Howard County, Indiana - The whole text, 1909 (part 1 of 9)

Author'S Preface

Soon after beg-inning the editing of tlie History of Howard County, at the request of B. F. Bowen & Company, two facts became Very prominent. The first was that the undertaking was greater than at first appeared and the other was that there are now very, \-ery few of tlie pioneers remaining to rehearse the beginnings of Howard County history. It is largel}' now the verifying and arranging such historical matter as has lieretofore been published, supplemented by matters alreadv known by the writer, and others, gathered from old newspapers and the few surx-ivors of a far away time.

In preparing this work it has seemed very unfair and short sighted to assume that all this magnificent country should have remained idle and unused by man for thousands of )-ears until seventy years ago. for the coming of the white man, and so I have devoted a chapter to the Mound Builders and another to their successors - the Indians. Since the coming of the white man I ha\'e tried to describe conditions as tliey were in the beginning and the many changes he has wrought along the various lines of life.

This work has been largely along general lines. The limits of this work have precluded the going into the purely local and individual. There ha\-e been certain individual schools of more than passing inip(^rtance. as the Old Normal and some out township schools, of which it would have been a real pleasure to have written. Beautiful Crown Point Cemeterv is another instance and the Old Cemetery, where lie the unmarked graves of many of the early pioneers of Kokonio and vicinity whose memory should especially be cherished as the real founders of our goodly heritage ; and too, our delightful City Park.

I have consulted and drawn freely from the Kingman County Atlas of 1876 and the History of Howard and Tipton County of 1S83. Mr. Otis C. Pollard has rendered much valuable assistance; the chapters prepared by him are accredited to him. Isir. INIilton Garrigus has prepared a very valuable history of early financial conditions, a compact statement of facts difficult to find, especially interesting in our pioneer history as the Blue Dog and White Dog and the Wild Cat currencies. Posterity is under a real debt to Mr. Garrigus for this chapter.

The Mound Builders

In writing- the history of Howard county we must not omit the people who dwelt in the country of which it is now a part before the coming of the Europeans.

An ancient race, entirely distinct from the Indians, inhabited all that vast, fertile valley system extending- from western New York on the east to Nebraska on the west, and from the great lakes on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south.

These people possessed a modified degree of civilization. They tilled the soil and grew corn, potatoes, tobacco and other products of this western hemisphere of that early time. They carried on commerce, both domestic and foreign, not so extensively perhaps as do the present modern inhabitants. They had made considerable progress in the arts; their potter}' wares especially displayed skill and finish. Their sculptors reached a high degree of perfection. They were an industrious race. Many of their public works were massive and required the labor of many men for months or perhaps years to construct. They were evidently a people of fixed habitation and settled and organized government, and were given rather to the pursuits of peace than war.

^^'ho these people were we have no means of knowing: by what name or names they were known to themselves or their contemporaries we know not. So far as we know they left no written records. Tradition is absolutely silent concerning them. Many centuries of past time have entirely extinguished the memory of them. They are to us a lost race. We know them as Mound Builders, but this term has no real significance. So far as we know they never built a mound. Time has been the real Mound Builder, converting the buildings and structures of this ancient people into the various mounds as we know them today. All that we know of them is gathered from the monuments that remain of them, consisting of mounds, inclosures, implements, works of art, etc. These remains have been carefully examined, and after long and patient investigation the archaeologist has arrived at certain definite conclusions, and so apparently accurate are they that we may safely say that we are Avell acquainted with' this lost race.

Mound Remains

These remains are very numerous and widely distributed. In Ohio more than twelve hundred inclosures and ten thousand mounds have been counted. Indiana has probably as many, and the A-arious implements that have been found are almost countless. The mound remains of Ohio have been much more thoroughl}- and carefully examined than those of any other state, hence they are better known and more frequent reference made to them. These works are chiefly found in the river valleys, and are only occasionally met with in the hilly or broken country, and are there small in size. The}' are irregvilarly distributed, being dense in places and sparse in others, indicating thickly settled localities and scattered settlements. The fact that their remains are found chiefly in the river valleys and alnng the watercourses would suggest that they used the streams of water as their highways, transporting themselves and their commerce in canoes or rude boats, fashioned from the giant trees growing then as at the coming- of the white man in the forests of these fertile vallevs.

These ancient works were constructed sometimes of earth alone, at other times of earth' and stone together, and were of two classes - enclosures and mounds proper. The enclosures were massive walls and sometimes of great dimensions, ranging- from three feet to thirty feet in height and enclosing areas of from one acre to four hundred acres in extent. Many of them evidently were constructed for fortifications or defensive purposes and some were admirably chosen as natural strongholds. Others were sacred enclosures, protecting their altars and holy places of worship from unhallowed intmsion, and perhaps affording homes for the priesthood, for it is known that these people had their places of worship and a regular priesthood. Altars have been found within these enclosures, presenting positive evidence of sacrifice.

Modes Of Worship

In some respects the ceremonials of their worship seem to have been very like the Jewish as set out in the book of Exodus. The location of bodies of numerous mounds indicates that the Mound Builders were influenced by the same motives in selecting sites for their cities and towns which influenced their European successors. Practically the same natural conditions existed when this numerous population Of bygone times lived and made homes as those that fascinated the European when he came - an attractive country, broad, alluvial terraces overlooking flowing rivers and the same capabilities for development.

It has been said that nearly even- town of importance in the valleys of the Ohio and ^lissisippi and their tributaries, is founded upon tlie ruins of this ancient people. The city of St. Louis was a cit}' of mounds, and is known as the "^lound City," while on the opposite side of the river more than two hundred were counted.

among which was th^ great Cahokia, the mammoth mound oi the Mississippi valley. Before the desecrating hand of the white man had despoiled tliis magnificent temple it rose in height ninety feet. In shape it was at the base a parallelogram, the sides at the base measuring seven hundred b}^ fi^-e hundred feet. On the southwest there was a terrace one hundred and sixty feet by three hundred feet, the top being level and constituting a platfonn two hundred feet wide by four hundred feet long, upon which could congregate man)- thousands of people at an elevation of nearly one hundred feet above the surrounding country.

Other important mound centers now occupied by towns and cities are Grave Creek, Marietta, ]\Iiami and Vincennes. Of the one at Vincennes Professor Collett says: "Perhaps the seat of a royal priesthood, their efforts essayed to build a series of tanples which constituted at once capital and 'holy city,' the Heliojxilis of the ^^'est. Three sacred mounds thrown upon or against the sides of the second terrace or bluff east and southeast of Vincennes are the result and in size, symmetry and grandeur of aspect ri\al, if not excel any prehistoric remains in the United States."

Another class of mounds were the sepulchral mounds where they buried their illustrious dead. Skeletons have been unearthed in these mounds and with them have been found personal ornaments, such as bracelets, perforated plates of copper and beads of bone, ivory, shell or metal. Few weapons such as spear or arrow points are found. Stone implements are common. Plates of mica are frequently met with, and of such size as to almost completely cover the skeleton. Vases of pottery are occasionally found. These nmunds are the principal depositories of ancient art. The implements and ornaments found in tliese mounds are made i_)f minerals, clay, bones, fossils and shells. The lirst implements used by them were made of stone. Among the INIound Builders we find many and various implements of stone, ha\'ing- a great variety of form and used for different purposes. Their arrow and spearheads were made of flint, ninety-five per cent, of them being made of the different varieties of chert. Many points made of obsidian have been found. Chalcedony occurs, but not in abundance. Knives and other cutting instruments made of obsidian and flint have been taken from the mounds. Axes fashioned with great skill out of rare and beautiful materials, mostly of the granitic series of minerals, are found in great abundance in the valleys, but rarely in the mounds, many of them with- grooves for the adjustmait of handles, and varying in weight from one pound to sixteen pounds. Their hatchets, designed for use in war as well as domestic use, weighed from one to two pounds, and had no grooves. Some had holes for the insertion of handles. These instmments for the most part were pidished. Some were ground and polished with great care. Many stone mauls and chisels ha\-e been found. Quartz pestles and mortars or boulders with platter-shaped depressions for grinding the grain are found iui great numbers. An interesting feature of their works of art is the pottery ware, comprising- kettles, water jugs, cups, vases, urns, etc. In this they attained to a considerable degree of perfection, exhibiting a variety of forms and elegance of finish. They made these wares of fine clay. In the finer specimens they worked the clay pure. In some of the coarser specimens they intermixed the clay with quartz, in others with salmon-colored mica in small flakes, giving it a rather brilliant appearance.

Skilled Workmen

have the images of birds, quadiaipeds and the human form molded upon them. They were all moulded by hand and there is no evidence that they had any knowledge of the potter's wheel. Xone i^f their vessels were glazed. The stone pipes found in the mounds display the most elaborate skill.

The workmen portrayed the object sought to be represented with great faithfulness, the more elaborate ones delineating the squirrel, opossum, beaver, otter, wildcat, bear, elk, wolf, panther, grouse, duck, raven and also the human head and form. Their highest grade of art is found in their sculptures. They accurately exhibited the g-eneral form and features of the object intended to be represented. In all of their work there is a remarkable avoidance of obscenity. Their largest instruments made out of quartz or chert are the spade and hoe.

