Grant County, Wisconsin - Chapter with an unread heading (no. 1 of those read), 1881 (part 5 of 17)

The position of the watershed between the great basins of the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence is somewhat peculiar. On the Illinois line, it lies only three and one half miles from Lake Michigan and about i6o feet above its surface. As traced northward from this point, it retires from the lake and ascends in elevation till it approaches the vicinity of Lake Winnebago, when it recurves upon itself and descends to the portage between the Fox and the Wisconsin rivers, whence it pursues a northerly course to the heights of Michigan, when it turns westward and passes in an undulating course across the northern part of the state. It will be observed that much the greater area of the state is drained by the Mississippi system.

The relationship which the drainage channels have been observed to sustain to the topographical features is partly that of cause and partly that of effect. The general arching of the surface, giving rise to the main slopes, is due to deep-seated geological causes that produce an upward swelling of the center of the state. This determined the general drainage systems. On the other hand, the streams, acting upon strata of varying hardness, and presenting different attitudes, wore away the surface unequally and cut for themselves anomalous channels, leaving corresponding divides between, which gave origin to the minor irregularities that diversify the surface. In addition to this, the glacier - that great ice stream, the father of the drift - planed and plowed the surface and heaped up its debris upon it, modifying both the surface and drainage features Looked at from a causal standpoint, we see the results of internal forces elev.^ting, and external ag;encies cutting down, or, in a word, the face of the state is the growth of geologic ages furrowed by the teardrops of the skies.

Geological History Of Wisconsin

In harmony with the historical character of this atlas, it may be most acceptable to weave our brief sketch of the geological structure of the state into the form of a narrative of its growth.

Laurkntian Period

The physical history of Wisconsin can be traced back with certainty to a state of complete submergence beneath the waters of the ancient ocean, by which the material of our oldest and deepest strata were deposited. Let an extensive but shallow sea, covering the whole of the present territory of the state, be pictured to the mind, and let it be imagined to be depositing mud and sand, as at the present day. and we have before us the first authentic stage of the history under consideration. Back of that, the history is lost in the mists of geologic antiquity. The thickness of the sediments that accumulated in that early period was immense, being measured by thousands of feet. These sediments occupied of course an essentially horizontal position, and were, doubtless, in a large degree hardened into beds of impure sandstone, shale, and ofther sedimentary rock. But in the progress of time an enormous pressure, attended by heat, was brought to bear upon them laterally, or edgewise, by which they were folded and crumpled, and forced up out of the water, giving rise to an island, the nucleus of Wisconsin. The force which produced this upheaval is believed to have arisen from the cooling and consequent contraction of the globe. The foldings may be imaged as the wrinkles of a shrinking earth. But the contortion-of the beds was a scarcely more wonderful result than the change in the character of the rock which seems to have taken place simultaneously with the folding, indeed, as the result of the heat and pressure attending it. The sediments, that seem to have previously taken the form of impure sandstone and shale for the most part, underwent a change, in which re-arrangement and crystalization of the ingredients played a conspicuous part. By this metamorphism, granite, gneiss, mica schist, syenite, hornblende rocks, chloritic schists and other crystalline rocks were formed. These constitute the Laurentian formation and belong to the most ancient period yet distinctly recognized in geology, although there were undoubtedly more ancient rocks. They are therefore very fittingly termed Archiean - ancient - rocks (formerly Azoic.) No remains of life have been found in this formation in Wisconsin, but from the nature of rocks elsewhere, believed to be of the same age, it is probable that the lowest forms of life existed at this time. It is not strange that the great changes through which the rocks have passed should have so nearly obliterated all traces of them. The original extent of this Laurentian island can not now be accurately ascertained, but it will be sufficiently near the truth for our present purposes to consider the formation as it is now exposed, and as it is represented on the maps of the geological survey, as showing approximately the original extent. This will make it include a large area in the north-central portion of the state and a portion of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. All the rest of the state was beneath the ocean, and the same may be said of the greater portion of the United States The height of this island was doubtless considerable, as it has since been very much cut down by denuding agencies. The strata, as now exposed, mostly stand in highly inclined attitudes and present their worn edges to view. The tops of the folds, of which they are the remnants, seem to have been cut away, and we have the nearly vertical sides remaining.

Huronian Period

As soon as the Laurentian island had been elevated, the waves of the almost shoreless ocean began to beat against it, the elements to disintegrate it, and the rains of the then tropical climate to wash it; and the sand, clay and other debris, thus formed, were deposited beneath the waters around its base, giving rise to a new sedimentary formation. There is no evidence that there was any vegetation on the island : the air and water were, doubtless, heavily charged with carbonic acid, an efficient agent of disintegration: the climate was warm and doubtless very raoist - circumstances which combined to hasten the erosion of the island and increase the deposition in the surrounding sea. In addition to these agencies, we judge from the large amount of carbonaceous matter contained in some of the beds, that there must have been an abundance of marine vegetation, and, from the limestone beds that accumulated, it is probable that there was marine animal life also, since in later ages that was the chief source of limestone strata. The joint accumulations from these several sources gave rise to a series of shales, sandstones and limestones, whose combined thickness was several thousand feet.

At length the process of upheaval and metamorphism that closed the Laurentian period was repeated, and these sandstones became quartzites; the limestones were crystalized, the shales were changed to slates or schists, and intermediate grades of sediments became diorites, quartz- porphyries and other forms of crystalline rocks. The carbonaceous matter was changed in part to graphite. There were also associated with these deposits extensive beds of iron ore^ which we now find chiefly in the form of magnetite, hematite and specular ore. These constitute the Huronian rocks. From the amount of iron ore they contain, they are also fittingly termed the iron-bearing series. As in the preceding case, the strata were contorted, flexed and folded,, and the whole island was further elevated, carrying with it these circumjacent strata, by which its extent was much enlarged. The area of the island after receiving this increment was considerably greater than the surface represented as Laurentian and Huronian on the accompanying, map, since it was subsequently covered to a considerable extent by later formations. Penokee range, in Ashland county, is the most conspicuous development of the Huronian rocks in the state. The upturned edge of the formation forms a bold rampart, extending across the country for sixty miles, making the nearest approach to a mountain range to be found within the state. A belt of magnetic schist may be traced nearly its entire length. In the northern part of Oconto county , there is also an important development of this formation, being an extension of the Menomonee iron-bearing series. A third area is found in Barron county, which includes deposits of pipestone. In the south central part of the stale there are a considerable number of small areas and isolated outliers of quartzite and quartz-porphyry, that, without much doubt,, belong to this series. The most conspicuous of these are the Baraboo quartzite ranges, in Sauk and Columbia counties, and from thence a chain of detached outliers extends northeasterly through several counties. The most southerly exposure of the formation is near Lake Mills, in Jefferson county.

The Copper-Bearing Series

Previous to the upheaval of the Huronian strata, there occurred in the Lake Superior region events of peculiar and striking interest. If we may not speak with absolute assurance, we may at least say with reasonable probability, that the crust of the earth was fissured in that region,, and that there issued from beneath an immense mass of molten rock, that spread itself over an area of more than three hundred miles in length and one hundred miles in width. The action was not confined to a single overflow, but eruption followed eruption, sometimes apparently in quick succession, sometimes evidently at long intervals. Each outpouring, when solidified,, formed a stratum of trap rock, and where these followed each other without any intervening deposit, a series of trappean beds were formed. In some cases, however, an interval occurred, during which the waves, acting upon the rock previously formed, produced a bed of sand, gravel and clay, which afterward solidified into sandstone, conglomerate and shale. The history of these beds is lithographed on their surface in beautiful ripple-marks and other evidences of waveaction. After the cessation of the igneous eruptions, there accumulated a vast thickness of sandstone, shale and conglomerate, so that the whole series is literally miles in thickness.

The eruptive portions have been spoken of as traps, for convenience; but they do not now possess the usual characteristics of igneous rocks, and appear to have undergone a chemical metamorphism by which the mineral ingredients have been changed, the leading ones now being an iron chlorite and a feldspar, with which are associated, as accessory minerals, quartz, epidote, prenite, calcite, laumontite, analcite, datolite, magnetite, native copper and silver, and, more rarely, other minerals. The rock, as a whole, is now known as a melaphyr. The upper portion of each bed is usually characterized by almond-sized cells filled with the minerals above mentioned, giving to the rock an amygdaloidal nature. The native copper was not injected in a.

molten state, as has very generally been supposed, but was deposited by chemical means aftei the beds were formed and after a portion of the chemical change of the minerals above mentioned had been accomplished. The same is true of the silver. The copper occurs in all the different forms of rock - the melaphyrs, amygdaloids, sandstones, shales and conglomerates, but most abundantly in the amygdaloids and certain conglomerates.

This series extends across the northern portion of the state, occupying portions of Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas, Burnett and Polk counties. When the Huronian rocks were elevated, they carried these up with them, and they partook of the folding in some measure. The copperbearing range of Keweenaw Point, Michigan, extends southwestward through Ashland, Burnett and Polk counties, and throughout this whole extent the beds dip north-northwesterly toward Lake Superior, at a high angle; but in Douglas and Bayfield counties there is a parallel range in which the beds incline in the opposite direction, and undoubtedly form the opposite side of a trough formed by a downward flexure of the strata.

