Jay County, Indiana - The whole text, 1881 (part 3 of 11)

In November, 1864, Mr. Lincoln had been triumphantly re-elected to the Presidency, with Andrew Johnson as Vice-President On April 14, 1865, while the North was rejoicing over the capture of Richmond and the surrender of the Confederate armies, the President was assassinated at a theatre in Washington, by John Wilkes Booth, an actor ; while an accomplice attacked and nearly killed Mr. Seward, Secretary of State. The assassin was pursued and killed, and several of his accomplices tried and executed. Andrew Johnson became President. Jefferson Davis and the members of the Confederate government were supposed to be privy to the assassination of President Lincoln, and large rewards were offered for their apprehension. Mr. Dans was captured m Georgia, and placed in Fortress Monroe. The war was scarcely ended when 800,000 men were paid off, and mustered out of the service An amendment to the Constitution, forever abolishing slavery in the States and Territories of the Union, was declared ratified by two-thirds of the States, December 18, 180d ; and the President, who had pardoned most of those prominently engaged in "the great rebellion," in 1866 proclaimed the restoration to the Union of all the seceded States; but their Senators and Representatives were not admitted to take their seats in Congress, and only in 1872 were all the States fully represented.

Durino- the war the number of men called for by the I'ederal government was 2,759,019; the number actually furnished by the States was 2,656,553, when at the close of the war the drafts were discontinued. Of colored troops, mostly recruited from the slaves, there were 186,097. The Federal losses during the war are estimated at 275,000 men. The statistics of the Confederate forces are imperfect. In 1864, the army consisted of 20,000 artillery, 128 000 cavalry, 400,951 infantry; total, 549,220, commanded by 200 general officers. The Confederate losses are unknown.

The most important results of the war, however, were not accomplished by the cessation of hostilities; and in order to bring them about, and incorporate them irrevocably with the national institutions, three amendments to the Constitution have been passed by the States. The XHIth Amendment, abolishing slavery " within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction," was passed by Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified by twenty-seven States on December 18, 1865. The XlVth Amendment, concerning the rights of citizens representation, reconstruction, and the public debt, was adopted by Congress June 13, 1866, and ratified by the States July 20 1S68 The XVth Amendment, guaranteeing civil rights to all, " without distinction of race, color, or previous condition of servitude," was adopted by Congress February 27, 1869, and ratified by three-fourths of the States March 30, 1870. These amendments were the logical and inevitable result of the civil war, and their passage, together with the reconstruction ot the bonttjera States, which was finally accomplished in the year 1872, brought to a close the most melancholy chapter of American hl In'l868 General Ulvsses S. Grant, as candidate of the Republican party, was elected' President by a considerable majority over Horatio Seymour, the candidate of the Democratic party. He went into office March 4, 1869, and the principal events of his Presidency was the completion of the Pacific hailroad across the continent, which was opened May 10, 1869; and the Treaty of Washington, which settled the claims and several other long-outstanding disputes with England. This treaty was drawn by a Joint High Commission, comprising representatives of both countries, which sat in >V ashington from March 4 to May 6, 1871. New rules of international law were laid down, and the question of damages was referred to a Pwird of Arbitrators which met at Geneva, Switzerland, m April, 18(2, and in September, 1872, decided to allow $15/250,000 to the United States for damages sustained from the Alabama and other privateers which, escaping from English pol ls, preyed upon American commerce during the civil war. In 1S72 General Grant was a°-ain nominated for the Presidency by the Republicans, and election the venerabTSer of the Tribune and recent candi- passed by both Houses, with.^the limits of their constitutional date for the Presidency, died, mourned and regretted by the nation. At the close of the Forty-second Congress, March 3, 1873, a law was enacted by Congress, increasing the pay of Congressmen the President and various Government officials. It was made retroactive extending over the entire term of the Forty-second Congress, commencing March 4, 1871, and was a stench in the nostrils of the great mass of the American peop e. in September following, the most serious financial panic the Lepuulic has ever experienced commenced in New York, and spread throughout the country, prostrating its business industries, and leaving its blight for the five years following.

In the beo-inning of 1874 the United States narrowly escaped a war with Spain on account, of the capture of the Virginius, by the Cuban authorities. Morrison R. Waite, of Toledo, was made Chief Justice of the United States, and still occupies that high judicial position. Congress discussed financial measures for months, resulting in the passage, by both houses, of the Currency Bill, increasing the issue of paper money. President Grant vetoed the measure, and Congress failed to pass it over the veto.

The year 1876 became memorable as the Centennial year of the Republic, and was commemorated by the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. Nearly all the nations of the globe were represented. It was opened the 10th of May, and closed the 10th of

Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. Wheeler were nominated for the Presidency and Vice Presidency by the Republicans, and Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks by the Democrats. The campaign was the most closely contested of any in the annals of the Republic. The election on the 7th of November left the result doubtful for many months. Tilden had 184 electoral votes and Hayes, 173, with Florida and Louisiana uncertain - 185 being necessary to a choice. On the 6th of December all the electoral colleges met and cast their electoral votes. The boards in Florida and Louisiana were Republican and some of the returns were thrown out for alleged violence and intimidation, thus giving these States to Hayes and securing his election. It was maintained by the Democratic party that fraud only could bring about such a result, and double returns were forwarded to Congress, compelling that body to make the choice for President.