The Mound Builders were acquainted with se\-eral of the metals. They had implements and ornaments of copper. Silver is found occasionally in the form of ornaments. There is nothing to indicate that it was ever used as money. Galena is found in considerable quantities, but there is no trace of iron. They made knives. axes, chisels, awls, spearheads and arrowheads out of copper. These were hammered out cold for the most part, though some show evidence of having been molded. Hence the conclusion is warranted that the art of smelting was known to them in their later times. They made for themselves awls or needles of the bones of the deer and elk. which they used in the sewing of the hides of animals.

The Mound Builders used for clothing sometimes the skins of wild animals, but for the most part their clothing was made from a cloth regularly spun with a uniform thread and woven with warp and woof. In making a railroad grade through a mound near Middletown, Ohio, among other things found was cloth connected with tassels and ornaments. The cloth was in thick folds and very mucli charred. It api>eared to be of some material allied to hanp, and the separation of wood and fiber was as thorough as at this day by rotting and hackeling. The thread is coarse, uniform in size and regularly spun. Their process of spinning and weaving is unknown. The fact that large numbers of copper implements and ornaments have been found in the mounds, the fact also that the Mound Builders used galena, obsidian, mica and some silver, suggest that they either engag-ed in mining" or traded \\ith people wlio did. Considerable quantities of galena have been found in the mounds of Ohio. It is of frequent occurrence on the sacrificial altars. Plumb bobs and net sinkers are found made out of this material, and yet no original deposits are known in the state of Ohio. Obsidian, a peculiar glass-like stone of volcanic origin, is obtained from some of the mounds in the fonn of arrowheads, spearheads and cutting instalments, 3"et this material is not found in its natural state north of Mexico nor east of the Rocky mountains in the United States. Mica is found in large quantities in and about the mounds. It was used for mirrors, ornaments and« often for the covering of their dead. There were no mica mines nearer than New Hampshire or North Carolina. The mines of North Carolina give conclusive evidence of having been worked in long past times. It is a fair inference that these people of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys journeyed either as miners or traders to the mines of Carolina and thus obtained the mica now found. In the copper mines of the Lake Superior region excavations have been found which appear to be very ancient.

An Industrous Race

ers of the Ohio valley journeyed to these far-away copper mines as miners, going in the springiime, taking a store of provisions with them, and returning in the autumn to their homes. The cold of the Lake Superior region was such as to forbid their growing their food there. The wide distribution 'of copper implements shows that an extensive business was carried on in this metal. From the valley of the Ohio it was a journey of a thousand miles. There is no evidence of settled life at that time in the copper regions. The people who did this were energetic and enterprising. The same must be said of a people who journeyed to far-away ^Mexico for a supply of obsidian.

It appears to be indisputable that the Mound Builders were an industrious people, well settled, extensively engaged in mining operations and various mechanical pursuits, well skilled and far from a state of barbarism. They were somewhat advanced in the arts and sciences and occupied no mean position in life. For their times and surroundings they had made great strides towards a permanent civilization and must be ranked as one of the g'reat people of ancient times.

Who were the Mound Builders ? Where did they come from ? When were they here? When did they leave here? What was the manner of their going? Who occupied this countiy at their going? are questions naturally suggested.

When The Europe.'Vns Came

When the Europeans first came here they found the Indians without a trace of a tradition of the people who dwelt here before them. The people themselves left no written records whose authen- ticity may be said to be unquestioned. The darkness of the past has completely enveloped them. \\'hat we do know is that there now remain here the ruins of the works of a prehistoric people whose only history we can interpret froni' these ruins.

The next two questions admit of a somewhat more satisfactory repl}'. We know that many centuries have passed since the Mound Builders went out from their homes here. When the earliest European explorers visited these mounds time had completed their wrecking. Mounds only remained of great buildings and massive walls. Forests of giant trees, centuries old, had grown upon the ruins and had fallen to decay, probably many times repeated.

The ruins of the new world may be as ancient as those of the old. ]May we not safely say that the Mound Builders of America were contemporaneous with the great peoples of antiquity in the old world? While the Pharaohs of Egypt were erecting their pyramids and building magnificent temples to their gods and were engaging in great national enterprises ; while Abraham of Ur of the Chaldees. at the command of the living God. and imbued with the spirit of enterprise of his age. was g'oing out to found a new home and nation of his own ; while Nineveh and Babylon were growing up to be mighty cities through the entei-prise of their citizens, may not this people have been engaged in the building of their temples to the Great Spirit and in the constniction of other great works whose ruins yet remain ?

There is no evidence that the nations of the old and new worlds had any knowledge of each other. They appear, however, tn have g'rown in power and advanced in civilizatidn very much alike. The}' had the same kinds of mills for grinding their grain. ]\Iay not the spirit of enterprise and civilization that prevailed in the old world in those centuries before Christ have been world-wide and found its expression in the M(iund Builders (if the new?

\Miat was the manner of their gomg? The probabihties are that they were dri\-en out by a barbarous, warhke people. For ages they and their ancestors had Uved in these rich and fertile valleys ; they had builded towns and cities and made homes as dear to them

Antiquarians who have studied the mounds, which were once the fortifications of this people, assert that they were placed and arranged to protect the inhabitants from northern invaders. Signal stations have been traced to the northward, indicating that they kept sentinels posted in times of danger to warn them of the approach of foes b)^ signaling from station to station.

It is further declared that the Mound Builders had their habitations from the Ohio river southward to later times than on the north. The remains of many of the mounds indicate that their going had been precipitate; that they had not been given time to gather up their belongings and move out orderly. It seems very probable that a savage or barbarous people to the north of them waged war with them probably at intervals for a long time and finally had overcome them and had driven them across the Ohio river, which, for a time at least, was the boundary between them.

In thus disposing of the Mound Builders we must admit that the evidence is purely circumstantial ; that no eye^vitness has been found whose record bears positive testimony to the facts regarding this people. It is true that there have been found what was purported to be the writings of prehistoric man. Some of these have been determined as impositions, others have not been deciphered. We do not know whether they are false oi"" genuine, and if genuine what their testimony is. \\'e can say positively, however, that there was an ancient people who lived here in Howard count\-, who made considerable progress in the arts and sciences in civilization, who had settled homes, who cleared away the forests and engaged in agriculture in perhaps a crude manner compared with our twentieth century methods, and who carried on a limited commerce, using Wildcat and its tributaries as their highway, carrj'ing it in canoes or rude boats made with their very primitive tools, and that after a long occupancy they were driven out by a savage people, who, so far as we know, remained in possession of the countr)' initil the coming of the Europeans in recent times.

It would certainly be a matter of very great satisfaction to be able to give the origin of the Mound Builders or their successors, the red men, but we are ini complete ignorance, and mere conjecture is idle. The various conjectures found in our school histories attempting to account for the origin of these people are certainly unworthy the place they occupy in teaching the young. That they are or were the descendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel is absurd. That they are or were the descendants of the Tartars who crossed by the way of Behring strait and spread out over America was well answered by Little Turtle, who, when it was suggested to him that the Tartars and Indians resembled each other, that Asia and .\merica at Behring strait were only a few miles apart and that the Indians were probably descendants of the Tartars, replied : "Why should not these Tartars who resemble us have come from America? Are there any reasons for the contrar\^? Or why should we not both have been bom in our own country?" The other suggestion that Europeans sailing by way of Iceland and Greenland reached the mainland of America and settled it, becoming Indians, is no better. Tlie better explanation seems to be that the Indian is a distinct type of mankind ; that the ]^Iound Builders were the highest examples of this Indian type, and that the Indians peopled this continent in very ancient times.

The Indians

The inference seems fair that the ancestors of the Indians who dwelt here at the discoveiy of America by Columbus were the barbarous and warlike people who choxe out the Mound Builders, for when European explorers first became acquainted with the Indians dwelling in that region, which had fomierly been the country of the Mound Builders, they found two powerful Indian families - the Algonquin and the Huron-Iroquois.

At the beginning of the seventeenth centuiw the Algonquins numbered a quarter of a million people. The tribes of this great family were nomadic in their habits, roaming from one hunting ground and river to another, according to the exigencies of the chase and fishing. Agriculture was little esteemed. They were divided into many subordinate tribes, each having a local name, dialect and tradition. When the European settlements were planted the Algonquin race was already declining in numbers and influence. Wasting diseases destroyed whole tribes. Of all the Indians the Algonquins suffered most from contact with the white man. Before his aggressive spirit, his fiery rum and his destructive weapons the warriors were unable to stand. The race has withered to a shadow and only a few thousands remain to rehearse the story of their ancestors.

the country reaching from the Georgian Bay and Lake Huron to Lakes Erie and Ontario, south of these lakes to tlie of the upper Ohio, and eastward to the Sorel river. Within this extensive district was a confederacy of vigorous tribes having a common ancestiT and generally, though not always, acting tog"ether in war. This confederacy was nearly always at war with the Algonquins. At the time of their greatest power and influence the Huron-Iroquois embraced no less than nine allied nations. These were the Hurons proper, living north of Lake Erie ; the Eries and Andastes, south of the same water; the Tuscaroras, of Carolina, who ultimately joined their kinsmen in the north ; the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas and Mohawks, constituting the fi\-e nations of New York - the Iroquois people.