After the great Archaean upheaval, there followed a long period, concerning wnich very little ij known - a " lost interval" in geological history. It is only certain that immense erosion of the Archaean strata took place, and that in time the sea advanced upon the island, eroding its strata and redepositing the wash and wear beneath its surface. The more resisting beds withstood this advance, and formed reefs and rocky islands off the ancient shore, about whose bases the sands and sediments accumulated, as they did over the bottom of the surrounding ocean. The breakers, dashing against the rocky cliffs, threw down masses of rock, which imbedded themselves in the sands, or were rolled and rounded on the beach, and at length were buried, in either case, to tell their own history, when they should be again disclosed by the ceaseless gnawings of the very elements that had buried them. In addition to the accumulations of wash and wear that have previously been the main agents of rock-formations, abundant life now swarms in the ocean, and the sands become the great cemetery of its dead. Though the contribution of each little being was small, the myriad millions that the waters brought forth, yielded by their remains, a large contribution to the accumulating sediments. Among plants, there were sea-weeds, and among animals, protozoans, radiates, mollusks and articulates, all the sub-kingdoms except the vertebrates. Among these, the most remarkable, both in nature and number, were the trilobites, who have left their casts in countless multitudes in certain localities. The result of the action of these several agencies was the formation of extensive beds of sandstone, with interstratified layers of limestone and shale. These surrounded the Archaean nucleus on all sides, and reposed on its flanks. On the Lake Superior margin, the sea acted mainly upon the copper and ironbearing series, which are highly ferruginous, and the result wa , the red Lake Superior sandstone. On the opposite side of the island, the wave-action was mainly upon quartzites, porphyries and gianites, and resulted in light-colored sandstones. The former is confined to the immediate vicinity of Lake Superior; the latter occupies a broad, irregular belt bordering the Archaean area on the south, and, being widest in the central part of the state, is often likened to a rude crescent. The form and position of the area will be best apprehended by referring to- the accompanying map. It will be understood from the foregoing description, that the strata of this formation lie in a nearly horizontal position, and repose unconformably upon the worn surface of the crystalline rocks. The close of this period was not marked by any great upheaval; there was no crumpling or metamorphism of the strata, and they have remained to the present day very much as they were originally deposited, save a slight arching upward in the central portion of the state. The beds have been somewhat compacted by the pressure of superincumbent strata and solidified by the cementing action of calcareous and ferruginous waters, and by their own coherence, but the original character of the formation, as a great sand-bed, has not been obliterated. It still bears the ripple-marks, cross-lamination, worm-burrows, and similar markings that characterize a sandy beach. Its thickness is very irregular, owing to the unevenness of its Archaean bottom, and may be said to range from i,ooo feet downward. The strata slope gently away from the Archaean core of the state and underlie all the later formations, and may be reached at any point in southern Wisconsin by penetrating to a sufficient depth, which can be calculated with an approximate correctness. As it is a water-bearing formation, and the source of fine Artesian wells, this is a fact of much importance. The interbedded layers of limestone and shale, by supplying impervious strata, very much enhance its value as a source of fountains.

During the previous period, the accumulation of sandstone gave place for a time to the formation of limestone, and afterward the deposit of sandstone was resumed. At its close, without any very marked disturbance of existing conditions, the formation of limestone was resumed, and progressed with little interruption till a thickness ranging from 50 to 250 feet was attained. This variation is due mainly to irregularities of the upper surface of the formation, which is undulating, and in some localities, may appropriately be termed billowy, the surface rising and falling 100 feet, in some cases, within a short distance. This, and the preceding similar deposit, have been spoken of as limestones simply, but they are really dolomites, or magnesian limestones, since they contain a large proportion of carbonate of magnesia. This rock also contains a notable quantity of silica, which occurs disseminated through the mass of the rock; or, variously, as nodules or masses of chert ; as crystals of quartz, filling or lining drusy cavities, forming beautiful miniature grottos ; as the nucleus of oolitic concretions, or as sand. Some argillaceous matter also enters into its composition, and small quantities of the ores of iron, lead and copper, are sometimes found, but they give little promise of value. The evidences of life are very scanty. Some sea-weeds, a few mollusks, and an occasional indication of other forms of life embrace the known list, except at a few favored localities where a somewhat ampler fauna is found. But it is not, therefore, safe to assume the absence of life in the depositing seas, for it is certain that most limestone has orignated from the remains of animals and plants that secrete calcareous material, and it is most consistent to believe that such was the case in the present instance, and that the distinct traces of life were mostly obliterated. This formation occupies an irregular belt skirting the Potsdam area. It was, doubtless, originally a somewhat uniform band swinging around the nucleus of the state already formed, but it has since been eroded by streams to its present jagged outline.

At the close of this limestone-making period, there appears to have been an interval of which we have no record, and tjie next chapter of the history introduces us to another era of sand accumulation. The work began by the leveling up of the inequalities of the surface of the Lower Magnesian limestone, and it ceased before that was entirely accomplished in all parts of the State, for a few prominences were left projecting through the sand deposits. The material laid down consis'ted of a silicious sand, of uniform, well-rounded - doubtless well-rolled - grains. This was evidently deposited horizontally upon the uneven limestone surface, and so rests in a sense unconformably upon it. Where the sandstone abuts against the sides of the limestone prominences, it is mingled with material derived by wave action from them, which tells the story of its formation. But aside from these and other exceptional impurities, the formation is a very pure sandstone, and is used for glass manufacture. At most points, the sandstone has never become firmly cemented and readily crumbles, so that it is used for mortar, the simple handling with pick and shovel being sufficient to reduce it to a sand. Owing to the unevenness of its bottom, it varies greatly in thickness, the greatest yet observed being 212 feet, but the average is less than 100 feet. Until recently, no organic remains had ever been found in it, and the traces now collected are very meager indeed, but they are sufficient to show the existence of marine life, and demonstrate that it is an oceanic deposit. The rarity of fossils is to be attributed to the porous nature of the rock, which is unfavorable to their preservation. This porosity, however, subserves a very useful purpose, as it renders this pre-eminently a water-bearing horizon, and supplies some the finest Artesian fountains in the state, and is competent to furnish many more. It occupies but a narrow area at the surface, fringing that of the Lower Magnesian limestone on the south.

Trenton Limestone. A slight change in the oceanic conditions caused a return to limestone formation, accompanied with the deposit of considerable clayey material, which formed shale. The origin of the limestone is made evident by a close examination of it, which shows it to be full of fragments of shells, corals, and other organic remains, or the impressions they have left. Countless numbers of the lower forms of life flourished in the seas, and left their remains to be comminuted and consolidated into limestone. Apart of the time, the accumulation of clayey matter predominated, and so layers of shale alternate with the limestone beds, and shaly leaves and partings occur in the limestone layers. Unlike the calcareous strata above and below, a portion of these are true limestone, containing but a very small proportion of magnesia. A sufficient amount of carbonaceous matter is present in some layers to cause them to burn readily. This formation is quite highly metalliferous in certain portions of the lead region, containing zinc especially, and considerable lead, with less quantities of other metals. The formation abounds in fossils, many of them well preserved, and, from their great antiquity, they possess uncommon interest. All. the animal sub-kingdoms, except vertebrates, are represented. The surface area of this rock borders the St. Peter's sandstone, but, to avoid too great complexity on the map, it is not distinguished from the next formation to which it is closely allied. Its thickness reaches 120 feet.

With scarcely a change of oceanic conditions, limestone deposit continued, so that we find reposing upon the surface of the Trenton limestone, 250 feet, or less, of a light gray or buff colored highly magnesian limestone, occurring in heavy beds, and having a sub-crystalline structure. In the southern portion of the state, it contains but little shaly matter, but in the northeastern part, it is modified by the addition of argillaceous layers and leaves, and presents a bluish or greenish-gray aspect. It receives its name from the sulphide of lead, - galena, of which it contains large quantities, in the southwestern part of the state. Zinc ore is also abundant, and these minerals give to this and the underlying formation great importance in that region. Elsewhere, although these ores are present in small quantities, they have not developed economic importance. This limestone, though changing its nature, as above stated, occupies a large area in the southwestern part of the state, and a broad north and south belt in east-central Wisconsin. It will be seen that our island is growing apace by concentric additions, and that, as the several formations sweep around the central nucleus of Archaean rocks, they swing off into adjoining states, whose formation was somewhat more tardv than that of Wisconsin

A change ensued upon the formation of the Galena limestone, by virtue of which there followed the deposition of large quantities of clay, accompanied by some calcareous material, thewhole reaching at some points a thickness of more than 200 feet. The sediment has never become more than partially indurated, and a portion of it is now only a bed of compact clay. Other portions hardened to shale or limestone according to the material. The shales are of various gray, green, blue, purple and other hues, so that where vertical cliffs are exposed, as along; Green bay, a beautiful appearance is presented. As a whole, this is a very soft formation, and hence easily eroded. Owing to this fact, along the east side of the Green-bay-Rock-river valley, it has been extensively carried away, leaving the hard overlying Niagara limestone projecting, in the bold cliffs known as " The Ledge." The prominence of the mounds in the southwestern part of the state are due to a like cause. Certain portions of this formation abound in astonishing numbers of well preserved fossils, among which corals, bryozoans, and brachiopods, predominate, the first named being especially abundant. A little intelligent attention to these might have saved a considerable waste of time and means in an idle search for coal, to which a slight resemblance to some of the shales of the coal measures has led. This formation underlies themounds of the lead region, and forms a narrow belt on the eastern margin of the Green-bay-Rockriver valley. This was the closing period of the Lower Silurian Age.