To settle the disputed election, Congress worked and worried until the latter part of January, 1877. A compromise bill was finally passed, which authorized an electoral commission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court, to which the points in dispute were submitted. Eight members of the commission proved to be Republicans, and seven Democrats. Every vote on the contested points invariably resulted eight Republican votes opposed to seven Democratic votes. The decision was made on party lines, and the disputed States were given to Hayes by eight votes over seven. This decision was to be final, unless the two Houses agreed to order otherwise. They could not so agree, and to the dissatisfaction of the Democracy, it was so decided. Returns were also received from two electoral colleges from Oregon and South Carolina, on technical grounds, which were also decided by the Commission with the usual eight to seven, in favor of the Republican candidate. Notwithstanding this recorded decision of the tribunal, the Democrats still believed that a thorough investigation would give the Presidency to their candidate.

Government. - The government of the United States is one of limited and specific powers ; strictly defined by a written constitution, framed by a convention of the States in 1787, which went into operation after being ratified by the thirteen original States in 1789, by which instrument the several states, having their independent republican' government conferred upon a Federal Congress Executive or President, and Judiciary, such powers as were necessary to " form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, and secure the blessings of liberty."

The legislative powers granted to the Federal government are vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof ; and a house of Representatives, consisting of one or more members from each State, elected by the people in equal electoral districts ; so that the States, large and small, have each two votes in the Senate, and from one to thirty-seven in the House of Representatives. The Senator must be at least thirty years old, and is chosen for six powers, become laws on receiving the sanction of the President; or, if returned with his veto, may be passed over, by two-thirds or both Houses.

By the Constitution, the States granted to Congress power " to lav and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for tbe common defence and general welfare of the United States;" to borrow money; to regulate commerce; to establish uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws; to coin money, and fix the standards of weights and measures, and punish counterfeiting; to establish post-offices and post-roads; to secure patents and copyrights ; punish piracies ; declare war ; raise armies and navy ; to call out the militia, reserving to the States to appoint their officers ; and to govern the District of Columbia, ami all places purchased for forts, arsenals, etc., with the cons art of the State Legislatures. All powers not expressly granted are reserved to the States or the people; but the States, though sovereign and independent under the Constitution, with all powers of local legislation, eminent domain (». e., absolute possession of the soil), and power of life and death, with which neither President nor Congress can interfere, cannot make treaties, coin money, levy duties on imports, or exercise the powers granted to Congress.

The Executive of the Federal government is a President, chosen by an electoral college, equal in number to the Senators and Representatives, elected by the people of the States. He must be a native of the United States, at least thirty-five years old, and is elected for a term of four years, and may be re-elected without limit; though a custom, datingfrom Washington's time, limits the incumbency to two terms. His salary is $25,000 a year. The Vice President, who, in case of the death of the President, succeeds him, is President of the Senate. If he should die after becoming President, his successor would be chosen by Congress. The President, by and with the consent of the Senate, appoints a cabinet, consisting of the Secretaries of State and Foreign Affairs, Treasury, War, Navy, Interior, tbe Postmaster-General, and Attorney- General. These officers have salaries of $8,000 a year, have no seats in Congress, and are solely responsible to the President, who also appoints directly, or through his subordinates, the officers of the army and navy - of which he is commander-in-chief - the justices of the Federal judiciary, revenue officers, post-masters, etc. - in all about 100,000 persons.

The President, either directly or through the Secretary of State and Foreign affairs, appoints ministers, consuls, and consular agents to "foreign countries. There are twelve envoys-extraordinary and ministers-plenipotentionary, receiving from $17,- 500 to $10,000 salary ; twenty-three ministers resident, $7,500 to $1,000. ...

The Judiciary consists of a supreme court, with one chief-justice and eight assistant justices, appointed by the President for life, and district judges in each district. The supreme court has jurisdiction in all cases arising under the Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States; causes affecting ambassadors and consuls, of admiralty and jurisdiction; controversies to which the United States is a party, or between a State and the citizens of another State, citizens of different States, or citizens and foreign States. It has original jurisdiction in State cases, or those affecting ambassadors or consuls - in others appellate. A person may be tried for treason, both against the l'ederal government and against the State of which he is a citizen. The President can reprieve or pardon a pei'son condemned by a Federal court ; but has no power to interfere with the judgments of State tribunals. Besides the supreme court, there are United States district courts, with judges, district attornevs, and marshals, in districts comprising part or whole of the several States. The citizens of each State are entitled to all privileges and immunities of the several States. Criminals escaping from one State to another are given up for trial on demand of the Executive; and the Constitution declares that " no person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor mav be due." The Constitution may be amended by a convention called at the request of two-thirds of the States ; or amendments may be proposed by a vote of twothirds of Congress, and ratified by two-thirds of the States; but " no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate."

In pursuance of the decision arrived at by the Electoral Commission, Rutherford B. Hayes resigned the Governorship of Ohio, muorarlcd to Washington, itnil wa* |wacetully inaugurated as the Nineteenth President of the United States, and became the President tie facte, although the Democratic party continued to hold that Samuel J. Tilden was President de jure. After the inaugural, however, the public mind, so long overstrained, relaxed, and political passion cooled. A blessed repose that was much needed fell upon the country. The depression in all the commercial and manufacturing interests throughout the country, which began m 1873, still continued, and the people looked forward with much anxiety to the linaneial condition of the Republic, and eagerly awaited the dawn of a revival of business interests. In his inaugural the President advocated the first step to more prosperous times to he a paper currency resting upon a coin basis, and at all times and promptly convertible into coin. To the South he extended the assurance that his earnest efforts would be put forth in behalf of a civil policy that should forever wipe out the distinction between North and South. He backed up his overtures to the South by selecting as one of the members of his Cabinet. Hon. David M.'lvey, of Tennessee, who' had been identified with the Rebellion. Thus, the Southern policy of the President seemed to give satisfaction for a time to a great majority of the people.