The Warriors

The warriors of this great confederacy presented the Indian character in its most favorable aspect. They were brave, patriotic and eloquent, not wholly averse to useful industry. li\ing in respectable villages, tilling- the soil with considerable success, faithful as friends and terrible as enemies. It has been said of them that, knowing well the advantages of their position on the great waterways which led to the interior of the continent, they made themselves feared by all their race. From Canada to the Carolinas and from ]\Iaine to the Mississippi, Indian women shuddered at the name of the Ho-de-no-san-nee, while e\-en the bravest warriors of other triljes went far out of their way in the wintry forests to avoid an encounter with them. Within si.xty years from their first acquaintance with white men the Iroquois had become the 1)itterest foes of their nearest kinsmen - the Hurons - and had exterminated them; also the Eries and Neutrals about Lake Erie and the Andastes of the

Upper Susquehanna, while they had forced a humiHating peace upon the Delawares, the most powerful of the Algonquins. and had driven the Ottawas from their home upon the river which bears their name. Their government and laws, similar to those of the United States, guaranteed to the people of the tribes the right to manage their local affairs in their own way, subject only to the general and foreign polity of the confederacy. Their union was based upon pure principles of friendship and voluntaiy adhesion. One of their chiefs, Canassatego, in 1774 delivered a speech to the commissioners of Pennsylvania, Virginia and Maryland, announcing the basis of their union. He said : "Our wise forefathers established amity and union between the five nations. This has made us fonuidable. This has given us great weight and authority with our neighboring nations. \\'e are a powerful confederacy, and by observing the sane methods our wise forefathers have taken, you will acquire fresh strength and power. Therefore I counsel you. whatever befalls you, never to fall out with one another."

The local Indian history of Howard county is confined chiefly to the three Algonquin tribes - the Delawares, Pottawottamies and Rliamis. The Miamis held the territory south of the Wabash river from Ohio to Illinois, also a part of the territoiy north of the ^^'abash from the site of Peru eastward ; the Pottawottamies the northwestern part of the state to the \\'abash river, and the Delawares the territory along the \Miite ri\-er ; but on terms of friendship each used the territoiy of Howard county as hunting and fishing ground. The Delawares were once the most powerful of the Algonquins and dwelt along the Delaware river. They claimed that in the past tlie\- held an eminent position for antiquity, wisdom and valor. This claim seems to have been well founded, as the neighboring- Indian tribes were disposed to concede it. In their wars with the Iroquois they were defeated and reduced to a state of vassalage. In 1744. during the progress of the treaty negotiations at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, the Iroquois denied the Delawares the right to participate in the privileges incident to the treaty and refused to recognize them as an independent nation, entitled to the right to sell and transfer lands. The Iroquois chief upbraided them for attempting to exercise any other rights than such as belonged to a conquered nation or people. Arrogantly he bade them to make no reply, but to lea\e the council in silence. He ordered them in a peremptory manner to lea\e the lands where they then resided and go to the Susc|uehanna. In silence they went otit and not long afterward they left fore\'er their homes and happy hunting grounds on the banks of the Delaware and sought a new home on the Pennsylvania frontier, humiliated and ^-ery unhappy in the memory of their former high estate and greatness. The encroaching white man and die hostile Irnquois left them no peace in their new home and again in 1751 they started for the far ^^'est and founded a settlement on the White river in Indiana. Here a missionarv' effort was made to introduce Christianity among them. This was frustrated by the Prophet, a brother of Tecumseh, who was then very popular among the Indians. In the ^^'ar of 1812 the Delawares refused to join Tecumseh in his hostilities against the United States, but remained faithful to the states. In 181 8 eighteen hundred of them, leaving a small ])and in Ohio, moved westward again and settled on the White ri\er in ^Missouri. Soon they moved again, some going to the Red river, but the larger number were settled by treaty upon the Kansas and Missouri rivers. They numbered about one thousand and were brave, enterprising- hunters on the plains, cultivated the soil and were friendly to the whites. The Baptists and ^Methodists had mission schools among them and bulk a church. They suffered much from lawless whites and hostile Sioux. The Kansas Delawares during the Civil war were strong Unionists and sent one hundred and sevent}' out of two hundred and ten able-bodied men into the Union sen'ice and proved efficient soldiers and guides to the Union army.

The Pottawattomies

From their home in the northwestern part of the state the Pottawattomies kept pushing out upon the ancient possessions of the Miamis and were familiar objects to the early settlers of Howard county. Of these Indians we quote : "At the beginning of the seventeenth centuiy they occupied the lower peninsula of Michigan apparently in scattered bands, independent of each other, there being at no period in their history any trace of a general authority or government. They were hunters and fishers, cultivating a little maize, but warlike and frequently in collision with neighboring tribes. They were finally driven west by the tribes of the Iroquois family and settled on the islands and shores of Green Bay, and the French established a mission among them. Perrot acquired great influence with the tribe, who soon took part with the French against the Iroquois. Owangnice. their chief, was one of the parties to the Montreal treaty of 1701 and they actively aided the French in the subsequent wars. They gradually spread over what is now southem Michigan and upper Illinois and Indiana, a mission on the St. Joseph river being a sort of central point. The Pottawattomies joined Pontiac and surprised Fort St. Joseph, capturing Schlosser, the commandant. May 25, 1763. They were hostile to the Americans in the Revolution and subsequently, but after ^^'ayne's victory joined the treaty of Greenville, December 22. 1795. The trilKS comprising the families or clans of the Golden Carp Frog. Crab and Tortoise were then composed of the St. Joseph, Wabash and Huron river bands, with a large scattering population, generally called the Pottawattoraies of the Prairie, who were a mixture of many Algonquin tribes. From 1803 to 1809 the various bands sold to the government portions of lands claimed by them, receiving money and annuities. Yet in the War of 1812 they again joined the English, influenced by Tecumseh. A new treaty of peace was made in 181 5, followed rapidly by others, by which their lands were almost entirely conveyed away. A large tract was assigned to them on the Missouri, and in 1838 the St. Joseph band was cai"- ried ofif by troops, losing one hundred and fifty out of eight hundred men on the way by death and desertion. The whole tribe then numbered about four thousands. The St. Joseph, Wabash and Huron bands had made progress in civilization and were Catholics, while the Pottawattomies of the Prairie were still roving and pagan. A part of the tribe was removed with some Chippewas and Ottawas, but they eventually joined the others or disappeared. In Kansas the civilized band with the Jesuit mission founded by DeSmet and Hoecken advanced rapidly with good schools for both sexes. A Baptist mission and school was more than once undertaken among the less tractable Prairie band, but was finally abandoned.

The Kansas trouble brought difficulties for the Indians, made the Prairie band more restless and the civilized anxious to settle. A treaty proclaimed April 19, 1862, gave individual Indians a title to their several tracts of land under certain conditions, and thougli delayed by the Civil war, this policy was carried out in the treaty of Febniary 27, 1867. Out of the population of two thousand one hundred and eight)^ fourteen hundred elected to become citizens and take lands in severalty and seven hundred and eighty to hold lands as a tribe. Some of the Prairie band were then absent. The experiment met with varied success. Some did well and improved, others

The Miamis

\Vhen the Europeans first became acquainted with the Indians the Miamis were a leading and powerful branch of the Algonquin family. The trite has been known by a variety of names, the first probably having been "Twa Twas," followed by "Twe Twees," "Twighwess," "Omees," "Omamees." "Aumannees." and finally as the Miamis. Bancroft says of them : "They were the most powerful confederacy in the West, excelling the Six Nations (Iroquois). Their influence reached to the Mississippi and they recei\ed frequent visits from tribes beyond the river." Mr. LaSalle says : "When the Miamis were first invited by the French authorities to Chicago in 1670 they were a leading and very powerful Indian nation. A body of them assembled near that place for war against the powerful Iroquois of the Hudson and the still more powerful Sioux of the upper Mississippi. They numbered at least three thousand warriors, and were under the lead of a chief who never sallied forth but with a bodyguard of forty warriors. He could at any time call into the field an anny of three thousand to five thousand men."

