one good remedy for serious cases and the following may be recommended :

As soon as symptoms appear, from two to four tablespoon fuls of caster oil are mixed with one-half pint of milk and given to the calf. This is followed in from four to six hours by a teaspoonful of a mixture of one part salol and two parts subnitrate of bismuth. This mixture can be purchased at any drug store and will be ready for use at any time. The powder can be given in one-half pint of milk or placed on the calf's tongue and washed down with a small amount of milk. The allowance of feed should be reduced at once and not increased until the condition of the calf warrants. In mild cases castor oil is unnecessary and therefore can be omitted. Forcing the calf to eat an egg and the shell, feeding lime water and give a tablespoonful of wheat flour are simple home remedies that are used successfully.

Precautions Against Scours. - Special care needs to be taken to avoid scours. Tincture of iodine or a solution of one part bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) to 500 parts of water applied several times to the navel of the new born calf, safeguards against contagious scours. It is important to have the cows calve in disinfected, clean, well lighted, well ventilated pens, and to

Cattle Production 43

Do not overfeed ; have milk at proper temperature.; feed milk regularly and from pails that are scrupulously clean; if possible, feed the calf its mother's milk ; if necessary to feed other milk, choose a cow which has recently freshened and continue regularly with her milk; make any changes in feed gradually;

Dehorning the calf with caustic potash. A convenient method of securing the calf and doing the work suggested in the picture. Read method of dehorning calves.

guard against feeds or materials that will produce indigestion like sour milk, moldy, very coarse or woody feeds, and paint, blankets, sacks, etc., which calves will sometimes eat ; keep calves clean, dry, and out of cold draughts of air.

Dehorning Calves with Caustic Potash. - For several years calves born at the Wisconsin University Farm have been dehorned by the use of caustic potash and it has been demonstrated that this method is successful when properly applied.

The caustic potash should be applied as soon as the "buttonlike" horns can be felt, which is usually when the calf is three to ten days old. If postponed, the operation will be unsatisfactory. To apply the potash, remove the hair from about the horns close to the skin. Moisten the potash slightly and run it over the skin which covers the. points of the horns until the skin is white.

Do not rub the skin until blood comes, as this will cause unnecessary soreness. One such treatment is usually sufficient to prevent the growth of the horns.

heavy paper so as to protect the hands of the operator; the caustic should be only slightly moistened ; too much moisture will cause the liquid to run down the side of the calf's head,, and cause unnecessary pain ; the calf must be securely fastened so that its head may be held still to avoid applying the caustic anywhere else than upon the horns. Preserve the stick of caustic potash in a tightly corked bottle, and you will have enough to dehorn many other calves.

Treatment for Lice and Ringworm. - Thoroughly washing or dipping calves is the most effective means of destroying lice. Unless special provision has been made for doing so, it is unsafe to wash calves in cold weather. Usually a two to three per cent solution of some of the coal tar disinfectants is recommended for washing stables and for washing or dipping calves for lice. The solution should not be strong enough to irritate the skin. A good remedy for lice on calves may be made by steeping for four hours four ounces of Larkspur (Delphinium) in one gallon of boiling water, then straining and applying the liquid to the affected parts. In the winter, if the calves are badly infested with lice and the weather is too cold to wash them, pyrethrum powder may be used to advantage. As a general rule, however, lice powders are not as effective as thoroughly washing or dipping calves with some disinfectant.

Ringworm may be successfully treated by washing thoroughly the affected part of the skin and applying a liquid made by dissolving two ounces of sulphate of copper (blue stone) in one gallon of boiling water.

Beef Cattle Production

The Production of Pure Bred Beef Cattle. - Breeding pure bred cattle is the highest type of beef cattle production and represents the largest investment and the greatest amount of capital necessary for successful operation. One engaged in the production of this class of cattle must also understand methods of breeding, feeding and developing live stock in a manner to impress buyers favorably and to secure profitable prices. It is necessary to depend upon the demand for breeding stock in order to sell and secure prices that are profitable. The production of pure bred beef cattle is ordinarily confined to well organized and productive farms and it is considered best for one to graduate into this class of producers after having had considerable experience and having gained a thorough knowledge of the cattle industry.

Cattle for Meat Purposes. - The production of cattle primarily for meat purposes includes three lines of industry, namely, the production of stockers and feeders, the grazing of cattle and the fattening of cattle. The section of the country, the character of the land and the organization of the farm should determine what line of cattle production will be best for one to select. Pure bred beef cattle not suitable for breeding purposes, grade beef cattle resulting from the use of pure bred sires for several generations, and cross bred beef cattle are all well adapted for meat purposes and should be selected where one depends upon producing beef as the primary object in live stock production.

The Production of Stockers and Feeders. - Stockers and feeders constitute classes of cattle suitable for grazing or fattening and may be profitably produced on well organized farms having more or less land that cannot be plowed profitably, but which yields excellent pasture. In addition to an abundance of pasture there should be a sufficient amount of tillable land to produce roughage for the maintenance of breeding and other stock retained during the winter. Silage, clover, alfalfa and a cereal crop are well adapted and highly essential to this type of farming and cattle production. A given amount of commercial feeding stuffs to supplement roughage will be profitable in maintaining the breeding herd and growing the young stock successfully. Herds of high grade beef cattle headed by pure bred sires of the strictly beef breeds, produce the most profitable grades of stockers and feeders.

Cattle Grazing. - In the West on ranches and in other sections of the country where large areas of land are unadapted for the cultivation of farm crops and where the seasons are suitable, cattle may be grazed in a manner to be profitable. Cattle for this purpose are largely purchased and shipped in by trainload or driven across the country. The feeding season is limited to the months during which pasture grass grows and is provided in abundance. The larger and older classes of stock cattle graze and finish on grass pasture to a better advantage than do younger cattle. The character of the land and the amount of grass which it produces, the character of the season which affects growth of grass, and the matter of securing cattle of suitable type and quality at prices which permit a margin of profit, are factors that enter into the success of the grazing industry.

Pasture Conditions. - Mistakes are frequently made in buying and grazing cattle by misjudging the amount of feed available. One should become a judge of pasture lands and understand the approximate amount of feed a given area of land will supply under ordinary conditions before investing too much money in cattle for grazing purposes. The more land over which steers have to run to secure ample feed, the less favorable will be the results. Land that does not provide native or tame grasses in abundance is questionable for beef cattle grazing. One having land suitable for grazing should do everything possible to secure a good stand of grass. This may be accomplished by destroying noxious weeds, draining land that may be too wet, disking and harrowing in clover, timothy and other grass seed, and applying top dressings of stable manure or commercial fertilizer. Remembering that beef cattle require luxuriant pastures, one will not turn them onto pasture until the grass has attained a good growth and also be careful not to overstock a given area of pasture land.