On the surface of the shales j ust described, there were accumulated, here and there, beds of peculiar lenticular iron ore. It is probable that it was deposited in detached basins, but the evidence of this is not conclusive. In our own state, this is chiefly known as Iron Ridge ore, from theremarkable development it attains at that point. It is made up of little concretions, which from, their size and co'or are fancied to resemble flax seed, and hence the name " seed ore," or the roe of fish, and hence oolitic ore. " Shot ore" is also a common term. This is a soft ore occurring in regular horizontal beds which are quarried with more ease than ordinary limestone. This deposit attains, at Iron Ridge, the unusual thickness of twenty-five feet, and affords a readily accessible supply of ore, adequate to all demands for a long time to come. Similar, but much less extensive beds, occur at Hartford, and near Depere, besides some feeble deposits elsewhere- Large quantities of ore from Iron Ridge have been shipped to various points in this and neighboring States for reduction, in addition to that sme ted in the vicinity of the mines.

Following the period of iron deposit, there ensued the greatest limestone-forming era in the: history of Wisconsin. During its progress a series of beds, summing up, at their points of greatest thickness, scarcely less than eight hundred feet, were laid down. The process of formation, was essentially that already described, the accumulation of the calcareous secretions of marinelife. Toward the close of the period, reefs appeared, that closely resemble the coral reefs of thepresent seas, and doubtless have a similar history. Corals form a very prominent element in the life of this period, and with them were associated great numbers of moUusks, one of which. {Pentamerus oblongus) sometimes occurs in beds not unlike certain bivalves, of to-day, and may be said to have been the oyster of the Silurian seas. At certain points, those wonderful animals,, the stone lilies {Crinoids), grew in remarkable abundance, mounted on stems like a plant, yet true animals. Those unique crustaceans, the trilobites, were conspicuous in numbers and variety,, while the gigantic cephalopods held sway over the life of the seas. L^ the vicinity of thj reefs',.

there seem to have been extensive calcareous sand flats and areas over which fine calcareous mud -setted, the former resulting in a pure granular dolomite, the latter in a compact close-textured :stone. The rock of the reefs is of very irregular structure. Of other portions of the formation, ^ome are coarse heavy beds, some fine, even-bedded, close-grained layers, and some, again, irregular, impure and cherty. All are highly magnesian, and some are among the purest dolomites -known. The Niagara limestone occupies a broad belt lying adjacent to Lake Michigan.

On Mud creek, near Milwaukee, there is found a thin-bedded slaty limestone, that is believed to represent this period. It has neglected, however, to leave us an unequivocal record its history, as fossils are extremely rare, and its stratigraphical relations and lithographical -character are capable of more than one interpretation. Near the village of Waubeka in Ozaukee county, there is a similar formation, somewhat more fossiliferous, that seems to represent the same period. The area which these occupy is very small and they play a most insignificant part in the geology of the state. They close the record of the Silurian age in Wisconsin. During its progress the land had been gradually emerging from the ocean and increasing its amplitude by concentric belts of limestone, sandstone and shale. There had been no general -disturbance, only those slight oscillations which changed the nature of the forming rock and facilitated deposition. At its close the waters retired from the borders of the state, and an interval supervened, during which no additions are known to have been made to its substructure.

Devonian Agk

After a lapse of time, during which the uppermost Silurian and the lowest Devonian strata, as found elsewhere, were formed, the waters again advanced slightly upon the eastern margin of the state and deposited a magnesian limestone mingled with silicious and almuninous material, forming a combination of which a portion has recently been shown to possess hydraulic properties of a high degree of excellence. With this deposition there dawned a new era in the life-history of Wisconsin. While multitudes of protozoans, radiates, moUusks and articulates swarmed in the previous seas, no trace of a vertebrate has been found. The Hamilton period witnessed the introduction of the highest type of the animal kingdom into the Wisconsin series. "But even then only the lowest class was represented - the fishes. The lower orders of life, as before, were present, but the species were of the less ancient Devonian type. Precisely how far "the deposit originally extended is not now known, as it has undoubtedly been much reduced by the eroding agencies that have acted upon it. That portion which remains, occupies a limited area on the lake shore immediately north of Milwaukee, extending inland half a dozen miles. The cement rock proper is found on the Milwaukee river just above the city. At the close of the Hamilton period the oceanic waters retired, and, if they ever subsequently encroached upon territory, they have left us no permanent record of their intrusion.

The history of the formation of the substructure of the state was, it will be observed, in an unusual degree, simple and progressive. Starting with a firm core of most ancient crystalline Tocks, leaf upon leaf of stony strata were piled around it, adding belt after belt to the margin of ^he growing island until it extended itself far beyond the limits of our state, and coalesced with the forming continent. An ideal map of the state would show the Archsean nucleus surrounded by concentric bands of the later formations in the order of their deposition. But during all the vast lapse of time consumed in their growth, the elements were gnawing, carving and channeling the surface, and the outcropping edges of the formations were becoming more and more jagged, and now, after the last stratum had been added, and the whole had been lifted from the waters that gave it birth, there ensued perhaps a still vaster era, during which the history was simply that of surface erosion. The face of the state became creased with the wrinkles of age. The edges of her rocky wrappings became ragged with the wear of time. The remaining Devonian periods, the great Carboniferous age, the Mesozoic era, and the earlier Tertiary periods passed^ leaving no other record than that of denudation.

The Glacial Period

With the approach of the great Ice Age, a new chapter was opened. An immense sheet of ice moved slowly, but irresistibly, down from the north, planing down the prominences, filling up' the valleys, polishing and grooving the strata, and heaping up its rubbish of sand, gravel, clay and bowlders over the face of the country. It engraved the lines of its progress on the rocks, and, by reading these, we learn that one prodigious tongue of ice plowed along the bed of Lake Michigan, and a smaller one pushed through the valley of Green bay and Rock river, while another immense ice-stream flowed southwestward through the trough of Lake Superior and onward into Minnesota. The diversion of the glacier through these .great channels seems to have left the southwestern portion of the state intact, and over it we find no drift accumulations. With, the approach of a warmer climate, the ice-streams were melted backward, leaving their debris heaped promiscuously over the surface, giving it a new configuration. In the midst of thisretreat, a series of halts and advances seem to have taken place in close succession, by which thedrift was pushed up into ridges and hills along the foot of the ice, after which a more rapid, retreat ensued. The effect of this action was to produce that remarkable chain of drift hills and ridges, known as the Kettle range, which we have already described as winding over the , surface of the state in a very peculiar manner. It is a great historic rampart, recording theposition of the edge of the glacier at a certain stage of its retreat, and doubtless at the same time noting a great climatic or dynamic change.

The melting of the glacier gave rise to large quantities of water, and hence to numerous, torrents, as well as lakes. There occurred about this time a depression of the land to the northward, which was perhaps the cause, in part or in whole, of the retreat of the ice. This gaveorigin to the great lakes. The waters advanced somewhat upon the land and deposited the red clay that borders Lakes Michigan and Superior and occupies the Green bay valley as far up as. the vicinity of Fond du Lac. After several oscillations, the lakes settled down into their present positions. Wherever the glacier plowed over the land, it left an irregular sheet of commingled; clay, sand, gravel and bowlders spread unevenly over the surface. The depressions formed by its irregularities soon filled with water and gave origin to numerous lakelets. Probably not one of the thousands of Wisconsin lakes had an existence before the glacial period. Wherever the great lakes advanced upon the land, they leveled its surface and left their record in lacustine clays and sandy beach lines.

With the retreat of the glacier, vegetation covered the surface, and by its aid and the action, of the elements our fertile drift soils, among the last and best of Wisconsin's formations, wereproduced. And the work still goes on-,

Climatology Of Wisconsin

The climate of a country, or that peculiar state of the atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture which prevails in any given place, and which directly affects the growth of plants and animals, is determined by the following causes : ist. Distance from the equator. 2d. Distance from the sea. 3d. Height above the sea. 4th. Prevailing winds; and sth. Local influences, such as soil, vegetation, and proximity to lakes and mountains.

Of these causes, the first; distance from the equator, is by far the most important. The warmest climates are necessarily those of tropical regions where the sun's rays are vertical. But in proceeding from the equator toward the poles, less and less heat continues to be received by the same extent of surface, because the rays fall more and more obliquely, and the same amount of heat-rays therefore spread over an increasing breadth of surface ; while, however, with the increase of obliquity, more and more heat is absorbed by the atmosphere, as the amount of air to be penetrated is greater. If the earth's surface were either wholly land or water, and its atmosphere motionless, the gradations of climate would run parallel with the latitudes from the equator to the poles. But owing to the irregular distribution of land and water and the prevailing winds, such an arrangement is impossible, and the determination of the real climate of a given region, and its causes, is one of the most difficult problems of science.

On the second of these causes, distance from the sea, depends the difference between oceanic and continental climates. Water is more slowly heated and cooled than land ; the climates of the sea and the adjacent land are therefore much more equable and moist than those of the interior.

A decrease of temperature is noticeable in ascending high mountains. The rate at which the temperature falls with the height above the sea is a very variable quantity, and is influenced by a variety of causes, such as latitude, situation, moisture, or dryness, hour of the day and season of the year. As a rough approximation, however, the fall of 1° of the thermometer for every 300 feet is usually adopted.