The question of finance and of relief from the business prostration of the country chiefly occupied the attention of pur national 'legislators until the day 'fixed for the resumption of specie payments - January 1, 1879. The great struggle of political parties for the ascendency was on the question of finance. At a special session of Congress, held in the fall of 1877, the enemies of resumption made a determined effort to defeat the measure. A hill to repeal the act of resumption was introduced into the House by General Ewing, of Ohio, and the financial battle again waxed fierce and hot on the floors of Congress. The roar of conflict on this great issue continued. Ewing, Garfield, Kelley and other great statesmen and leaders in our national councils crossed swords in the arena of debate on this great question which agitated the country from ocean to ocean.

1878. Here the attempt to suspend the rules, to concur in the Senate amendments, and pass tile bill, failed to receive the requisite two-thirds vote. Nearly two months after resumption was accomplished, another attempt was made to repeal the measure, but the House rejected the proposed repeal by a large vote. This ended the long record of financial discussion.

The Forty-sixth Congress, from 1879 to 1881, will be recorded in history as one of tbe most excited and troubled that the country had witnessed since the perilous times of 1860-'61-'62. A number of exciting questions had arisen since the winter of 1878-'79. The Forty-fifth Congress had failed to pass two of the twelve great appropriation bills, viz : the army bill, and the legislative, executive and judicial bill, together 'disposing of §45,000,000. This amount was needed to carry on the Government, and the failure to make the appropriation was extreme and unprecedented in our nation's history. Thus an extra session of Congress became ah absolute necessity. This began March 18, 1S79, and was the first session of the Forty-sixth Congress. For more than three months the struggle continued, ending with the appropriation of the §45,000,000, except 8000,000, which was also appropriated, less $7,400 in December following.

During the summer and fall of 1879, the Southern States of the Union were swept with the scourge of yellow fever to an extent without precedent in the history of that dread contagion. The frightful pestilence swept with its 'foul breath the most fertile fields and valleys, and the most isolated villages, as well as the crowded marts of trade and most densely populated cities of the South. Its heavy hand was laid upon New Orleans with a withering touch, while Memphis became literally the City of Desolation. The dire suffering of the people in hamlet and city appealed with mute eloquence to the people of the North, and met with a hearty response, and money, provisions, life's necessaries of every description, with medical skill, were lavished abundantlv. It was one more link in uniting the two extremes of the Union in the bonds of sympathy and fraternity of feeling.

Although a portion of the American people have always questioned Haves' title to the Presidency, yet there is an united verdict that his administration has been less tainted with the corruption of government officials than that of any previous administration perhaps in the annals of the Republic, at least since the days of Andrew Jackson. His wife, too, left her impress upon Washington circles, in whollv and absolutely discarding the use of intoxicating drinks from the White House. Her example is a monument

The year 1880 witnessed one of the most significant and important campaigns the country has ever known in the history of political parties. The Republican National Convention assembled at Chicago on the 2d of June, and continued in session seven days. In that convention was compressed the giant intellects of the, party, and for seven days, forensic tactics, logic and eloquence were marshaled in mighty conflict before a result was obtained. General Grant. Hon. James G. Blaine, Hon. John Sherman, Senators Windom, Edmunds and Washburne were successively named as nominees for the Presidency. Senator Conkling, of New York ; Cameron, of Pennsylvania, and Eogan, of Illinois, were the intellectual giants who urged the claims of General Grant. They presented a strong front, and their favorite went into the 'contest with a following of three hundred and four votes on the first ballot. Day after day the balloting proceeded, with varying fortunes among the several candidates, and throughout that stormy siege of seven (lays' duration the phalanx of Grant stood firm and- unshaken, going down in the decisive ballot with their ranks unbroken. The last two or three ballots indicated the change in the tide, when State after State wheeled into line in favor of Hon. James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and who, on the Sth day of June was declared the Republican nominee for the Presidency of the United States. Chester A. Arthur, of New York, was chosen as the candidate for Vice President.

On the 9th day of June the National or Greenback party held its convention also in Chicago, and chose as its standard-bearers, General James B. Weaver,' of Iowa, for President, and Hon. A. J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice President.

June 22d, the Democratic National Convention assembled in Cincinnati, and otiose General Winlield S. Hancock, as its candidate for President, and William H. English, of Indiana, for Vice President.

No political campaign was ever prosecuted with more intense earnestness, more partisan bitterness, more lavish display. It eclipsed the great campaign of I860, and went far ahead of the great hard-cider campaign of 1S40. The result of the election in November, according to the official returns, showed that the Garfield electors received 4,439,415 votes; Hancock, 4,436,014; Weaver, 305,729 ; Dow, 9,644; scattering, 1,793, giving a net majority in favor of Garfield over Hancock-, on the popular vote, of 3,401. The electoral count confirmed the vote of the people, and on the 4th of March, 1881, General James A. Garfield was inaugurated as the Twentieth President of the United States. It was the most imposing inauguration ever conferred upon any President, and the grand pageant and ceremonies were witnessed by more than one hundred thousand people, attracted thither from everv section of the Union. Conspicuous among the notables of the nation was General Hancock, the defeated candidate of the Democratic party, who by his presence showed his nobility of character in thus honoring the new chief magistrate.

The last days of the Forty-sixth Congress will be rendered notable in history on account of the passage of an act known as the funding bill, by which a certain portion of the government bonds was to be refunded at three per cent, interest, and which measure met with such intense opposition from the national bankers throughout the country, that they threatened to wind up their institutions, if the bill should become a law, and many of them returned their legal tenders. The bill was vetoed by President Hayes, however, and this brought out against him the most bitter invectives from the friends of the bill, who declared that the action of the banks was threatening and revolutionary, and that it was a concession to the money power, that would result in untold evil to the great mass of the American people.