The Miamis were first known to Europeans about the year 1669 in the vicinity of Green Bay, where they were first visited by the French missionary. Father Allouez. and later by Father Dalton. From this region they passed south and eastward around the southern point of Lake Michigan, occupying the regions of Chicago and later establishing a village on the St. Joseph, another on the Miami and another on the \\'abash. The territory claimed by this confederacy at the close of the eighteenth centuiw is clearly set forth by their chief. Little Turtle, in a speech delivered by him at the treaty at Greenville, July 22, 1795, in which he said: "General Wayne. I hope you will pay attention to what I now say to you. I wish to inform you where your younger brothers, the Miamis, live, and also the Pottawottamies of St. Joseph, together with the Wabash Indians. You have pointed out to us the boundary line between the Indians and the United States, but now I take the liberty to inform you that that line cuts off from the Indians a large portion of country which has been enjoyed by my forefathers from time immemorial without molestation or dispute. The prints of my ancestors' houses are everywhere to be seen in this portion. I was a little astonished at hearing you and my brothers who are now present telling each other what business you had transacted together at Muskingum concerning this countiy. It is well known by all my brothers present that my forefather kindled the first fire at Detroit ; from thence he extended his line to the headwaters of the Scioto, from thence to its mouth, from thence down the Ohio to the mouth of the Wabash river, and from thence to Chicago on Lake Michigan. At this place I first saw my elder brothers, the Shawnees. I have now informed you of the boundary line of' the Miami nation, where the Great Spirit placed my forefather a long time ago and charged him not to sell or part with his lands, but to preserve them for his posterity. This charge has been handed down to me. I was much surprised to find that my other brothers difi^ered so much from me on this subject, for their conduct would lead one to suppose that the Great Spirit and their forefathers had nnt given them the same charge that was given to me, Ixit, on the contrar}-, had directed them to sell their land to any white man who wore a hat as soon as he should a.sk it of them. Xow, elder brother, your younger brothers, the Miamis, have pointed out to you their counti-y, and also our brothers present. When I hear _\iiur remarks and proposals on this subject I will be ready to gi\-e you an answer. I came with

Little Turtle

Little Turtle was probably the ablest and -most illustrious of the Miami chieftains and has set forth most accurately the claims of the Miamis to territory and their policy of retaining it. The claim he put forth included all of Indiana, a part of eastern Illinois, southern Michigan and western Ohio. It is a noteworthy fact that all the treaties they made in which they sold lands to the United States government were after they had suffered overwhelming defeats.

In the early Indian wars the Miamis were the enemies of the English and the friends of the French. Aftenvards in the trouble between the king and the colonies they were generally the allies of the English and the foes of the States. They looked upon the approach of the white man with the deepest distrust, fearing degradation, destruction and ultimate extinction. They loved their native forests, worshiped freedom and hated restraint. They feared the advance of invaders and abhorred the forms of civilization. It is said the Miamis were early and earnestly impressed with a fearful foreboding of ultimate ruin, and therefore seized upon every opportunity to terrify, destroy and drive back the invading enemy. Their chiefs, their officers and warriors -were found in the fiercest battles in the most desperate places. They bared their savage forms to civilized bullets and bayonets and died without a murmur or a groan. In their treatment of the whites they were as savage as they were brave. The}- often murdered the defenseless pioneer without regard to age. sex or condition with the most shocking and brutal savager}-. X'ot only men Init lielpless women and children were burned to death or cut to pieces in the most painful manner

As against Anglo-Saxon armies no tribe did more to stay the tide of civilization or the flow of emigration into their venerated forests and none record so many victories with so few defeats. Their love for the land of their fathers, for their forest homes burned in their barbarous bosoms with an intensity that pleads some extenuation for their savage cruelty. They were a leading power in defeating- General Braddock in 1755, and from that time fonvard the blood of the Miamis moistened nearly every battlefield.

The following sketches are taken from Drake's "Indians of North America :" We now pass to a chief far more prominent in Indian histoiy than many who have received greater notice from historians. This was Mishikinakwa (by no means settled in orthography), which, interpreted, is said to mean Little Turtle.

"Little Turtle was chief of the Miamis, and the scenes of his warlike achievements were in the countiw of his birth. He had in conjunction with the tribes of that region successfully fought the amiies of Hamiar and St. Clair, and in the fight with the latter is said to have had the chief command, hence a detailed account of the affair belongs to his life.

The Western Indians

"The western Indians were only emboldened by the battles betweai them and detachments of General Hannar's army in 1790. and under such a leader as Mishikinakwa they entertained sanguine hopes of bringing the Americans to their own temis. One murder followed another in rapid succession, attended by all the horrors peculiar to their warfare, which caused President Washington to take the earliest opportunity of recommending congress to adopt effi- cient measures for checking these calamities, and two thousand men were immediately raised and put under the command of General St. Clair, then governor of the Northwest Territoiy. He received his appointment on the 4th of March, 1791. and proceeded to Fort Washington by way of Kentucky with all dispatch, where he arrived on the 15th of May. There was much time lost in g"etting- the troops collected at this place, General Butler with the residue not arriving until the middle of September. There were various circumstances to account for the delays which it is not necessary to recount here. Colonel Drake proceeded immediately on his arrival, which was about the end of August, and built Fort Hamilton on the Miami, in the country of Little Turtle, and soon after Fort Jefferson was built forty miles farther onward. These two forts being left manned, about the end of October the army advanced, being about two thousand strong, militia included, whose numbers were not inconsiderable, as will appear by the miserable manner in which they not only confused themselves but the regular soldiers also.

"General St. Clair had advanced about six miles in front of Fort Jefferson when sixty of his militia, from pretended disaffection, commenced to retreat, and it was discovered that the evil had spread considerably among the rest of the anny. Being fearful that they would seize upon the convoy of provisions the general ordered Colonel Hamtranack to pursue them with his regiment and f^rce them to return. The army now consisted of fourteen hundred effective men, and this was the number attacked by Little Turtle and his warriors fifteen miles from the Miami villages. Colonel Butler commanded the right wing and Colonel Drake the left. The militia were posted a cjuarter of a mile in advance and were encamped in two lines. The troops had not finished securing- their baggage when they were attacked in their camp. It was their intention to march immediately upon the Miami villages and destroy them. The savag:es being apprised of this acted with great wisdom and firmness. They fell upon the militia before sunrise November 4th. The latter at once fled into the main camp in the most disorderly manner, many of them having thrown away their guns were pursued and slaughtered.

"At the main camp the first was sustained some time by the g"reat exertion of the officers, but with great inequality, the Indians under Little Turtle amounting to fifteen hundred warriors. Colonels Drake, Butler and Major Clarke made several successful charg'es. which enabled them to save some of their number by checking the enemy until flight was more practicable. Of the Americans five hundred and ninety-three were killed and missing, besides thirty-eight officers, two hundred and forty-two soldiers and twentyone officers were wounded, many of whom died. Colonel Butler was among the slain. The account of his fall is shocking. He was severely wounded and left on the field. The well known and infamous Simon Girty came up to him and observed him writhing under the severe pains from his wounds. Girty knew and spoke to him. Knowing that he could not live, the colonel begged of him to put an end to his misery. This Girty refused to do, but turned to an Indian and told him that the officer was the commander of the army, upon which the Indian drove his tomahawk into the colonel's head. A number of others came aniund, and after taking off his scalp they took out his heart and cut it into as many pieces as there were tribes in the action and divided it anmng them. All manner of brutal acts were committed on the bodies of the slain. It need not be mentioned, for the observers of Indian affairs know that land was the main cause of this as well as all other wars between the Indians and the whites, and hence it was easy to account for the Indians filHng the mouths of the slain with earth after this battle. It was actually the case, as reported by those who visited the scene of action and buried the dead.

Account Of The Defeat

"General St. Clair was called to account for this disastrous campaign and was honorably acquitted. He published a narrative in vindation of his conduct, which at this day few will think required. What he says of his retreat we will give in his own words: 'The retreat, you may be sure, was a precipitate one. It was, in fact, a flight. The camp and the artillery were abandoned, but that was unavoidable, for not a horse was left to draw it off had it otherwise been practicable. But the most disgraceful part of the business is that the greatest part of the men threw away their amis and accoutrements even after the pursuit, which continued about four miles, had ceased. I found the road strewn with them for many miles, but was unable to remedy it, for, ha\-ing had all my horses killed and being- mounted upon one that could not be pricked out of a walk, I could not get forward myself, and the orders I sent forward either to halt the front or prevent the men from parting \\ith their arms were unattended to. The remnant of the anny arrived at Fort Jefferson the same day just before sunset, the place from whence they fled being twenty-nine miles distant.' General St. Clair did eveiything that a brave general could do. He exposed himself to every danger, having during the action eight bullets shot through his clothes. In no attack on record did the Indians discover greater bravery or determination. After giving the first fire they rushed forward with towahawk in hand. Their loss was inconsiderable, but the traders afterwards learned among them that Little Turtle had one huii(h-ed and fifty killed and many wounded. They rushed on the artillery, heedless oi their fire, and took two pieces in an instant. They were again retaken by the troops, and whenever the army charged them they were seen to give way, and advanced again as soon as they began to retreat. Six or eight pieces of artillery fell into their hands, with about four hundred horses, all the baggage, ammunition and provisions.