Air in contact with any part of the earth's surface, tends to acquire the temperature of that surface. Hence, winds from the north are cold ; those from the south are warm. Winds from the sea are moist, and winds from the land are usually dry. Prevailing winds are the result of the relative distribution of atmospheric pressure blowing from places where the pressure is highest, toward places where it is lowest. As climate practically depends on the temperature and moisture of the air, and as these again depend on the prevailing winds which come charged with the temperature and moisture of the regions they have traversed, it is evident that charts showing the mean pressure of the atmosphere give us the key to the climates of the different regions of the world. The effect of prevailing winds is seen in the moist and equable climate of Western Europe, especially Great Britain, owing to the warm and moist southwest winds ; and in the extremes of the eastern part of North America, due to the warm and moist winds prevailing in summer and the Arctic blasts of winter.

Among local influences which modify climate, the nature of the soil is one of the most important. As water absorbs much heat, wet, marshy ground usually lowers the mean temperature. A sandy waste presents the greatest extremes. The extremes of temperature are also modified by extensive forests, which prevent the soil from being as much warmed and cooled as it would be if bare. Evaporation goes on more slowly under the trees, since the soil is screened from the sun. And as the air among the trees is little agitated by the wind, the vapor is left to accumulate, and hence the humidity of the air is increased. Climate is modified in a similar manner by lakes and other large surfaces of water. During summer the water cools the air and reduces the temperature of the locality. In winter, on the other hand, the opposite effect is produced. The surface water which is cooled sinks to lower levels; the warmer water rising to the surface, radiates heat into the air and thus raises the temperature of ihc neighboring region. This influence is well illustrated, on a great scale, in our own state by Lake Michigan.

It is, lastly, of importance whether a given tract of country is diversified by hills, valleys and mountains. Winds with their warm vapor strike the sides of mountains and are forced up into higher levels of the atmosphere, where the vapor is condensed into clouds. Air coming in contact, during the night or in winter, with the cooled declivities of hills and rising grounds becomes cooled and consequently denser and sinks to the low-lying grounds, displacing the warmer and lighter air. Hence, frosts often occur at these places, when no trace of them can be found at higher levels. For the same reason the cold of winter is generally more intense in ravines and valleys than on hill tops and high grounds, the valleys being a receptacle for the cold-air currents which descend from all sides. These currents give rise to gusts and blasts of cold wind, which are simply the out-rush of cold air from such basins. This is a subject of great practical importance to fruit-growers.

In order to understand the principal features of the climate of Wisconsin, and the conditions on which these depend, it is necessary to consider the general climatology of the eastern United States. The chief characteristic of this area as a whole is, that 't is subject to great extremes - to all those variations of temperature which prevail from the tropical to the Arctic regions. This is principally due to the topographical conditions of our continent. The f.ocky mountains condensing the moisture of the warm winds from the Pacific and preventing them from reaching far inland, separate the climate of the Mississippi valley widely from that of the Pacific slope. Between the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic sea there is no elevation to exceed 2,000 feet to arrest the flow of the hot southerly winds of summer, or the cold northerly winds of winter. From this results a variation of temperature hardly equaled in any part of the world.

In determining the climates of the United States, western Europe is usually taken as the basis of comparison. The contrast between these regions is indeed very great. New York is in the same latitude with Madrid, Naples and Constantinople. Quebec is not so far north as Paris. London and Labrador are equi-distant from the equator ; but while England, with her mild, moist climate, produces an abundance of vegetation, in Labrador all cultivation ceases. In the latitude of Stockholm and St. Petersburg, at the 60th parallel, we find in eastern North America vast icefields which seldom melt. The moist and equable climate of western Europe in high latitudes is due to the Gulf Stream and the southwest winds of the Atlantic, which spread their warmth and moisture over the western coast. Comparison, however, shows that the climate of the Pacific coast of North America is quite as mild as that of western Europe ; and this is due to the same kind of influences, namely, to the warm, moist winds and the currents of the Pacific. And to continue the comparisoh still further, in proceeding on both continents from west to east, or from ocean into the interior, we find a general resemblance of climatic conditions, modified greatly, it is true, by local influences.

The extreme summer climate of the eastern United States is owing to the southerly and winds, which blow with great regularity during this season, and, after traversing great areas of tropical seas, bear the warmth and moisture of these seas far inland, and give this region the peculiar semi-tropical character of its summers. The average temperature of summer varies between 80° for the Gulf states, and 60" for the extreme north. While in the Gulf states the thermometer often rises to 100°, in the latitude of Wisconsin this occurs very seldom. During winter the prevailing winds are from the northwest. These cold blasts from the Arctic sea are -deflected by the Rocky mountains, sweep down unopposed into lower latitudes, and produce all the rigors of an arctic winter. The mean temperature for this season varies between 60° for the -Gulf coast and 15° for the extreme northern part of Wisconsin. In the northern part of the valley the cold is sometimes so intense that the thermometer sinks to the freezing point of mercury.

The extreme of heat and cold would give a continental climate if this extreme were not accompanied by a profusion of rain. The southerly winds, laden with moisture, distribute this moisture with great regularity over the valley. The amount of rainfall, greater in summer than in winter, varies, from the Gulf of Mexico to Wisconsin, from 63 inches to 30 inches. On the Atlantic coast, where the distribution is more equal throughout the year on account of its proximity to the ocean, the amount varies, from Florida to Maine, from 63 to 40 inches. The atmospheric movements on which, to a great extent, the climatic conditions of the eastern United States depend, may be summed up as follows :

" I. That the northeast trades, deflected in their course to south and southeast winds in their passage through the Carribean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, are the warm and moist winds which communicate to the Mississippi valley and the Atlantic slope their fertility.

" 3. That in the region bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, the atmospheric disturbances are propagated from south to north ; but in the northern and middle states, owing to 9, prevailing current, from west to east.

" 4. That while this upper current is cool and dry, and we have the apparent anomaly of rain storms traveling from west to east, at the same time the moisture supplying them comes from the south.

"5. That, in the winter, the south and southeast winds rise into the upper current, while the west and northwest winds descend and blow as surface winds, accompanied by an extraordinary depression of temperature, creating, as it were, an almost arctic climate.

"7. That in summer the westerly currents seldom blow with violence, because, in passing -over the heated plains, they acquire nearly the same temperature as the southerly currents, but in winter the conditions are reversed."

The line of conflict of these aerial currents, produced by unequal atmospheric pressure, shift so rapidly that the greatest changes of temperature, moisture, and wind, are experienced within a few hours, these changes usually affecting areas of great extent. In the old world, on the other hand, the mountain systems, generally running from east to west, offer an impediment, to the polar currents, and the weather is therefore not so changeable.

Wisconsin, situated in the upper and central part of the Mississippi valley, is subject to the same general climatic conditions which give this whole area its peculiar climate.

state, and the lowest 64° at Bayfield, Lake Superior. During the months of June, July and August, the thermometer often rises as higli as 90°, seldom to 100°. In 1874 the mercury reached this high point twice at LaCrosse, and three times at Dubuque, Iowa. There are usually two or three of these " heated terms " during the summer, terminated by abrupt changes of temperature.

The isotherm of 70" (an isotherm being a line connecting places having the same mean temperature) enters this state from the west, in the northern part of Grant county, touches Madison, takes a southerly direction through Walworth county, passes through southern Michigan, Cleveland, and Pittsburg, reaching the Atlantic ocean a little north of New York city. From this it is seen that southern Wisconsin, southern and central Michigan, northern Ohio, central Pennsylvania, and southern New York have nearly the same summer temperature. Northwestward this line runs through southern Minnesota and along the Missouri to the foot of the mountains. Eastern Oregon, at 47" 30' north latitude, has the same average summer temperature ; the line then returns and touches the Pacific coast at San Diego.

The remarkable manner in which so large a body of water as Lake Michigan modifies the temperature has been carefully determined, so far as it relates to Wisconsin, by the late Dr. Lapham, of Milwaukee. It is seen by the map that the average summer temperature of Racine is the same as that of St. Paul. The weather map for July, 1875, in the signal service report for 1876, shows that the mean temperature for July was the same in Rock county, in the southern part of the state, as that of Breckenridge, Minn., north of St. Paul. The moderating effect of the lake during hot weather is felt in the adjacent region during both day and night.

Countries in the higher latitudes having an extreme summer temperature are usually characterized by a small amount of rain-fall. The Mississippi valley, however, is directly exposed in spring and summer to the warm and moist winds from the south, and as these winds condense their moisture by coming in contact with colder upper currents from the north and west, it has a profusion of rain which deprives the climate largely of its continental features. As already stated, the average amount of rain-fall in Wisconsin is about 30 inches annually. Of this amount about one-eighth is precipitated in winter, three-eighths in summer, and the rest is equally distributed between spring and autumn - in other words, rain is abundant at the time of the year when it is most needed. In Wisconsin the rainfall is greatest in the southwestern part of the state; the least on and along the shore of Lake Michigan. This shows that the humidity of the air of a given area can be greater, and the rainfall less, than that of some other.

In comparison with western Europe, even where the mean temperature is higher than in the Mississippi valley, the most striking fact in the climatic conditions of the United States is the great range of plants of tropical or sub-tropical origin, such as Indian corn, tobacco, etc. The conditions on which the character of the vegetation depends are temperature and moisture, and. the mechanical and chemical composition of the soil.