The census of the United States for the decade ending with 18S0, is still in preparation, and some time will yet elapse before it is thoroughly completed, and placed before the people. Advance sheets, however, from the Census Department show that the United States has increased from a population of 33,533,191 in 1870, to 50,152,866 in 1SS0, and that tie increase in commerce, manufactures, agriculture and industrial enterprise of every character is correspondingly large, giving every indication that as a people we are making rapid strides on the road of national prosperity and renown.

THE New England States occupy the extreme northeastern corner of the United States, and have an aggregate area of 63,882 square miles - not half as large as some of the Western Territories. It was settled by the English at Plymouth Rook in 1620, and for tho first century or more progressed more rapidly than any other portion of the country. It comprises six States : Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

Maine

MAINE, the tenth State admitted under the Federal Constitution, is situated between latitude «dog. 57min. and 47deg. 32min. north and longitude Clxleg. 52min. and Tldeg. Ofimin. west, and is bounded on the north by Canada ; east, by New Brunswick ; south, by the Atlantic Ocean"; and west, by New Hampshire and Canada. It has an area of 31,766 square miles, or 20,330,240 acres. A ridge of broken eminences, apparently a coutinuation of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, runs along the western part of Maine for some distance, and then crosses the State in a northeasterly direction, terminating in Mai's Hill, on the borders of New Brunswick. Of the mountain summits, the highest is Katahdin Mountain, which attains an elevation of 5,3S5 feet above the sea. The most marked natural feature of the State is its rivers and lakes, which cover about one-tenth of the entire area. Maine has a great extent of coast and many good harbors. Its shores are all alon<r indented by deep bays ; and the adjacent sea is studded with numerous line islands, some of considerable size. Near the coast the surface is level, but it rises on proceeding inland.

History, Government, and Finances. - Mouhegan, one of the first settlements in Maine peopled by Europeans, was settled in 1622, and Saco in 1623. About 1621), the Plymouth Company, which obtained a new patent by Sir Ferdinando Gorges under James I., granting to the company all the country between latitude 40deg. and 48deg. north, began to parcel out their territory to applicants. In 1621 the company transferred to William Alexander, subsequently Earl of Stirling, the country east of the St. Croix, thus establishing the present eastern boundary of the State. In 1629, John Mason came into possession of the territory lying between the Merrimac and Piscataqua rivers, which he called New Hampshire, thereby establishing the western boundary of Maine. In 1635, the Plymouth Company, having resolved to surrender its charter to the government, divided the territory among its members. Gorges took the whole region between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec, and in 1639 received a formal charter of it from Charles I, under the title of the Province of Maine. He was made governor-general of New England, with boundless authority. On the death of Gorges, Maine descended to his heirs. It was now placed under four different jurisdictions : that of Gorges extending from the west line to Kennebunk ; that of Rigby, from Kennebunk to the borders of the Kennebeo Valley, held under grant from Gorges ; the Sagadahoc, from the Kennebec to the Penobscot ; the French (Acadia), from the Penobscot to the St. Croix. In 1651, from politic reasons, Massachusetts set up a claim under her charter to the province of Maine, and sent commissioners to admit the people of Gorge's and Rigby's grants into the jurisdiction of the Bay colony. After a strong remonstrance, and an appeal to Parliament, the colonies put themselves under the government of Massachusetts; The change proved beneficial to the colonies.

In 1666, the first Indian war in Maine was begun by King Philip, at whose instigation the settlers were attacked without provocation, and over one hundred white persons were massacred in three months. Thereignofterrorcontinueduntill760. Towns were plundered or burned, and many of the terrified colonists slain or carried into captivity. From the close of Indian hostilities Maine began to make steady progress in civilization and wealth. The war of the Revolution affected her but little ; but during the war of 1812 she was again exposed to the horrors of frontier struggles. The British took a part of the country, and held it until the end of the war.

On March 15, 1820, Maine was admitted into the Union. A dispute long existed between the United States and Great Britain as to the interpretation of the treaty of 1783, so far as it related to the boundaries between Maine and the British possessions, which was finally settled by the cession to Great Britain of a small portion of the territory claimed by her, in return for the concession of Rouse's Point and the free navigation of the River St. John.

Maine furnished 71,558 men to the Union army in the late war between the States, being more than one-tenth of the population of the State ; 8,446 men perished on the field of battle.

is elected on the first Wednesday of January in each year. A council, consisting of seven persons, to advise the governor in the executive part of government, is chosen annually by joint-ballot of the senators and representatives. The house, consisting of 150 members, and the senate, consisting of 31 members, constitute the legislative power.

The judiciary is composed of one chief and seven assistant justices, appointed by the governor and council for the term of seven years, and various inferior tribunals.

Climate and Soil. - The winters of Maine are long and severe, but the cold is generally uniform, and free from sudden changes. The climate is considered conducive to health. The summers are short, the period of vigorous vegetation lasting scarcely two months.

The soil of Maine is various. The most productive lands are between the Penobscot and Kennebeo; but there is also much good land in the valley of the St. John's, and on some other rivers. In the mountainous districts and along the southeast coast the land is inferior.