Government Disappointed

"This terrible defeat disappointed the expectations of the general government, alarmed the frontier inhabitants, checked the tide of emigration from the eastern and middle states and many fearful, frightful and horrible murders were committed upon white settlers. St. Clair resigned the office of major general and Anthony Wayne, a distinguished officer of the Revolutionaiy war, was appointed in his place. In the month of June, 1792, he arrived at Pittsburg, the appointed place of rendezvous. On the 28th of November. 1792. the army left Pittsburg and moved down the Ohio about twenty miles to a point called Legionville, where they remained until April 30, 1793, and then moved down the river to Fort Washington (Cincinnati) and encamped near the fort at a place called Hobson's Choice. They were kept here until the 7th of October, and on the 23d of the same month they arrived at Fort Jefferson with an effective force of three thousand six hundred and thirty men. together with a small number of friendly Indians froni the South. On the 8th of August, 1794, they arri\-ed at the confluence of the rivers Auglaize and Maumee, where they built Fort Defiance. It was the general's design to have met the enemy unprepared in this move, but a fellow deserted his camp and notified the Indians. He now tried again to bring them to a reconciliation, and so artful were the replies he received from them it was some time revohed in his mind whether they were for peace or war. At length, being fully satisfied, he marched down the INIaumee and arrived at the rapids on the i8th of August, two days before the battle. His army consisted of three thousand men, two thousand of whom were regulars. Fort Deposit was erected at this place for the security of the supplies. They now set out to meet the enemy, who had chosen their position on the banks of the river with much judgment. The troops had a breastwork of fallen trees in front and the high, rocky shore gave them much security, as also did the thick woods of Presque Isle. The force was divided and disposed at supporting distances for about two miles. When the -\mericans had arrived at a proper distance a body was sent out to begin the attack with orders to rouse the enemy from the covert at the point of the bayonet, and when up to deliver a close fire upon their backs and press them so hard as not to give them time to reload. This order was so well executed, and the battle at the point of attack so short, that only about nine hundred Americans participated in it. But they pursued the Indians with great slaughter through the woods to Fort Maumee, where the carnage ended. The Indians were so unexpectedly driven from their stronghold that their ntmibers only increased their distress and confusion, and the cavalr\- made horrible havoc among them with their long sabers. Of the Americans there were killed and wounded about one hundred and thirtj-. The loss of the Indians could not be ascertained, but must have been ven,'^ severe. The -\merican loss was chieflj- at the commencement of the action as they advanced upon the mouths of the Indian rifles. They maintained their coverts but a short time, being forced in ever}' direction by the bayonets. But until that was effected the Americans fell fast and we only wonder that men could be found to thus advance in the face of certain death. It has been generally said that had the ad- vice of Little Turtle been regarded the disastrous fight with General Wayne would not ha\-e occurred. He was not for fighting General ^^'ayne at Presque Isle, and rather inclined to peace than fighting him at all. In a council held the night liefore the battle he argued : 'We beaten the enemy twice under separate commanders. ^^'e cannot expect the same good fortune to always attend us. The Americans are now led by a chief who never sleeps: the night and the day are alike to him, and during all the time he has been marching on our villages, notwithstanding the watchfulness of our }oung men. they have never been able to surprise him. Think well of it. There is something whispers to me it would be well to listen to his offer of peace.' For using such language he was reproached by another chief with cowardice, which put an end to further discourse. Xothing wounds the feelings of a warrior like the reproach of cowardice, but Little Turtle stifled his resentment, did his duty in battle, and its issue proved him a truer prophet than his accuser believed."

General A\'ayne's victor}' broke the ix)wer of the iliamis. but they were not conquered, and were yet hostile to the invading whites. The government adopted a policy of conciliation, hoping to win them to friendship and peace. The government built Little Turtle a house upon Eel ri\er. twenty miles from Fort A\^ayne, to induce the other :\Iiamis to a like mode of life by their own exertions, but because they had to work for their homes and he had been given his they became envious and thus prejudiced the cause sought to be advanced and engendered hatred of Little Turtle by the other Indians. He was not a chief by birth, but had been raised to that position by his superior talents. This was a cause of much jealousy and en\-y at this time, as also a neglect of his counsel heretofore.

Drake says that Little Turtle was the son of a Miami chief by a ]\Iohegan woman. As the Indian maxim with regard to descents is precisely that of the civil law in relation to slaves, that the condition of the woman adheres to the offspring, he was not a chief by birth. Little Turtle died in the summer of 1812 at his home but a short time after the declaration of war against England by the United States. His portrait by Stewart graces the walls of the war ofifice of our nation. The following notice appeared in public prints at the time of his death at Fort Wayne in July. 1812 : "On the 14th inst. the celebrated Miami chief, Little Turtle, died at this place at the age of sixty-five years. Perhaps there is not left on this continent one so distinguished in councils and war. His disorder was the gout. He died in camp because he chose to be in the open air. He met death with great firmness. The agent for Indian affairs had him buried with the honors of war and other marks of distinction suitable to his character. He was generally in his time styled the Messissago Chief, and a gentleman who saw him soon after St. Clair's defeat says he was six feet high, about forty-five years of age, of a ver\- sour and morose countenance and apparently very ci-afty and subtle. He was alike courageous and humane, possessing great wisdom." The author before quoted says: "There have been few indi\-iduals among aborigines who have done so much to abolish the rites of human sacrifice. The grave of this noted warrior is shown to the visitor near Fort ^^'ayne. It is frequently visited by the Indians in that part of the countiy. by whom his memorv' is cherished with the greatest respect and veneration."

Treaty Of Greenville

Soon after General \A'a}-ne's victoiy the treaty of Greenville in 1795 followed. In that and subsequent treaties the government obtained large bodies of their lands. The Indian policy of the gov- emment was to purchase their lands, excepting what they themselves would cultivate, to lead them to agriculture instead of war and hunting, and to remove them west of the Mississippi as soon as it could be peacefully and justly done.

In the War of 1812 they again fought the United States and were whipped by the forces under Lieutenant Colonel Campbell on the 1 8th day of December, 18 12, in the southern part of what is now Wabash county, being the last battle of any note with the Miamis in this region. The expedition against them was resolved upon by General Harrison in November, 181 2. Six hundred mounted men and a small company of scouts and spies were accordingly sent out from Greenville, Ohio, in December under Lieutenant Colonel John B. Campbell, who reached the north bank of the Mississinewa, near the mouth of Josina creek, December 17, 1812, and surprised an Lidian village there, destroying it, killing eight warriors and taking forty-two prisoners. The troops then destroyed three other villages farther west on the river and encamped for the night. While holding a council of war on the morning of the i8th they were attacked by the Indians under Little Thunder in considerable force. The fight lasted about an hour, and the Indians were defeated, leaving fifteen dead upon the field and carrying many away in their retreat.

A portion of the tribe were then friendly to the United States, but they could not control the hostile portion. In 1818 a treaty was made with them, and again another on the north side of the Wabash river, just east of the city of Wabash, on the 26th day of October, 1826, by General John Tipton, then Indian agent, assisted by General Cass and James B. Ray. The place was called "Paradise Springs."

Indians Give Up Land

thousand and three tliousand people all told. They had acquired a bunimg desire for liquor, and drunkenness led to innumerable fights among the members of the tribe, and it is estimated that as many as five hundred were killed in eighteen years in these broils. In the treaty of October, 1826, the Indians gave up large quantities of land, but resented some valuable tracts, among which was a reservation beginning two and a half miles below the mouth of the Mississinewa, extending five miles up and along the Wabash, and north to the Eel river, including the present site of Peru, Indiana. In payment for this they received thirty-one thousand dollars in goods and thirty thousand dollars in cash immediately and twentysix thousand dollars in goods and thirty-five thousand dollars in cash in 1827, thirty thousand dollars in 1828 and twenty-five thousand dollars annually thereafter. In 1838 the Miamis numbered but ele\'en hundred, and in this year they sold to the go\-ernment one hundred and seventy-seven thousand acres of land in Indiana for three hundred and thirty-fi\'e thousand six hundred and eighty dollars, among- which was a seven-mile tract off of the west side of the "Resen-e" in what is now Cass, Howard and Clinton counties, which was transferred by the United States to the state of Indiana and by it the proceeds were used for the completion of the \\'abas]i and Erie canal from the mouth of the Tippecanoe river down. Previous to this a five-mile strip oft' of the north side of the "Resen-e" and on the south side of the ^^'abash ri\-er had been used in the same way to build the same canal down to the mouth of the Tippecanoe river, ^^'illiam Marshall, of Jackson county, Indiana, helped negotiate with the Miamis the treaty of November 28, 1840, at the "forks of the Wabash," in which they finally relinquished the tract known as the "Miami Resene," being all of their remaining land in Indiana, to the United States for the consideration of five hundred and fiftv thousand dollars and several smaller items, such as reser- vations, houses for their chiefs, etc. Tliree of these reservations He in Howard county. Previous to tliis, in 1834-1845, the Wea and Piankeshaw bands, three hundred and eighty-four in number, had moved to the south side of the Kansas river. By the treaty of 1840 the remainder agreed to remove at the expense of the United States in five years, but their departure was delayed until 1847, i" which year they were removed to the Marais des Cygnes, in the Fort Leavenworth agency. They were gathered to Peru for removal, and from there they were taken to Cincinnati and thence to their new home in the West beyond the Mississippi. Not all of the Miamis went. Many of them had renounced their tribal relations and elected to remain with their white brothers and to receive their interest on money held for them by the government through the special Indian agency at Peru. In 1875 there was disbursed at Peru twelve thousand dollars interest money. Some of these Indians own large fanns, well improved and with fine residences. Richardville was the successor of Little Turtle as the INIiami chief. His other name was Pee-jee-wah. He signed by his mark ( X ) the treaty of Greenville in August, 1795. From him Howard county was originally named Richardville county.