" The basis of this great capacity (the great range of plants) is the high curve of heat and moisture for the summer, and the fact that the measure of heat and of rain are almost or quitetropical for a period in duration from one to five months, in the range from Quebec to the coast of the Gulf." Indian corn attains its full perfection between the summer isotherms 72" and 77", in Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas ; but it may be grown up to the line of 65°, which includes the whole of Wisconsin. The successful cultivation of this important staple is due to the intense heat of summer and a virgin soil rich in nitrogen.

While Milwaukee and central Wisconsin have a mean annual temperature of 45°, that of southern Ireland and central England is 50° ; the line of 72^, the average temperature for July, runs from Walworth county to St. Paul, while during the same month Ireland and England have a mean temperature of only 60". In Wisconsin the thermometer rises as high as 90'' and above,.

while the range above the mean in England is very small. It is the tropical element of our summers, then, that causes the grape, the corn, etc., to ripen, while England, with a higher mean temperature, is unable to mature them successfully. Ireland, where southern plants may remain out-doors, unfrosted, the whole winter, can not mature those fruits and grasses which ripen in Wisconsin. In England a depression of 2" below the mean of 60° will greatly reduce the quantity, or prevent the ripening of wheat altogether, 60" being essential to a good crop. Wheat, requiring a lower temperature than corn, is better adapted to the climate of Wisconsin. This grain may be grown as far north as Hudson bay.

Autumn, including September, October and November, is of short duration in Wisconsin. North of the 42d parallel, or the southern boundary line of the state, November belongs properly to the winter months, its mean temperature being about 32°. The decrease of heat from August to September is generally from 8° to 9°; 11° from September to October, and 14° from October to November. The average temperature for these three months is about 45". A beautiful season,, commonly known as Indian summer, frequently occurs in the latter part of October and in November. This period is characterized by a mild temperature and a hazy, calm atmosphere. According to Loomis, this appears to be due to "an uncommonly tranquil condition of the atmosphere, during which the air becomes filled with dust and smoke arising from numerous fires, by which its transparency is greatly impaired." This phenomenon extends as far north as Lake Superior, but it is more conspicuous and protracted in Kansas and Missouri, and is not observed in the southern states.

Destructive frosts generally occur in September, and sometimes in August. " A. temperature of 36° to 40° at sunrise is usually attended with frosts destructive to vegetation, the position of the thermometer being usually such as to represent less than the actual refrigeration at the open surface." In 1875, during October, at Milwaukee, the mercury fell seven times below the freezing point, and twice below zero in November, the lowest being 14°.

The winters are generally long and severe, but occasionally mild and almost without snow.. The mean winter temperature varies between 23^ in the southeastern part of the state, and 16° at Ashland, m the northern. For this season the extremes are great. The line of 20° is of importance, as it marks the average temperature which is fatal to the growth of all the tender trees, such as the pear and the peach. In the winter of 1875 and 1876, the mean temperature for December, January and February, in the upper lake region, was about 4°- above the average mean, for many years, while during the previous winter the average temperature for January, and February was about 12° below the mean for many years, showing a great difference between cold and mild winters. In the same winter, i875-'76, at Milwaukee, the thermometer fell only six times below zero, the lowest being 12", while during the preceding winter the mercury sank thirty-six times below zero, the lowest being 23". In the northern and northwestern part of the state the temperature sometimes falls to the freezing point of mercury. During the exceptionally cold Winter of 1872-3, at La Crosse, the thermometer sank nearly fifty times below zero; on December 24, it indicated 37° below, and on January 18, 43" below zero, averaging about 12" below the usual mean for those months. The moderating effect of Lake Michigan can be seen by observing how the lines indicating the mean winter temperature curve northward as they approach the lake. Milwaukee, Sheboygan, Manitowoc, Two Rivers, and the Grand Traverse region of Michigan, have the same average wintei temperature. The same is true regarding. Galena, 111., Beloit, and Kewaunee. A similar influence is noticed in all parts of the state. Dr. Lapham concludes that this is not wholly due to the presence of Lake Michigan, but that the mountain range which extends from a little west of Lake Superior to the coast of Labrador (from 1,100 to 2,240 feet high) protects the lake region in no inconsiderable degree from the excessive cold of winter.

According to the same authority, the time at which the Milwaukee river was closed wi h ice, a period of nine years, varied between November 15 and December i ; the time at which it became free from ice, between March 3 and April 13. In the lake district, snow and rain are 'interspersed through all the winter months, rain being sometimes as profuse as at any other season. In the northwestern part the winter is more rigid and dry. Northern New York and the New England states usually have snow lying on the ground the whole winter, but in the southern ilake district it rarely remains so long. In i842-'43, however, sleighing commenced about the middle of November, and lasted till about the same time in April - five months.

The average temperature for the three months of spring, March, April and May, from Walworth county to St. Paul, is about 45°. In central Wisconsin the mean for March is about 27°, which is an increase of nearly 7° from February. The lowest temperature of this month in 1876 was 40° above zero. April shows an average increase of about 9" over March. In 1876 the line of 45" for this month passed from LaCrosse to Evanston, 111., touching Lake Erie at Toledo, showing that the interior wtst of Lake Michigan is warmer than the lake region. The change from winter to spring is more sudden, in the interior than in the vicinity of the lakes. " In the town of Lisbon, fifteen miles from Lake Michigan," says Dr. Lapham, " early spring -flowers show themselves about ten days earlier than on the lake. In spring vegetation, in places remote from the lakes, shoots up in a very short time, and flowers show their petals, while on the lake shore the cool air retards them and brings them more gradually into existence." The increase from April to May is about 15°. In May, 1876, Pembina and Milwaukee had nearly the mean temperature, about 55".

The extremes of our climate and the sudden changes of temperature no doubt have a marked influence, both physically and mentally, on the American people. And though a more climate may be more conducive to perfect health, the great range of our climate from arctic to tropical, and the consequent variety and abundance of vegetable products, combine to make the Mississippi valley perhaps one of the most favorable areas in the world for the develop- -nent of a strong and wealthy nation.

, During the months of summer, in the interior of the eastern United States, at least threefourths of the rain-fall is in showers usually accompanied by electrical discharges and limited to areas. But in autumn, winter, and spring nearly the whole precipitation takes place in -general storms extending over areas of 300, 500 and sometimes over 1,000 miles in diameter, and generally lasting two or three days. An area of low atmospheric pressure causes the wind to blow toward that area from all sides, and when the depression is sudden and great, it is accompanied by much rain or snow. On account of the earth's rotation, the wind blowing toward this region of low pressure is deflected to the right, causing the air to circulate around the center with a motion spirally inward. In our latitude the storm commences with east winds. When the storm center, or area of lowest barometer, is to the south of us, the wind gradually veers, as the storm passes from west to east with the upper current, round to the northwest by the north point. On the south side of the storm center, the wind veers from southeast to southwest, by the south -point. The phenomena attending such a storm when we are in or near the part of its center are usually as follows : After the sky has become overcast with clouds, the wind from the northeast -generally begins to rise and blows in the opposing direction to the march of the storm. The which are now moving over us, discharge rain or snow according to circumstances. The barometer continues to fall, and the rain or snow is brought obliquely down from the northern -quarter by the prevailing wind. After a while the wind changes slightly in direction and then The thermometer rises and the barometer has reached its lowest point. This is the center of the storm. After the calm the wind has changed its direction to northwest or west. The wind blows again, usually more violently than before, accompanied by rain or snow, which is now generally of short duration. The sky clears, and the storm is suddenly succeeded by a temperature lo or 20 degrees below the mean. Most of the rain and snow falls with the east winds, or before the center passes a given point. The path of these storms is from west to east, or nearly so, and only seldom in other directions. These autumn, winter, and spring rains are generally first noticed on the western plains, but may originate at any point along their path, and move eastward with an average velocity of about 20 miles an hour in summer and 30 miles in winter, but sometimes attaining a velocity of over 50 miles, doing great damage on the lakes. In predicting these storms, the signal service of the army is of incalculable practical benefit, as well as in collecting data for scientific conclusions.

A subject of the greatest importance to every inhabitant of Wisconsin is the influence of forests on climate and the effects of disrobing a county of its trees. The general influence of forests in modifying the extremes of temperature, retarding evaporation and the increased humidity of the air, has already been mentioned. That clearing the land of trees increases the temperature of the ground in summer, is so readily noticed that it is scarcely necessary to mention it ; while in winter the sensible cold is never so extreme in woods as on an open surface exposed to the full force of the winds. " The lumbermen in Canada and the northern United States labor in the woods without inconvenience: when the mercury stands many degrees below zero, while in the open grounds, with only a moderate breeze, the same temperature is almost, insupportable." " In the state of Michigan it has been found that the winters have greatly increased in severity within the last forty years, and that this increased severity seems to move along even-paced with the destruction of the forests. Thirty years ago the peach was one of the most abundant fruits of that State; at that time frost, injurious to corn at any time from May tO' October, was a thing unknown. Now the peach is an uncertain crop, and frost often injures thecorn.'' The precise influence of forests on temperature may not at present admit of definite solution, yet the mechanical screen which they furnish to the soil often far to the leeward of them, is sufficiently established, and this alone is enough to encourage extensive planting wherever this protection is wanting.