The principal rivers are the Penobscot and the Kennebec. The former is the largest river in the State, and has a length of 350 miles. In the northwestern part of the State, a mountain-chain forms the water-shed between the streams that join the St. Lawrence and those that fall into the Atlantic; and a lateral branch from this chain, between latitude 46deg. and 46deg. 30min., separates the basins of the Kennebeo, Penobscot, etc., on the south, from that of the St. John's on the north. The lakes are chiefly in the north, the largest of which, Moosehead, is fifty miles in breadth. The St. John's river, a rapid stream, flows through tho State. The Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin, and St. Croix, have all a general southern direction, and several are navigable for the greater part of their length.

The rivers of Maine are remarkable for their abrupt windings and falls, and are useful as affording water-power to the many mills on their banks. The lakes are very numerous, and noted for their irregular shapes and beautiful scenery.

Geology and Mineralogy. - Geologically the State of Maine is chiefly composed of primary rocks, though towards the east there is a tract of land of the secondary formation. Trap-dykes occur frequently, and on many accounts this district is interesting to the geologist. Maine is not distinguished for its mineral resources, but iron, lime, and excellent building granite exist in considerable quantities. Copper is found in small quantities in certain portions of the State. A small vein of lead and zinc ore exists at Parsonsfield. The most extensive deposit of iron is on the Aroostook River, fifty miles from its mouth. Some of the marble quarried in the State is susceptible of a fine polish. Slate of a fine quality for roofing and for school purposes is found between the sources of the Kennebec and St. John's Rivers.

Products and Commerce. - The coast of Maine is indented by numerous bays and inlets, affording better harborage for the larger class of vessels than any other State in the Union. The great staple export from Maine is lumber. Lath, shingles, etc., are largely exported as well as lime, marble, granite, and ice. The fishing interest of Maine is an important one, employing a large number of vessels and hands in the catching, curing, and carrying the fish out of the State.

Education. - Maine has an excellent system of public schools, supported by a permanent school-fund. The State superintendent and the county supervisors form a State board of education.

New Hampshire And Vermont

NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the thirteen original States of the Union is situated west of Maine, between latitude 42deg. 41min and 45deg. llmin. north, and longitude 70deg. 40mm. and 79,le,r'->sinin. wist; and is bounded on the north by Canada ; east, t>v Maine, and the Atlantic Ocean ; south, by Massachusetts ; and west by Vermont. It has an area of 9,280 square miles. It has onlv'eh'htcen miles of sea coast, and the shore in most places is a sandy teach, bordered with salt marshes It has one harbor, Portsmouth/which, however, is one of the finest on the Atlantic coast. The whole State is mountainous and hilly The coast is indented with small inlets of the sea, and skirted by a narrow sandy plain. The celebrated White Mountains are situated in the northern part of the State, in Coos County which, on account of their sublimity and grandeur, have gained tor this region the cognomen of the "Switzerland of America." The principal mountain Beaks of the State are Grand Monadnock, in the southwestern part of the State, 3,450 feet above the level of the sea; Cbicorua, in Albany, 3.35S feet; Sunapee Mountain, near Sunapee Lake; Kearsarge Mountain, between Sutton and Salisbury, 2 461 feet ; Carr's Mountain, in Ellsworth ; Moosehillock, in Benton 4,636 feet: Mount Washington, the highest peak of the White Mountains, 6,285 feet ; and Mount Lafayette, at Irancoma Notch, 5,o00 feet high. Between the mountains are many green and sheltered valleys? and the State contains a considerable portion of fertile land, as well as a great deal of beautiful scenery.

History, Government, and Finances.-Tbe first settlement in New Hampshire was made near Portsmouth in 1623. Inis State at one time formed a part of Massachusetts, and was once connected with New York. In 1741 it became a separate province and remained so until tbe Revolutionary War. The early settlers were harassed by the savages until the English got possession of Canada. In 16S9 a party of Indians attacked Dover, and slaughtered many of the inhabitants and burned several houses. This attack was made in revenge for certain injuries done the Indians thirteen years previously. The New Hampshire settlements were extended farther west than the original limits prescribed by the chai ter of the colony. It was supposed until 17b4 that the present State of Vermont was part of the territory included in the grant, and consequently the authorities granted land in Vermont. New York claimed the disputed territory, and a controversy ensued which was not settled until 1790 when the independence of Vermont was established. In 1776 New Hampshire publiclv declared her independence, and formed a government to continue during the war. In June, 1778, the State, in convention, ratified the constitution of the United States In 1807 the seat of government was permanently established at Concord The government is based on the Constitution of 1784, which gives the right of suffrage to all male citizens over twentyone years of a°e, except paupers and those who are excused from payino- taxes at their own request. It consists of a governor, a council composed of 5 members, a senate of 12 members, and a house of representatives of 333 members. The general election takes place on the second Tuesday in March. The State is divided into fire councillor and twelve senatorial districts. No person is eligible to the governorship or the senate unless he embraces the Protestant religion. The selectmen of towns are required to submit to the people once in every seven years the question of amending the constitution. . . .

VIhe judiciary consists of a supreme court with a chief justice and five associates, courts of common pleas, and probate courts. The supreme court has chancery powers.

OUmate and Soil. - The climate is very healthy, bnt cold. The lakes and rivers are generally frozen for four months m the year, and winter lasts from November to April. In the mountainous regions mercury sometimes freezes, while m summer the thermometer often reaches lOOdeg. The soil, except in the fertile valleys, is better adapted to pasturage than to agriculture, which is nevertheless the principal industry. Corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, and hay are the chief productions. Several of the principal rivers of New England rise in this State, among which are the Connecticut, Memmac, Piscataqua, Androscoggin, and Saco, which have a general southerly direction. The Connecticut forms the Western boundary of the State. There are several considerable lakes, the largest of which, the Winnipiseogee, twenty-three miles in length, is situated near the center of the State The soil in the lowlands near these rivers and lakes is the richest and most productive, and is generally under cultivation

Geology and Mineralogy. - The geological structure of the mountains of New Hampshire consists principally of granite and mica slate ; the former predominating among the White Mountains, and the latter among the elevations farther to the south.

are unsurpassed. They embrace, iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, and tin. Slate quarries are inexhaustable ; and rich Inn© beds are found near Littleton. Granite is more abundant here than in any other of the States, and fine marble has been found in consid erable quantities.