From the treaty at Greenville in 1795 the Miamis had continued to yield by purchase portions of their territory until 1838 only a part of the Miami reserve remained to them of that princely domain they once claimed as theirs. The Miami Indian reseiwe was originally thirty-six miles square, commencing- near the town of La Gro, on the Wabash, where the Salamonie; unites with the Wabash, numing thence through Wabash and Grant counties into Madison county: its southeast comer was about four miles southeast of Independence at the center of section 27, thence running south of west parallel with the general course of the \\'abash ri\-er across Tipton county and thrnugh tlie town of Tipton and crossing the west line of Tipton county about three miles from its southwest corner to where it intersects a line running north and south from Logansport, which is the western boundaiy of Howard coiuity, one mile west of rang-e line No. i east; thence north to Logansport ; thence up the Wabash to the mouth o'f the Salamonie, then embracing parts of Wabash, Grant, Madison, Tipton, Clinton, Cass and Miami counties, and all of Richardville (now Howard) county, and containing about eight hundred and thirty thousand acres.

Miamis In Howard

The IMiami Indian population of Howard county in 1S40 was about two hundred. The most important point of this population was the Indian village, Kokomo, on the south side of Wildcat, where South Kokomo is located. There were Indian villages south of Cassville and Greentown. There were "traces" or Indian paths from Kokomo down Wildcat and across to Frankfort and Thorntown ; from Kokomo to Peru by way of the \-illage of Cassville, and from Kokomo to Meshingomesia by way of a village south of Greentown. These paths were much used and well worn. It is said that Chief Pee-jee-wah, or Richardville, had four sons - Kokomoko, shortened to Kokomo (Black Walnut), Shock-o-mo (Poplar), Meshin-go-me-sia (Burr Oak), Shap-pan-do-sia (Sugar Tree).

Kokomoko, from whom the city of Kokomo was named, is said to have been bom alxiut 1775. and according to the most authentic reports he died in 1838. He was a strong and silent man, 'who left to the women and his three brothers the trading so common to the Miamis. He died in loneliness and was buried according to the customs of his people, although directed by white men. His remains now lie buried in the old cemeterv- at Kokomo.

be said tu have closed in tliis countn-, for while many Indians of that tribe remained, they adopted the manners, customs and style of living of the whites. It is proper and fitting" to close this chapter with a brief account of their government, customs and laws, as of a people whose work is done and whose history is of the past.

This Government

They were emphaticalh' a free people. Their government was democratic. Having no written language, they had no written laws defining their rights and duties, but they had usages and customs consented to and acquiesced in by the members of the tribe. No man's property or consent could be commanded except by his consent. War could not be declared nor peace concluded only through their ctnincils, in which women participated as well as men. They had no organized form of government. They had no officers chosen to enforce their unwritten laws. They had no courts of justice to right the wrongs done to each other or to mete out justice to the offender. There were certain customs and usages consented to and acquiesced in, granting to the party injured or his relatives redress for the wrong, but that redress was not afforded by governmental aid. If one stole from another the party aggrieved might by force or otherwise take twofold from the thief. Bancroft says: "Unconscious of political principles, they remained under the influence of instincts. Their forms of government grew out of their passions and wants and were therefore nearly the same. Without a code of laws, without a distinct recognition of succession in the magistracy by inheritance or election, government was conducted harmoniously by the influence of native genius, virtue and experience. Prohibitor}' laws were hardly sanctioned by savage opinion. The wild man hates restraint and loves to do what is right in his own eyes."

"The Illinois." writes IMarest, "are absolute masters of themselves, subject to no law." The Delawares. it was said, "are. in general, wholly unacquainted with civil laws and proceedings, nor have any kind of notion of civil judicatures, of persons being arraigned and tried, condemned or acquitted." As there was no commerce, m;) coin, no promissoi-y notes, no employment of others for hire, there were no contracts. Exchanges were but a reciprocity of presents, and mutual g'ifts were the only traffic. Arrests and prisoners, lawyers and sheriffs were unknown. Each man was his own protector, and. as there was no public justice, each man issued to himself his letters of reprisal and became his own avenger. In case of death by violence the departed shade could not rest till appeased by a retaliation. "His kindred would go a thousand miles for the puqjose of revenge, over hills and mountains, through large swamps full of grapevines and briars, over broad lakes, rapid rivers and deep creeks, and all the way in danger of poisonous snakes, exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, to hung-er and thirst. And blood being once shed, the reciprocity of attacks involved family in mortal strife against family, tribe against tribe, often continuing from generation to generation. Yet mercy could make itself heard, even among barbarians, and peace was restored by atoning presents, if they were enough to cover up the graves of the dead."

A tribe of Indians is a body of kindred, subdivided into the clan, the gens and the family. The gens constituted an organized band of relatives, the family the household. The name of the mother fiillows the children and fixes the line of kinship. If her father was a chief her son inherits the honor. In their domestic relations she is the head of the family and through her blood all property, political and personal rights, must descend. If she was a "Turtle" the name of all her children is "Turtle." and they are known as the Turtle gens, clan or famih'. .\n Indian man or woman may marrv a cousin on the father's side, but not on the mother's. The father, though a chief and crowned with a hundred victories, though he has Hned his wigwam, with the scalps of enemies, cannot cast upon his kin his property, his fame or name, and though he be Wolf, Beaver, Bear or Hare, the children are all "Turtle." Big, Black or Little "Turtle," as fancy may direct. It is not the province of the historian to say that the Indian rule as here set out is wrong and that the civilized rule is right. The Indian rule is certainly veiw close to nature.

Courtship

.\ man seeking a wife usuall}' cnnsults her mother, sometimes b_\- himself, sometimes through his mother. AMien agreed upon the parties usually comply, making promises of faithfulness to the parents of both. Polygamy was permitted but was practiced ^-er}- little. AA'ife Xo. I remained at the head of the family, while wife No. 2 l)ecame the sen-ant. Divorces are pennitted but do not often occur. The Indian's idea of marriage and divorce is well illustrated bv this anecdote: "An aged Indian, who for many years had spent much time 'in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, one day, about the year 1770. obsen-ed that the Indians had a much easier way of getting a wife than the whites, but also a more certain way of getting a good one. 'For,' said he, 'white man court - court maybe one whule year, maybe two years before he marry. \\'ell - maybe then be get a very good wife, but maybe not; maybe very cross. \\'ell, now, su]3pi>se cross. Scold so soon as get awake in the morning. Scold all day. Scold until sleep. All one - he must keep him. \\'hite ]>enple ha\e laws forbidding throw wife away, he be ever so cro.ss - must keep him alwa}-s. WeU. how does Indian do? Indian, when he sees industrious squaw, he go to him, place his two forefingers close aside each other, make two like one - then look squaw in the face. See him smile; this is all one. He say yes. So take him home - no danger he be cross. Xo, no; squaw know too well what Indian do if he cross. Throw him away and take another. Squaw love to eat meat : no husband no meat. Squaw do everything to please husband, he do everj-thing to please squaw - live happy." "

Domestic Life

The council of the tribe assigns to the gens a particular tract of land for cultivation. The woman council carefully divides and distributes that tract of land among the heads of the families, who are responsible for its cultivation. The crops are planted, cultivated and gathered by the squaws. The wigwam and all articles of the household belong to the woman and at her death descend to her eldest daughter or nearest of female kin. In their criminal code adultery is punished in the first offense by cropping the hair, repeated offenses by cutting the left ear. If the mother fails to inflict the penalty it is done by the council of women of the gens. Theft is punished by twofold restitution. It is tried by the council of gens, from which there is no appeal. ]\Iaiming is compounded and tried in the same wa}-. Murder is triable by the gens, but an appeal lies to the council of the tribes ; technical errors in the prosecution are proofs positive of defendant's innocence; if found guilty the friends of the accused must pay for the dead man, and on failure to do so the friends of the dead man may kill the murderer at pleasure, ^\'itchcraft is punishable by death, by tomahawking, stabbing or burning ; an appeal lies from the grand council of the trilje to the holy ordeal by fire. A circular fire is built, and if the accused can nm through it from east to west and from north to south without injur)^ he is adjudged innocent. Treason is punished with death and consists in first giving aid or comfort to enemies of the tribe, secondly in revealing the secrets of the medicine men.

Each tribe had a sachem or chief counselor in matters of peace, whose place was filled on his death by the election of another member of his family, usually his brother or his sister's son. Women as well as men \-oted at these elections. In times of war or other emerg'encies chiefs were chosen, who continued in office as long as they lived. Being chosen for personal qualities, such as wisdom, eloquence or braveiy, these chiefs were often very able men.

The sorcerers, called powwows or medicine men, had still greater power, owing to the superstition of the people. They really had some skill in healing sick persons by vapor baths and decoctions of roots and herbs, but to these rational remedies they added bowlings and incantations, which were supposed to frighten away the evil spirits that occasioned disease.