With regard to the quantity of rain-fall, " we can not positively affirm that the total annual quantity of rain is even locally diminished or increased by the destruction of the woods, though both theoretical considerations and the balance of testimony strongly favor the opinion that more rain falls in wooded than in open countries. One important conclusion, at least, upon the meteorological influence of forests is certain and undisputed : the proposition, namely, that, within their own limits, and near their own borders, they maintain a more uniform degree of humidity in the atmosphere than is observed in cleared grounds. Scarcely less can it be questioned that they tend to promote the frequency of showers, and, if they do not augment the amount of precipitation, they probably equalize its distribution through the different seasons."

There is abundant and undoubted evidence that the amount of water existing on the surface in lakes and rivers, in many parts of the world, is constantly diminishing. In Germany, observations of the Rhine, Oder, Danube, and the Elbe, in the latter case going back for a period of 142 years, demonstrate beyond doubt, that each of these rivers has much decreased in volume, and there is reason to fear that they will eventually disappear from the list of navigable rivers.

" The ' Blue-Grass ' region of Kentucky, once the pride of the West, has now districts , of such barren and arid nature that their stock farmers are moving toward the Cumberland mountains, because the creeks and old springs dried up, and their wells became too low to furnish water for their cattle." In our own state " such has been the change in the flow of the Milwau- kee river, even while the area from which it receives its supply is but partially cleared, that the proprietor? of most of the mills and factories have found it necessary to resort to the use of steam, at a largely increased yearly cost, to supply the deficiency of water-power in dry seasons of the year." " What has happened to the Milwaukee river, has happened to all the other water courses in the state froni whose banks the forest has been removed ; and many farmers who selected land uqon which there was a living brook of clear, pure water, now find these brooks dried up during a considerable portion of the year.''

Districts stripped of their forest are said to be more exposed than before to loss of harvests, to droughts and frost. " Hurricanes, before unknown, sweep unopposed over the regions chus denuded, carrying terror and devastation in their track." Earts of Asia Minor, North ^Africa, and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean, now almost deserts, were once densely populated and the granaries of the world. And there is good reason to believe " that it is the destruction of the forests which has produced this devastation." From such facts Wisconsin, already largely robbed of its forests, should take warning before it is too late.

Trees, Shrubs And Vines

It is not the purpose of this article to give a botanical description, but merely brief notes on the economical value of the woods, and the fitness of the various indigenous trees, shrubs and vines for the purpose of ornaihent, to be found in Wisconsin.

White Oak - Quercus Alba. - This noble tree is the largest and most important of the American oaks. The excellent properties of the wood render it eminently valuable for a great variety of uses. Wherever strength and durability are required, the white oak stands in the first rank. It is employed in making wagons, coaches and sleds ; staves and hoops of the best quality for barrels and casks are obtained from this tree ; it is extensively used in architecture, shipbuilding, etc.; vast quantities are used for fencmg ; the bark is employed in tanning. The domestic consumption of this tree is so great that it is of the first importance to preserve the young trees wherever it is practicable, and to make young plantations where the tree is not found. The white oak is a graceful, ornamental tree, and worthy of particular attention as such ; found abundantly in most of the timbered districts.

Burr Oak - Q. Macrocarpa. - This is perhaps the most ornamental of our oaks. Nothing can exceed the graceful beauty of these trees, when not crowded or cramped in their growth, but left free to follow the laws of their development. Who has not admired these trees in our extensive burr oak openings ? The large leaves' are a dark green above and a bright silvery white beneath, which gives the tree a singularly fine appearance when agitated by the wind. The wood is tough, close-grained, and more durable than the white oak, especially when exposed to frequent changes of moisture and drying; did the tree grow to the same size, it would be preferred for most uses. Abundant, and richly worthy of cultivation, both for utility and ornament.

Swamp White Oak - Q. Bicolor. - Is a valuable and ornamental tree, not quite so large or as common as the burr oak. The wood is close-grained, durable, splits freely, and is well worthy of cultivation in wet, swampy grounds, where it will thrive.

Post Oak - Q. Obtusiloba. - Is a scraggy, small tree, found sparingly in this state. The timber is durable, and makes good fuel. Not worthy of cultivation.

Swamp Chestnut Oak - Q. Prinus. - This species of chestnut oak is a large, graceful tree, wood rather open-grained, yet valuable for most purposes to which the oaks are applied ; makes the best fuel of any of this family. A rare tree, found at Janesville and Brown's lake, near Burlington. Worthy of cultivation.

Red Oak - Q. Rubra. - The red oak is a well-known, common, large tree. The wood is coarse-grained, and the least durable of the oaks, nearly worthless for fuel, and scarcely worthy of cultivation, even for ornament.

Pin Oak - Q. Palustris. - This is one of the most common trees in many sections of the state. The wood is of little value except for fuel. The tree is quite ornamental, and should be sparingly cultivated for this purpose.

Shingle Oak - Q. Imbricaria. - Is a tree of medium size, found sparingly as far north as Wisconsin. It is ornamental, and the wood is used for shingles and staves.

Scarlet Oak - Q. Coccinea. - This is an ornamental tree, especially in autumn, when its leaves turn scarlet, hence the name. Wood of little value ; common.

Sugar Maple - Acer Saccharium. - This well-known and noble tree is found growing abundantly in many sections of the state. The wood is close-grained and susceptible of a beautiful polish, which renders it valuable for many kinds of furniture, more especially the varieties known as bird's-eye and curled maples. The wood lacks the durability of the oak ; consequently is not valuable for purposes where it will be exposed to the weather. For fuel it ranks next to hickory. The sugar manufactured from this tree affords no inconsiderable resource for the comfort and even wealth of many sections of the northern states, especially those newly settled, where it would be difficult and expensive to procure their supply from a distance. As an ornamental tree it stands almost at the head of the catalogue. The foliage is beautiful, compact, and free from the attacks of insects. It puts forth its yellow blossoms early, and in the autumn the leaves change in color and show the most beautiful tints of red and yellow long before they fall. Worthy of especial attention for fuel and ornament, and well adapted to street-planting.

Red Maple - A. Rubrum. - Is another fine maple of more rapid growth than the foregoing species. With wood rather lighter, but quite as valuable for cabinet-work - for fuel not quite so good. The young trees bear transplanting even better than other maples. Though highly ornamental, this tree hardly equals the first-named species. It puts forth, in early spring, its scarlet blossoms before a leaf has yet appeared. Well adapted to street-planting.

Silver Maple - A. Dasycarpum. - This is a common tree growing on the banks of streams, especially in the western part of the state, grown largely for ornament, yet for the purpose it is the least valuable of the maples. The branches are long and straggling, and so brittle that they are liable to be injured by winds.

Box Maple - Negundo Aceroides. - This tree is frequently called box elder. It is of a rapid growth and quite ornamental. The wood is not much used in the arts, but is good fuel. Should be cultivated. It grows on Sugar and Rock rivers.

White Elm - Ulmus Americana. - This large and graceful tree stands confessedly at the head of the list of ornamental deciduous trees. Its wide-spreading branches and long, pendulous branchlets form a beautiful and conspicuous head. It grows rapidly, is free from disease and the destructive attacks of insects, will thrive on most soils, and for planting along streets, in public grounds or lawns, is unsurpassed by any American tree. The wood is but little used in the arts ; makes good firewood ; should be planted along all the roads and streets, near every dwelling;, and on all public grounds.

Slippery Elm - V. Fulva. - This smaller and less ornamental species is also common. The wood, however, is much more valuable than the white elm, being durable and splitting readily.. It makes excellent rails, and is much used for the framework of buildings; valuable for fuel; should be cultivated.

Wild Black Cherry - Cerasus Serotina. - This large and beautiful species of cherry is one of the most valuable of American trees. The wood is compact, fine-grained, and of a brilliant reddish color, not liable to warp, or shrink and swell with atmospheric changes ; extensively employed by cabinet-makers for every species of furnishing. It is exceedingly durable, hence is. valuable for fencing, building, etc. Richly deserves a place in the lawn or timber plantation.

Wild Plum - Prunus Americana. - The common wild plum when in full bloom is one of the most ornamental of small flowering trees, and as such should not be neglected. The fruit israther agreeable, but not to be compared to fine cultivated varieties, which may be engrafted on the wild stock to the very best advantage. It is best to select small trees, and work them on the roots. The grafts should be inserted about the middle of April.

Hackberry - Celtis Occidentalis. - This is an ornamental tree of medium size ; wood hard,, close-grained and elastic ; makes the best of hoops, whip-stalks, and thills for carriages. The Indians formerly made great use of the hackbeiry wood for their bows. A tree worthy bl a limited share of attention.

American Linden or Basswood - -Tiiia Americana. - Is one of the finest ornamental trees for public grounds, parks, etc., but will not thrive where the roots are exposed to bruises ; for this, reason it is not adapted to planting along the streets of populous towns. The wood is light and tough, susceptible of being bent to almost any curve ; durable if kept from the weather ; takes paint well, and is considerably used in the arts; for fuel it is of little value. This tree will flourish in almost any moderately rich, damp soil; bears transplanting well; can be propagated readily from layers.

White Thorn - Crataegus Coccinea, and Dotted Thorn - C. Punctata. - These two species of thorn are found everywhere on the rich bottom lands. When in bloom they are beautiful, and should be cultivated for ornament. The wood is remarkably compact and hard, and were it not for the small size of the tree, would be valuable.