Products and Commerce - Manufactures have greatly augmented of late years ; they include cotton and woolen fabrics, nails and other hardware, paper, glass, etc. The exports consist principally, of cattle, pork, flax-seed, linen, timber, fish, beef, granite, and manufactured goods. In the forests are oak, maple, pine, hemlock, spruce, etc. The chief agricultural products are maize, rye, oats, apples, potatoes, and products of the dairy. Cattle-breeding is pursued to a considerable extent, and is a profitable branch of

This State has 2,334,487 acres of improved land, and 1,047,090 acres of woodland. The present cash value of farms in this state amounts to $80,589,313. The value of home manufactures

Education, etc. - The State board of education consists ot the governor and council and the superintendent of public instruction. The township board consists of from one to nine members. The school fund is denominated the Literary Fund, and it is distributed to each town in proportion to its number of children attending school. Teachers are examined by the School Committee, and they receive certificates which entitle them to teach for one term without re-examination. The graduates of normal schools are excepted from the operation of this rule; they are allowed to teach from three to five years without re-examination. Teachers are employed by the Prudential Committee of Districts. Stringent laws compel every child in the State between four and twenty-one to attend school. The school population is 7a,50o ; average attendance, 48,150. There are 3,000 school-houses in the State." Dartmouth College, located at Hanover, is over a hundred years old, and ranks among the best educational institutions in the land. At Concord there is an insane asylum, and the State Prison. The State Reform School is located at Manchester. The State Prison is a well-managed institution, and has an evening school for the benefit of the prisoners. .

Manchester is the largest city in New Hampshire, and is the seat of the great cotton manufactories. Nashua and Dover are also flourishing manufacturing centres. Concord, the capital, is

Vermont

VERMONT, the first State admitted into the Union, is situated between latitude 42deg. 44min. and 45deg. north, and longitude 71deg. 33min. and 73deg. 25min. west ; and is bounded norih by Canada; east, by New Hampshire; south by Massachusetts; and west, by New York, from which it is separated for 100 miles by Lake Champlain. It has an area of 9,056 1-2 square miles, or 6 535 6S0 acres. The Green Mountains run through the midd le ot the State, dividing it into nearly equal portions. The highest elevation is Mount Mansfield, twenty miles northwest of Montpelier which attains a height of 4,359 feet. The other principal peaks are Ascutney Mountain, near the Connecticut riyer, in Windsor county, which is 3,320 feet high ; Killington Peak, near Rutland, 3,675 feet high ; the Camel's Rump, seventeen miles u e, of Montpolicr 1, 1 ss feet high ; and the Nose and Chin in Manslield Mountain. The mountains are generally covered with evcrgiwn fir, spruce, and hemlock, from which their name is derived, the Male has some fine scenery and beautiful waterfalls -as Bellows Palls on the Connecticut, the Great Falls of the Lamoille, 1' alls ot the Winooski, a fall of seventy feet on the Missisquoi etc. Ihe only considerable river is the Connecticut, which rises m this btate.

Vermont And Massachusetts

History, Government, and Finances. - The first white settlement in New Hampshire was made in 1724, by some emigrants from Massachusetts, who erected Fort Dunmer, where Burlington now stands. About 1760, emigration received and impetus, and during the following eight years Governor Wentworth, of New Hampshire, grained 138 townships within the present limits of the State. He claimed the right to the soil by virtue of the New Hampshire charter. At that time the territory west of the Connecticut was known as the " New Hampshire Grants." The Governor was amassing great wealth by these grants, when a proclamation was issued by the governor of New York, December 28,

1763, claiming Vermont under the grants from Charles II to his brother the Duke of York. The Sheriff was ordered to return the names of all persons who had settled west of the Connecticut Eiver under titles given them by New Hampshire. On March 13,

1764, Governor Wentworth sent forth a counter proclamation, declaring the New York claims obsolete, and defending his jurisdiction to the disputed land. An appeal was made to the mother country by New York, and New Hampshire not showing fight, New 1 ork was given jurisdiction to the Connecticut River. New York then attempted to eject the old settlers from their lands, and, through a corrupt judiciary, decided every case against them. This so exasperated the settlers, that they forcible resisted the officers of the law, and, under the leadership of Ethan Allen, Seth Warner, and others, every officer who tried to serve writs was tied to a tree and unmercifully whipped with beechen rods ; and the consequence was that after a while nobody could be got to undertake the hazardous service. Governor Trvon, after ten years' strife, commanded Allen, Warner, and six others whom he named, to surrender themselves within thirty days, under pain of conviction of felony and death without benefit of clergv. He offered a reward of £150 for the capture of Allen, and £50 for each of the others. These men retorted bv offering a reward for the apprehension of the attorney-general of New York. The breaking out of the Revolution suspended the controversy. In 1777, Vermont declared her independence, and on March 4, 1791, after much hesitation and bickering by Congress, was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. The land controversy was settled by the payment, on the part of Vermont, of $30,000 to New York, and the relinquishment by the latter of all claim to lands in the State.