Religion

According to the dark notions of barbarians the Indians were a very religious people. The}- believed in a Great Spirit, the Master of Life, who had made the world, and whose bounty they celebrated by six annual thangsgivings - at the first flowing of maple sap, at planting, at the ripening of berries, when their green com was ready for eating, at haiwest and at New Year. They believed also in an evil spirit, who might bring upon them famine, pestilence or defeat in war, and whom they sought to appease by fastings and sacrifice. They expected another life after death, and desired to have their weapons, and sometimes a favorite dog, buried with them for use in the "happy hunting grounds." No matter how great the famine in the land, they provided the departed spirit with plenty of food ti) last it until its arrival at that bourne. Their heaven was limitless ])lains and lx)undless forests abounding in game of all sorts and flowing ri\-ers stocked with all manner of fish - a place where the imperfect conditions of this life for happiness would be perfect. They had no priesthood nor ceremonials of worship. As illustrating their religious ideas it is related that "In the year 1791 two Creek chiefs accompanied an American to England, where, as usual, they attracted great attention and many flocked around them, as well to ascertain their ideas of certain things as to behold the savages. Being asked their opinion of religion or of what religion they were, one made answer that they had no priest in their country, nor established religion, for they thought that upon a subject where there was no possibility of people agreeing in opinion, and as it was altogether a matter of opinion, it was best that every one should paddle his canoe in his own way." Dancing and singing were important parts of ever\^ religious observance. No sick person could be cured, no war planned and no treaty made without a dance, which oftai continued several days. Their musical instruments were drums, rattles and a nide kind of fliute. The war dance was common to all tribes, but each clan had peculiar dances of its own, sometimes numbering thirty or more.

Picture Writing

Though they had neither books nor writing, some Indian tribes practiced picture writing, which answered all their purposes. They had even a sort of musical notation, by which a leader could read off his song from a piece of birch bark marked with a stick. Beads made of shells or stone served them as money. Communion was the social law of the Indian race. In some of the "long houses" of the Iroquois twenty families were fed dail)^ from the common kettle of boiled com and beans. Hunters left their game to be carried home by other members of their clan while thev pushed on for fresh supplies.

The Indians were of an almost uniform dark brown color, with straight shining black hair and high cheek bones. With but few exceptions they were treacherous, cruel and revengeful. Often hospitable and friendly while at peace, they were merciless and brutal in war. Prisoners were tortured with fiendish barbarity. It was thought an ill omen for the conquerors if they failed to make their victims cry out with pain ; therefore, though they tore out bits of flesh with teeth or pincers night after night and at last roasted him in a slow fire, he continued to sing his death song with a calm, unwavering voice until his last breath released him from their torments.

Organization And Early History

Howard county was organized in 1844. For three years it was known as Richardville county in memory of the Miami Indian, Chief Richardville, the successor of Little Turtle.

The covinty was fomied wholly out of the Miami Indian Reserve. Ervin, Monroe and Honey Creek townships were a part of the seven mile strip sold off of the west side of the reseiwe and given by the government to the state of Indiana to use the proceeds of the sale of these lands for the completion of the Wabash and Erie canal. After the Indians had sold this strip, Ervin and Monroe townships had been annexed to Carroll county, which had been organized in 1828, and Honey Creek had been annexed to Clinton county, which had been organized about 1830. The remainder of the county was formed from their final sale of the "Reserve" in 1840 and on which the Indians were granted five years to give possession. The white man had possession of the territory surrounding the "Reser\e" ; he was anxious to move into the new possessions. It was to tlie in- coming tide of settlers a real "Promised Land". The Indians had chosen it from all their possessions as being the choice. It was a goodly land. It originally contained the choice lands from the Wabash southwards, along Big and Little Deer creeks, along Big and Little Wild Cats and tributaries and along Kokomo creek. While it was an almost unbroken forest, the trees were tall and stately, denoting a rich and productive soil. It is true that those early comers did not see in the giant poplar, walnut, ash and oak trees the wealth that a later generation would ha^-e found. In those vast sugar orchards they saw an obstruction to the use of the land as cultivated fields ; but in the rolling lands along the creeks they saw golden opportunities to make pleasant, comfortable homes.

To prepare this land for settlement as soon as the Indians should go, an act was passed by the legislature and approved Januaiy 15, 1844, to organize the county of Richardville. In the forming of Richardville county only Ervin and ]\Ionroe townships west of the boundary line were added to the county. Honey Creek township was not made a part until several years later. John jNIoulder, then of Parke county, Himelias Mendenhall, of Miami county. John Armstrong, of Carroll county, Oliver Raymond, of \\'abash caunty. and Samuel Calip, of Hamilton county, were appointed commissioners to permanently fix the seat of justice; and these commissioners were instructed to meet at the house of John Harrison in this county on the 2d Monday in ]\Iay, 1844, to proceed with their duty. And it was ordered by that act that on and after the ist day of May of that year, the county of Richard\ille should enjoy all the rights and jurisdiction which to a separate county belong. It was made the dutv of the sheriff of Carroll countv to notifv the commissioners of their appointment and place of meeting. By this act the circuit and other courts of RichardviUe county were ordered to l)e held at the house of John Harrison until other accommodations should be provided. The circuit court was ordered to be held on Thursday succeeding the court of Tipton county, and "shall continue three days if the business require it." Also by that act RichardviUe was attached to Carroll county for representative purposes, and to Carroll and Clinton for senatorial purposes. The house of John Harrison referred to in the act was about seven miles west of Kokomo, on the south side of A\'ild Cat creek, in the northwest quarter of section 2. It was a double log house, and the largest in this settlement.

The commissioners appointed to fix the county seat met at the time and place fixed in their order. All were present. Mr. Armstrong was a surv'eyor and had his instruments with him. There was a large gathering of pioneers at Harrison's. Some of them wanted the site of the county town at Harrison's, others at Cromwell's mill, about two miles east, but a large majority favored the site at Kokomo. The commissioners viewed the sites at Harrison's and Cromwell's mill and then came to Kokomo.

One House In Kokomo

There was then no improvements at Kokomo except Dax'id Foster's log house, log barn and a small clearing around them. On the south side there were two or three Indian huts and a small field. \\'hat is now the business district of Kokomo was covered with a dense furest i)f great trees and a thick undergrowth, the greater part being swampy, presenting a very uninviting appearance.

The commissioners examined both sides of \\'ild Cat and unanimciusly decided that the south side should be .selected. Foster refused t(i make the dimatiim on the snuth side, alleging, it is said, that the south side was dry and very fertile and well suited for the making- of a good farm, while the north side was swampy, hard to clear and not \-ery fit for a farm. The commissioners remained with him two days trying* to induce him to yield to their choice. He was obdurate and the commissioners finally agreed to the site on the north side. His donation was forty acres. The donation as made by Foster and accepted by the commissioners began at the northwest corner of the LaFountain Reserve, thence east with the north line of the Resen-e to the west side of Union street, thence south along the west side of Union street to a point about seventy-four feet south of High street, thence west to a point abi^ut one hundred feet west of Washington street, thence north to the beginning. By agreement the rude fence on the north line of the cleared "patch" about the house and bam was to be the south line of the donation, and the north line of the float section was to be the north line of the donation. Looked at from a present day standpoint this was a magnificent donation. In that early day it was far different. Xo lands had been surve}'ed east of the boundary line except the Indian Reserve, of which this was a part. The time of the Indians had not then expired and they were still in the neig'hborhood. Lands were rated as worth two dollars an acre.

In addition to the donation of land, Foster paid the expenses of the locating commissioners. They made their report to the county commissioners in called session on the 17th day of August following recommending the acceptance of the Foster donation. The county commissioners formally accepted the report, and David Foster delivered the deed to the land December 5th following.

First Elections Of Howard Couxty

was at the house of John Harrison and included all the voters in that part then attached to Carroll county. Twenty-four \-otes were cast and resulted in a tie; twelve Democrat and twelve Whig votes. The first election under the count)' organization was held May 27, 1844, at which the following county officers were chosen: clerk, Franklin S. Price; auditor, Benjamin Newhouse; recorder, Austin North; treasurer, Harless Ashley; sheriff, John Harrison; county commissioners, John Lamb, Benjamin Fawcett and David Bailey.

The county commissioners held their first meeting June 17th, following their election, meeting at the home of John Harrison. At this session they divided the county into three townships ; the west one being Monroe and including all west of the boundary line, the middle one Kokomo, extending from the boundary line east to a line running north and south through or near Vermont and all the remainder formed Greene township. Little else was done at this session.

The regular session, meeting on the ist ]\Ionday in September, was held at David Foster's. At this term Peter Gay was appointed county agent and Austin C. Sheets, county sur\-eyor, who was directed to plat the donation into town lots and thus to make the beginning of Kokomo. The other sulxirdinate officers were appointed so that the local government was ready for the county. The first tax levy was also made, consisting of twenty-five cents on each one hundred dollars valuation and twenty-five cents poll tax.