Crab Apple - Pyrus Coronaria. - This common small tree is attractive when covered with its highly fragrant rose-colored blossoms. Wood I'-f', fine, compact grain, but the tree is toosmall for the wood to be of much practical value. Well worthy of a place in extensive grounds.

Mountain Ash- - P- Americana. - This popular ornament to our yards is found growing in the northern part of the state and as far south as 43". The wood is useless.

White Ash - Fraxinus Acuminata. - Is a large, interesting tree, which combines utility with beauty in an eminent degree. The wood possesses strength, suppleness and elasticity, which renders it valuable for a great variety of uses. It is extensively employed in carriage manufacturing; for various agricultural implements ; is esteemed superior to any other wood for oars; excellent for fuel. The white ash grows rapidly, and in open ground forms one of the most lovely trees that is to be found. The foliage is clean and handsome, and in autumn turns from its bright green to a violet purple hue, which adds materially to the beauty of our autumnal sylvan scenery. It is richly deserving our especial care and protection, and wiU amply repay all labor and expense bestowed on its cultivation.

Black Asfe - F SamhucifoUa. - This is another tall, graceful and well-known species of ash. The wood is used for making baskets, hoops, etc. ; when thoroughly dry, affords a good article of fuel. Deserves to be cultivated in low, rich, swampy situations, where more useful trees will not thrive.

Black Walnut - Juglans Nigra. - ^This giant of the rich alluvial bottom lands claims special attention for its valuable timber. It is among the most durable' and beautiful of American woods ; susceptible of a fine polish ; not liable to shrink and swell by heat and moisture. It is extensively employed by the cabinet-makers for every variety of furniture. Walnut forks, are frequently found which rival in richness and beauty the far-famed mahogany. This tree, in favorable situations, grows rapidly ; is highly ornamental, and produces annually an abundant crop of nuts.

BtJTTERNUT - J. Cinerea. - This species of walnut is not as valuable as the above, yet for its beauty, and the durability of its wood, it should claim a small portion of attention. The wood is rather soft for most purposes to which it otherwise might be applied. When grown near streams, or on moist side-hills, it produces regularly an ample crop of excellent nuts. It grows rapidly.

Shell-Bark Hickory - Carya Alba. - This, the largest and finest of American hickories, grows abundantly throughout the state. Hickory wood possesses probably the greatest strength and tenacity of any of our indigenous trees, and is used for a variety of purposes , but,, unfortunately, it is liable to be eaten by worms, and lacks durability. For fuel, the shell-bark hickory stands unrivaled. The tree is ornamental and produces every alternate year an ample crop of the best of nuts.

Shag-Bark Hickory - C. Jnclata. - Is a magnificent tree, the wood of which is nearly as valuable as the above. The nuts are large, thick-shelled and coarse, not to be compared to the C. alba. A rare tree in Wisconsin ; abundant further south.

Pignut Hickory - C. Glabra. - This species possesses all the bad and but few of the good qualities of the shell-bark. The nuts are smaller and not so good. The tree should be preserved and cultivated in common with the shell-bark. Not abundant.

BiTTERNUT - C. Amara. - Is an abundant tree, valuable for fuel, but lacking the strength and elasticity of the preceding species. It is, however, quite as ornamental as any of the hickories. Red Beech - Fagus Ferruginea. - This is a common tree, with brilliant, shining light-green leaves, and long, flexible branches. It is highly ornamental, and should be cultivated for this purpose, as well as for its useful wood, which is tough, close-grained and compact. It is much used for plane-stocks, tool handles, etc., and as an article of fuel is nearly equal to maple.

Water Beech - Carpinus Americana. - Is a small tree, called hornbeam by many. The wood is exceedingly hard and compact, but the small size of the tree renders it almost useless.

Iron Wood - Ostrya Virginica. - This small tree is found disseminated throughout most of our woodlands. It is, to a considerable degree, ornamental, but of remarkably slow groi^h. The wood possesses valuable properties, being heavy and strong, as the name would indicate ; yet, from its small size, it is of but little use.

Balsam Poplar - Populus Candicans. - This tree is of medium size, and is known by several names : Wild balm of Gilead, cottonwood, etc. It grows in moist, sandy soil, on river bottoms. It has broad, heart-shaped leaves, which turn a fine yellow after the autumn frosts. It grows more rapidly than any other of our trees ; can be transplanted with entire success when eight or nine inches in diameter, and makes a beatiful shade tree - the most ornamental of poplars. The wood is soft, ^pongy^ and nearly useless.

Large Aspen - P. Grandidentata. - Is the largest of our poplars. It frequently grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, with a diameter of two and one-half feet. The wood is soft, easily split, and used for frame buildings. It is the most durable of our poplars.

Cotton Wood - P Monolifera. - This is the largest of all the poplars ; abundant on the Mississippi river. Used largely for fuel on the steamboats. The timber is of but little use in the arts.

Sycamore or Buttonwood - Platanus Occidentalis. - This, the largest and most majestic of our trees, is found growing only on the rich alluvial river bottoms. The tree is readily known, even at a considerable distance, by its whitish smooth branches. The foliage is large and beautiful, and the tree one of the most ornamental known. The wood speedily decays, and when sawed into lumber warps badly ; on these accounts it is but little used, although susceptible of a fine finish. As an article of fuel it is of inferior merit.

Canoe Birch - Betula Papyracea. - Is a rather elegant and interesting tree. It grows abundantly in nearly every part of the state. The wood is of a fine glossy grain, susceptible of a good finish, but lacks durability and strength, and, therefore, is but little used in the mechanical arts. For fuel it is justly prized. It bears transplanting without difificulty. The Indians manufacture their celebrated bark canoes from the bark of this tree.

Cherry Birch - B. Lenta. - This is a rather large, handsome tree, growing along streams. Leaves and bark fragrant. Wood, fine-grained, rose-colored ; used largely by the cabinetmakers.

Yellow Birch - B. Lutea. - This beautiful tree occasionally attains a large size. It is highly ornamental, and is of value for fuel ; but is less prized than the preceding species for cabinet work.

Kentucky Coffee Tree - Gymnocladus Canadensis. - This singularly beautiful tree is only found sparingly, and on rich alluvial lands. I met with it growing near the Peccatonica, in Green county. The wood is fine-grained, and of a rosy hue ; is exceedingly durable, and well worth cultivating.

June Berry - Amelanchier Canadensis. - Is a small tree which adds materially to the beauty of our woods in early spring, at which time it is in full bloom. The wood is of no particular value, and the tree interesting only when covered with its white blossoms.

White Pine - Pinus Strol-us. - This is the largest and most valuable of our indigenous pines'. The wood is soft, free from resin, and works easily. It is extensively employed in the mechanical arts. It is found in great profusion in the northern parts of the state. This species is readily known by the leaves being in fives. It is highly ornamental, but in common with all pines, will hardly bear transplanting. Only small plants should be moved.

Norway or Red Pine - P. Resinosa, and Yellow Pine - P. Mitis. - These are two large trees, but little inferior in size to the white pine. , The wood contains more resin, and is consequently more durable. The leaves of both these species are in twos. Vast quantities of lumber are yearly manufactured from these two varieties and the white pine. The extensive pineries of the state are rapidly diminishing.

Shrub Pine - P. Banksiana. - Is a small, low tree ; only worthy of notice here for the ornamental shade it produces. It is found in the northern sections of the state.

Balsam Fir - Abies Balsamea. - This beautiful evergreen is multiplied to a great extent on the shores of Lake Superior, where it grows forty or fifty feet in height. The wood is of' but

Teees, Shrubs And Vines

Double Spruce - A. Nigra. - This grows in the same localities with the balsam fir, and assumes the same pyramidal form, but is considerably larger. The wood is light and possesses considerable strength and elasticity, which renders it one of the best materials for yards and topmasts for shippmg. It is extensively cultivated for ornament.

Hemlock - A. Ca?Mdensis. - The hemlock is the largest of the genus. It is gracefully ornamental, but the wood is of little value. The baik is extensively erriployed in tanning.

Tamarack - Larix Americana. - This beautiful tree grows abundantly in swampy situations throughout the state. It is not quite an evergreen It drops its leaves in winter, but quickly recovers them in early spring. The wood is remarkably durable and valuable for a variety of uses. The tree grows rapidly, and can be successfully cultivated in peaty situations, where other trees would not thrive.

Arbor VitjE - Thuja Occidentalis. - This tree is called the white or flat cedar. It grows abundantly in many parts of the state. The wood is durable, furnishing better fence posts than any other tree, excepting the red cedar. Shingles and staves of a superior quality are obtained from these trees. A beautiful evergreen hedge is made from the young plants, which bear transplanting better than most evergreens. It will grow on most soils if sufficiently damp.

Red C'E.TtAK - Juniperus Virginiana. - Is a w^ell known tree that furnishes those celebrated fence posts that " last forever." The wood is highly fragrant, of a rich red color, and fine grained ; hence it is valuable for a variety of uses. It should be extensively cultivated.

Dwarf Juniper - _/. Sabina. - This is a low trailing shrub. Is considcably prized for -ornament. Especially worthy of cultivation in large grounds.

Sassafras - Sassafras officinale. - Is a small tree of fine appearance, with fragrant leaves bark. Grows in Kenosha county. Should be cultivated.