Although Vermont was not a signer of the original compact, her "Green Mountain boys" distinguished themselves in the Revolution in several hard-fought battles. Allen was taken prisoner and sent to England. The battle of Bennington was fought in this State, in which the Green Mountain bovs took a prominent part. In the war of 1812 the Vermonters took an active part, and sustained their former prestige. On October 29th, 1864, a band of Southern refugees made a dash from Canada into the little village of St. Albans, in the northwestern part of the State, near the Canadian frontier, and after robbing several banks and shooting several citizens, crossed over the Canadian frontier, taking with them some valuable horses. Some of the raiders were captured and punished.

A governor, lieutenant-governor, senate, and house of representatives are annually elected by popular vote. The legislature meets biennially. The judiciary consists of a chief judge"and five associates. There is a council of censors of thirteen persons elected every seven years, and holding office one vear. It is their duty to see whether the constitution has been preserved inviolate during the six years preceding their election, and whether the legislature and the executive have faithfully discharged their duties. They are also empowered to investigate the finances of the State. They have the power to send for persons, books, and papers, order impeachments, and pass public censure.

_ The judiciary consists of a supreme court composed of three judges, county courts, and a court of chancery. The circuit judges are appointed by the legislature, but two associate judges in each county are elected by the people.

Climate and Soil. - The climate is cold, with long and severe winters, but healthful - the temperature rangino- from - 17deo' to + 92deg. The soil is a rich loam, and the country well wooded with hemlock, fir, spruce, oak, beech, sugar-maple," pine, hickorv elm, butternut, birch, cedar, etc. The hills are well adapted for pasturage. The chief products are wool, cattle, maple-sugar butter cheese, hay, and potatoes. The rivers are the Connecticut and its western branches, and the Onion, Lamoille, and smaller streams, affording abundant water-power, and falling into Lake Champlain. The State is studded with small lakes. Agriculture is much the most important industry.

Geology and Mineralogy. - The greater portion of the State is of primary formation. The valleys of the rivers are mostly alluvial, and the shores of Lake Champlain transition formation. On the western side of the mountains the rocks are chiefly old red sandstone, greywacke, limestone, sandstone, and granular quartz which contains iron ore and manganese. The body of the mountains is formed by hornblende, mica, sin (e, granite, and gneiss. In the southern and northern part of the State "surpentine occurs. There is a bed of clay slate along the Connecticut river. A bed of granite crosses this river at Bellows Falls. A large deposit of primitive limestone is met with in Caledonia county. The eastern side of the mountains is composed chiefly of hornblende rock gneiss, granite, and clay slate.

Iron exists in this State in great abundance. Coal, lead, copper, zinc, titanium, oxide of manganese, magnetic iron ore, and plumbago are found in various quantities. In Strafford, large quantities of copperas are made from iron pyrites, or sulphuret of iron. Gold has been found in moderate quantities. Immense beds of fine marble, well adapted for building purposes, exist in various parts of the State. The Middlebury quarries are celebrated for their fine quality of marble. A block variety of this marble is quarried at Swanton, on Lake Champlain. Slate, porcelain clay, lime-stone, steatite, talc, and marl all exist in this State. Excellent white marble is met with all along the base of the Green Mountains for fifty miles above and below Rutland. Manganese and slate quarries exist in the s'ame vicinity. Beds of soapstone are found in many localities.

Products and Commerce. - Wool, live-stock, maple-sugar, butter, cheese, hay, hops, and potatoes are extensively produced. The State has a board of agriculture, manufactures and mining, which devotes itself to collecting and disseminating information and forwarding the industrial interests of the State.

Most of the commerce connected with navigation in this State is earned on by way of Lake Champlain, and mainly through the port of Burlington.

Education, etc. - Vermont has a good common school system. Th ere are three normal schools in the State - one at Johnson, one at Randolph, and one at Castleton. Every child between eight and thirteen years is compelled by law to attend school at least three months in the year. Any parent or guardian violating the law is liable to a fine. A legislative enactment prohibits the employment of any child under sixteen in any manufacturing or mechanical trade, under a fine of fifty dollars.

The University of Vermont, located at Burlington, was founded in 1791, and has a medical department. Middleburv College, at Middlebury, in 1S00; and Norwich University, a classical institution with a military department, was founded' in 1834. There is a medical school at Castleton, one at Woodstock, and one at Burlington ; also several theological institutions in different parts of the State. At Brattleboro there is an institution for the insane, and a State prison at Windsor. There is a reform school at Waterbury, and a house for destitute children at Burlington.

Burlington is the only incorporated city in the State, and has not quite 10,000 population. Montpelier is the seat of government, and the other leading towns are Rutland, Middlebury, St. Albans, etc.

Massachusetts

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the original thirteen States, is situated between latitude 41deg. 15min. and 42deg. 53min north, and longitude 69deg. 56min. and 73deg. 32min. west and is bounded on the north by Vermont and New Hampshire' east by the Atlantic Ocean, south by Connecticut and Rhode Island and west by New York. It has an area of 7,800 square miles! Generally speaking, the country ascends according to the distance inland, the general slope being from west to east. The coast presents a capacious, deep, and admirable bay, between Cape Ann and Cape Cod ; f rem which the State derived its name. A sandy and in some parts marshy plain extends several miles into the interior; this is abruptly succeeded by a hilly country, which occupies all the central parts of the State, abounding with valleys of various extent, numerous rivers, and extensive pine plains. The valley of the Connecticut River separates this region from the third, or mountainous, or most westerly division of the State. It is well watered, but no large river rises within it. Next to the Connecticut the chief is the Merrimac, which runs through its northeastern parts, and falls into the sea near Boston. There are no large lakes, but numerous ponds.