At the December term, 1844, the board ordered an election to be held in each of the three townships on the 3d Monday in January, 1845, to elect a justice of the peace for each township. At this tenn they granted the first retail liquor license to Charles J. Allison. His license fee was ten dollars. In the succeeding year the commissioners raised the fee to fifty dollars. Mr. Allison was the first licensed retail liquor seller in Howard county; he was also tlie first liquiir law violator, ha\-ing been indicted for \-iolating the license law while holding this first license. At the September term Charles Price had been appointed county assessor: and at this term he was allowed thirty-four dollars and fifty cents for his services in making the assessment for the whole county. At this term the commissioners acted upon the first road report. During the early history of the county much of the time of the board of commissioners was taken up in ordering the location of roads or public highways, and in hearing reports of such roads as were located. As showing the lack of accuracy and permanency of much of the work then done, a few of these reports are here transcribed. The first report was made by Isaac Price, Jonathan Hayworth and J. C. Barnett. viewers : "In pursuance of the order of the board, we have viewed and laid out a road of public utility, to-wit : Beginning at the fi:)rks of Honey Creek, and running the nearest and best route in the direction of Peter Duncan's ta\-ern, on the Michigan road, ending at the county line."

The Board Of Commissioners

J. C. Barnett and J. C. Chitwood made this report on a road they were ordered to view : "We viewed the same, commencing near the southwest corner of section 30, in township 24 north of range 2 east: thence northeast to the south end of Abraham Brubaker's lane : thence through said lane to the north end of the same ; thence northeast to the quarter post between Judge Ervin and \\'illiam Cullup's farms: thence north to Judge En'in's fence: thence northeast along said fence to the mouth of Judge Ervin's lane: thence through said lane: thence northeast to the northeast corner of section 29 and so on, and report the same of public utility." In a few years this road was lost and could not be found. Ar.other countv road was located bv Rich Staunton and George Tavlor. as follows : "Commencing- at Xew London ; tlience with the Delplii and Aluncie state road to INlr. Walls' ; thence east via Miles Judkin's lane to James Shank's on Little Wild Cat; thence east to Laomi Ashle}-'s; thence east to a school house near McCune's."

It must be remembered that these were the pioneers of a new countr}' : that they were very busy in clearing and making farms (Hit of the wilderness as well as attending to the public business: and that they had enough to do in loijking after the pressing needs of the hour without planning f(ir the future.

At the ]\Iarch term, 1845. '^lis board took preliminary steps f(ir the building (if a court house. Thej' decided that it should be twent_\--four feet square, two stories high, and built out (jf hewn logs, and covered with boards three feet long and showing one foot to the weather. Da\i(l Foster and Dennis McCormack were appcjinted to let the contract, which \\-as taken by Rufus L. Blower at t\vent_\--eight dollars.

-Vrrangements also were c<immenced for the building of a jail. This was luiilt of hewn timl^ers twe1\-e inches square throughout, walls, rtcior and ceiling; the logs notched down close and boarded on the outside, and double doors of two-inch oak plank. The lock to the door was made by Judge Thomas A. Long; the key was aljout ten inches long and weighed about four pounds. The building was to be eighteen feet b}' tweh-e feet in the clear.

At this session the report of T. A. Long, one of the commissioners appointed by the legislature to view a state road from Burlington, in Carroll county, by the way of Kokomo to Marion, in (".rant county, was made to the board, this being the first state road through the county.

Alost of the time of the board was taken up in making orders directing various officers and other persons to perform certain services for the public good, and in appointing various petit officers in the townships where the rapidly increasing settlement of the country seemed to demand it, and the looking after pubHc property as is evidenced by this order: "It appearing to the satisfaction of this court that H. C. Stewart has taken eight pieces of plank from the court house, and that others have done the same, it is ordered that David Foster be requested to call on all such persons as have taken lumber and require them to return it in fifteen days."

It was no unusual thing in those days for persons to use any lumber lying around loose. Lumber was very scarce and in great demand in fitting up houses to live in, and only one slow going saw mill in many miles. It seems the lumber was returned as there is no further mention of it.

At the September term, two state roads were located : one from Kokomo to ]Michiganto\\n and one from Kokomo to Peru. At the December term, the court house was accepted of the contractor, R. L. Blower, after deducting- two dollars from the contract price for some defect in the work.

At the June term, 1846, Harles Ashley, the first county treasurer, made his first report to the county commissioners, showing the receipts and expenditures for the first year of the county: "Received for the year ending June ist, one thousand twenty-one dollars and forty-four cents : paid out for the same time nine hundred and eighty-four dollars and fifty-one cents ; balance in treasury, thirtysix dollars and ninety-three cents." He was paid mie hundred and twenty-five dollars and twenty-five cents for his ser\'ices. The assessed \'aluation of personal property for the }-ear 1846 was sixty thousand one hundred and forty-diree dollars, real estate, fifty-eight thousand six hundred and ninety-five dollars, total, one hundred and eighteen thousand eight hundred and thirty-eight dollars. At the same term the lioard recei\'ed the jail of contractor, James H. Johnsim. paying him nne hundred and seventy-eight dollars and ten cents for its construction. At the December term. 1846, Howard county was subdivided into nine townships - Center, En-in, Monroe, Clay, Harrison, Taylor, Howard, Jackson and Greene. At this term the board appropriated one hundred dollars for the building" of a bridge across \\'ild Cat where the New London road crossed it.

The name Richard\-ille was n()t satisfactory; many advocated a change. In the discussions that followed, some advocated the union of Richardx'ille and Tipton with the county seat at Sharp.sville. Others advocated the division of the county and the formation of a county out of the western part of Howard and the eastern part of Carroll and the count}- seat to be at Burlington : others wanted a new name. X. R. Lindsay, a young attorney, was elected to the legislature this year and was a staunch friend to Kokomo remaining- the county seat, and at the convening of the legislature in Decenilier, 1846, he and John Bohan, C. D. ]Murry and Da\-id Foster were present as also were the friends of the other interests. The Hon. T. A. Howard, a popular Deniocratic politician, who had recently died, had many friends in the legislature who wished to perpetuate his memory. The friends of the county and the county seat. remaining- the same without change, took advantage of this sentiment and late in the evening a bill was prepared changing the name from Richard\-ille to Howard, and the ne.xt morning" upon the assembling" of the house, one of the friends of Howard, while the other parties were still in rooms near the legislature hall preparing bills to spring- upon the legislature, arose in his place and offered the following bill :

Sec. 2. Xothing- in this act contained shall be Sd construed as to in any manner affect an}- of tiie rights or habihties of said county or any of the citizens thereof, but the said county sliaH be entitled, under the name of Howard, to all the rights, and be subject t(j all the liabilities the present county of Richardville is entitled or liable Ux

Sec. 3. This act to take eft'ect and be in force from and after its passage and it is hereby made the tluty of the secretary of state to forward a certified copy of this act to the clerk of the circuit court of said county.

The liill was immediately put upon its passage, quickly taken to the other house and passed, taken to the governor and approved and the name was Howard before the others knew what was happening. It is related that some of the other parties coming in later ar.d calling up the matter of Richard\ille county, a member arose and called the gentleman to order saying - ""there was no such county as Richardville in Indiana: there was a county of Howard, but Richardville, Richardville - that county must be in some other state." A good natured laugh was had and after some explanation all seemed to be satisfied.

The act was approved by the Governor, December 28. 1S46, and the act was filed with the clerk of the circuit court on the 13th of February, 1S47, <'>i'"^l from that date all Inisiness was transacted in Howard county.

cents, expenditures one thousand one hundred and fifty-three dollars and thirty-three cents. The previous year the receipts were one thousand twenty-one dollars and forty-four cents and expenditures nine hundred and eighty-four dollars and fifty-one cents. For the following year, 1848. receipts were two thousand one hundred and ninety-seven dollars and eighty-six cents, expenditures one thousand six hundred and eighty-five dollars and ninety-seven cents. For the year 1849, receipts were two thousand eight hundred and ninety-two dollars and three cents, and expenditures two thousand four hundred and fifty dollars and fifty-six cents. For the year 1849 the assessed valuation of property was one hundred and forty-eight thousand three hundred and ninety dollars. The assessed valuation in 1846 was one hundred and eighteen thousand eight hundred and thirty-eight dollars.

These figures show a veiy gradual increase in Howard county values. It must, however, be borne in mind that the people who came to Howard county to make homes were of very limited means when they came here and any increase must come from the ground by their labor; that this land was covered with heavy forests that had to be largely cleared away before growing a crop. While clearing their lands they did well to provide themselves with food and clothing. The privation and hardships endured by them can not be realized by those who have never gone through similar experience. These men of limited means and opportunity for anything but hard work had 'all the public business to attend to in addition to making their clearings and paying for their lands when the time came for making the entries. They also came from different localities, each having a method of its own for transacting business, many of them without experience. Thus it is not a matter of wonder that much of their public work was crude and imperfect and without any regular form. Experience in their case proved a good teacher, and they soon acquired habits of correct and regular transaction of the pubHc business. It is said of the officers of these early years of the county, that they were not controlled by rings nor special interests ; that they put forth their best efiforts to serve the people. In 1853 Greene and Jackson townships were subdivided into three townships - Liberty, Jackson and Union, and in 1858 Samuel \\'oody and Elijah Johnson presented a petition of several citizens of Clinton county asking to be annexed to Howard county. Earl}^ in 1859 the fonnal proceedings were completed and Honey Creek township was added to the roll of Howard county townships, making, as it has since remained, a county of eleven townships.