Willows. - There are many species of willows growing in every part of the state, several of which are worthy of cultivation near streams and ponds.

White Willow - Salix alba. - Is a fine tree, often reaching sixty feet in height. The wood is soft, and makes the best charcoal for the manufacture of gun-powder. Grows rapidly.

Dogwoods. - There are several species found in our forests and thickets. All are ornamental when covered with a profusion of white blossoms. I would especially recommend : corus sericea, C. stolonifera, C. paniculata, and C. alternifolia. All these will repay the labor of transplanting to ornamental grounds.

Viburnums. - These are very beautiful. "W^\\a.ve viburnum lentago, V. pruni/olium, V. nudum, V. deniaticm, V. pubescens, V. acerifolium, V. pauciflorum, and V. opulus. The last is known as the cranberry tree, and is a most beautiful shrub when in bloom, and also when covered with its red, acid fruit. The common snow-ball tree is a cultivated variety of the V. opulus.

Witch Hazel - Hamamelis Virginica. - Is an interesting, tall shrub that flowers late in autumn, when the leaves are fa;lling, and matures the fruit the next summer. It deserves more attention than it receives.

Burning Bush - Euonymus atropurpureus. - This fine shrub is called the American strawberry, and is exceedingly beautiful when covered with its load of crimson fruit, which remains -during winter.

Sumach - Mus typhina. - Is a tall shrub, 11 known, but seldom cultivated. When well grown it is ornamental and well adapted for planting in clumps.

Bladder Nut - Staphylea trifolia. - Is a fine, upright, showy shrub, found sparingly all over the state. Is ornamental, with greenish striped branches and showy leaves.

Virginia Creeper - Ampelopsis quinquefolia. - This is a noble vine, climbing extensively by disc-bearing tendrils, so well known as to require no eulogy. Especially beautiful in its fall colors. '

Bitter Sweet - Celastrus scandens. - Is a stout twining vine, which would be an ornament to any grounds. In the fall and early winter it is noticeable for its bright fruit. Common.

Yellow Honeysuckle - Lonicera flava. - Is a fine native vine, which is found climbing over tall shrubs and trees. Ornamental. There are several other species of honeysuckle ; none, however, worthy of special mention.

Frost Grape - Vitce cordifolia. - This tall-growing vine has deliciously sweet blossoms, which perfume the air for a great distance around. For use as a screen, this hardy species will be found highly satisfactory.

Fauna Of Wisconsin Fish And Fish Culture

Fish are cold blooded aquatic vertebrates, having fins as organs of progression. They havea two-chambered heart ; their bodies are mostly covered with scales, yet a few are entirely naked, like catfish and eels ; others again are covered with curious plates, such as the sturgeon. Fish inhabit both salt and fresh water. It is admitted by all authority that fresh-water fish are more universally edible than those inhabiting the ocean. Marine fish are said to be. more highly flavored than those inhabiting fresh waters ; an assertion I am by no means prepared to admit. As a rule, fish are better the colder and purer the water in which they are found, and where can you find those conditions more favorable than in the cold depths of our great lakes ? We have tasted, under the most favorable conditions, about every one of the celebrated salt-water fish, and. can say that whoever eats a whitefish just taken from the pure, cold water of Lake Michigan will have no reason to be envious of the dwellers by the sea.

Fish afford a valuable article of food for man, being highly nutritious and easy of digestion ; they abound in phosphates, hence are valuable as affording nutrition to the osseous and nervous system, hence they have been termed, not inappropriately, brain food - certainly a very desirable articleof diet for some people. They are more savory, nutritious and easy of digestion when just taken from the water ; in fact, the sooner they are cooked after being caught the better. No fish should be more than a few hours from its watery element before being placed upon the table. For convenience, I will group ouir fish into families as a basis for what I shall offer. Our bony fish^ having spine rays and covered with comb-like scales, belong to the perch family - a valuable family ; all take the hook, are gamey, and spawn in the summer.

The yellow perch and at least four species of black or striped bass have a wide range, being found in all the rivers and lakes in the state. There is a large species of fish known as Walleyed pike {Leucoperca americand) belonging to this family, which is found sparingly in most of our rivers and lakes. The pike is an active and most rapacious animal, devouring fish of considerable size. The flesh is firm and of good flavor. It would probably be economical to propagate it to a moderate extent.

The six-spined bass (Pomoxys hexacanthus, Agas.) is one of the most desirable of the spinelayed fish found in the State. The flesh is fine flavored, and as the fish is hardy and takes the hook with avidity, it should be protected during the spawning season and artificially propagated. I have examined the stomachs of a large number of these fish and in every instance found small crawfish, furnishing an additional evidence in its favor. Prof. J. P. Kirtland, the veteran ichthyologist 6f Ohio, says that this so-callea " grass bass" is the fish for the million.

The white bass {Roccus chrysops) is a species rather rare even in the larger bodies of water, but ought to be introduced into every small lake in the State, where I am certain they would flourish. It is an excellent fish, possessing many of the good qualities and as few of the bad as any that belong to the family. There is another branch of this family, the sunfish, Fomotis, which numbers at least six species found in Wisconsin. They are beautiful fish, and afibrd abundant sport for the boys ; none of them, however, are worth domesticating (unless it be in the aquarium) as there are so many better.

The carp family (Cyprinidce) are soft finned fish without maxillary teeth. They include by far the greater number of fresh-water fish. Some specimens are not more than one inch, while others are nearly two feet in length. Our chubs, silversides and suckers are the principal members of this family. Dace are good pan-fish, yet their small size is objectionable ; they are the children's game fish. The Cyprinidce all spawn in the spring, and might be profitably propa- ' gated as food for the larger and more valuable fish.

There are six or seven species of suckers found in our lakes and rivers. The red horse, found every where, and at least one species of the buffalo, inhabiting the Mississippi and its tributaries, are the best of the genus Catastomus. Suckers are bony, and apt to taste suspiciously of mud ; they are only to be tolerated in the absence of better. The carp (Cyprenius carpo) has been successfully introduced into the Hudsonriver.

The trout family {^Salmonida) are soft-finned fish with an extra dorsal adipose fin without rays. They inhabit northern cguntries, spawning in the latter part of fall and winter. Their flesh is universally esteemed. The trout family embrace by far the most valuable of our fish, including, as it does, trout and whitefish. The famous speckled trout {Salmo foniinalis) is a small and beautiful species which is found in nearly every stream in the northern half of the State. Wherever there is a spring run or lake, the temperature of which does not rise higher than sixty-five or seventy in the summer, there trout can be propagated in abundance. The great salmon trout (^Sal. amethystus) of the great lakes is a magnificent fish weighing from ten to sixty pounds. The Siscowit salmo siscowit of Lake Superior is about the same size, but not quite so good a fish, being too fat and oily. They will, no doubt, flourish in the larger of the inland lakes.

The genus Coregonus includes the true whitefish, or lake shad. In this genus, as now restricted, the nose is square and the under jaw short, and when first caught they have the fragrance of fresh cucumbers. There are at least three species found in Lake Michigan. In my opinion these fish are more delicately flavored than the celebrated Potomac shad ; but I doubt whether they will thrive in the small lakes, owing to the absence of the small Crustacea on which they subsist. The closely allied genus Argyrosomus includes seven known species inhabiting the larger lakes, and one, the Argyrosomus sisco, which is found in several of the lesser lakes. The larger species are but little inferior to the true whitefish, with which they are commonly confounded. The nose is pointed, the under jaw long, and they take the hook at certain seasojas with activity. They eat small fish as well as insects and crustaceans.

Of the pickerel family, we have three or four closely allied species of the genus Esox, armed with prodigious jaws filled with cruel teeth. They lie motionles eady to dart, swift as an arrow, upon their prey. They are the sharks of the fresh water. The pickerel are so rapacious that they spare not their own species. Sometimes they attempt to swallow a fish nearly as large as themselves, and perish in consequence. Their flesh is moderately good, and as they are game to the backbone, it might be desirable to propagate them to a moderate extent under peculiar circumstances.

The catfish {SiluridcB) have soft fins, protected by sharp spines, and curious fleshy barbels floating from their lips, without scales, covered only with a slimy coat of mucus. The genus Pimlodus are scavengers among fish, as vultures among birds. They are filthy in habit and food. There is one interesting trait of the catfish - the vigilant and watchful motherly care of the young by the male. He defends them with great spirit, and herds them together when they straggle. Even the mother is driven far off; for he knows full well that she would not scruple to make a full meal off" her little black tadpole-like progeny. There are four species known to inhabit this State - one peculiar to the great lakes, and two found in the numerous affluents of the Mississippi. One of these, the great yellow catfish, sometimes weighs over one hundred pounds. When in good condition, stuffed and well baked, they are a fair table fish.- The small bull-head is universally distributed.

The sturgeons are large sluggish fish, covered with plates instead of scales. There are at least three species of the genus Acipenser found in the waters of Wisconsin. Being so large and without bones, they afford a sufficiently cheap article of food ; unfortunately, however, the quality is decidedly bad. Sturgeons deposit an enormous quantity of eggs ; the roe not unfrequently weighs one fourth as much as the entire body, and numbers, it is said, many millions. The principal commercial value of sturgeons is found in the roe and swimming bladder. The much prized caviare is manufactured from the former, and from the latter the best of isinglass is obtained.