History, Government, and Finances. - The first permanent settlement was made at Plymouth, in December, 1620, by the Pilgrim Fathers, the originators of the public school system. The settlers immediately began to build houses to protect themselves against the inclement weather and the Indians. They made a treaty of amity with Massasoit and his tribe, but were involved in occasional disputes with the other tribes. They very soon acquired great influence over the Indians. Captain Miles Standish, whose memory lias been immortalized by a great American poet, was a successful negotiator, and made himself feared by them. The colonists suffered many privations, many of them dying from exposure and bad food.

A dispute between the mother country and the settlers was long maintained. The colonists were jealous of their liberties and resisted the encroachments of the crown by strong moral force. In 1675 the King Philip war broke out. The savages were desperate, and carried on the work of destruction with great ferocity. About 600 colonists lost their lives, and the same number of bouses were burned. In the war between England and France for the possession of American soil, Massachusetts was a powerful aid of the crown. Some of the most stirring scenes of the Revolution took place in this State, which in fact saw its opening scenes. The abominable Stamp Act aroused the people to the highest pitch of excitement. The Boston massacre, in 1770, and the destruction of the tea in the same year, are familiar to every school-boy. The battles of Bunker Hill, Lexington, and Concord were fought on the soil of Massachusetts.

John Hancock was the first governor of the State under the constitution of 1780. In 1820 Maine, which had hitherto been connected with Massachusetts, was separated from it. Two sons of the commonwealth have presided over the Republic - the two Adamses. Some of the brightest lights that have shone in the legislative halls of the nation came from the old Bay State.

The executive power is vested in a governor, who holds office one year, a lieutenant-governor, a secretary, treasurer, and receiver-general, an auditor, attorney-general, and an executive council composed of eight members, elected annually from the eight divisions of the State. The legislative department consists of a senate of 40 members, and a house of representatives of 240 members elected annually.

The judicial authority of the commonwealtb is vested in a supreme court, composed of one chief and five associate justices, appointed by the governor and council, and holding office during good behavior ; a court of common pleas, composed of one chief judge and six associates ; probate courts for each county ; police courts, held in many cities and towns; commissioners of insolvency, and justices' courts. The supreme courts have exclusive jurisdiction of capital crimes, and exclusive chancery jurisdiction. In this State a husband is not liable for his wife's debts contracted before marriage; her separate estate alone is liable.

Climate and Soil. - The climate varies according to elevation, but is generally dry and healthy, and the atmosphere serene. The thermometer, during summer, often exceeds 77deg. Fahrenheit, and sometimes rises to lOOdeg. In some of the central and western districts the soil is strong and rich ; but in general it is poor rather than otherwise, though the active perseverence of the farmers, and good cultivation, have rendered it highly productive.

Geology, and Mineralogy. - In the geological formation of Massachusetts the primitive rocks are quite conspicuous, and are in some places covered with the older secondary formation. A belt of this kind, ten or fifteen miles in width, extends from Boston southwest to Rhode Island. The primary rocks extend in the north to the ocean, while the Connecticut valley rests on a bed of sandstone. The primary rocks of Massachusetts form some very good building-stone. And the gray granite of Quincy Hills is probably found in at least one of the public buildings of every large city or town in the Union. The mountains of the western part are composed of granite, gneiss, quartz, and other siliceous rocks, of mica and clay slates, limestone and hornblende. The white marble of Berkshire county is a line building material, of which the Girard College, at Philadelphia, is partly constructed. The soapstone of Hampshire county is extensively used for building. The other minerals are serpentine, asbestos, slate, some anthracite coal in the secondary formation, some copper in Northampton and Southampton, plumbago, ochres, argillaceous earths, lead, and iron; the last is found in Plymouth and Bristol counties, but in greatest abundance west of the Connecticut River. Coal, iron, zinc, copper, and some other valuable minerals are found, though in no very liberal quantity, and mining is the least in importance of all her industrial interests.

Products, Manufactures, and Commerce. - Massachusetts is pre-eminently a manufacturing State. She annually consumes immense quantities of wool in the manufacture of coarse and fine woolen cloths. Millions of dollars are invested in manufacturing stock, of which a large proportion is employed in Lowell, which, next to Pittsburg, is the chief manufacturing town in the United States, though Fall River is pressing it very close. There are more than 300 cotton-mills, 150 woolen-mills, 13 carpet-mills, with many iron foundries, rolling-mills, nail-factories, and machine-shops. Next to cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes are the chief manufactured articles ; from 3,000,000 to 4,000,- 000 pairs are annually made at Lynn and other places in this State, principally for export to the Southern States and the West Indies. Spirits, leather, cordage, wrought and cast iron, nails, woolens, paper, straw bonnets, hats, on, and muskets, are the other principal manufactures. There is a large government establishment for the manufacture of arms at Springfield. The whale, cod, and other fisheries of the United States center principally in Massachusetts, and are at once a principal employment and a most productive source of wealth. The chief exports of this State, exclusive of its manufactures and the produce of its fisheries, are beef, pork, lumber, spirits, and flax-seed. Maize, rye, wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, buckwheat, potatoes, hops, flax, and hemp are the chief agricultural products. Great quantities of cider are also made, and fruits and garden vegetables extensively grown. But, notwithstanding, Massachusetts is indebted to the Southern and Western States, especially to New York, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, for by far the largest portion of her supplies of flour and corn ; and to these and the other States she is indebted for cotton, staves, and coal. Beef, pork, butter, and cheese are of excellent quality, "and so abundant as to form a considerable article of export ; the western part of the State is especially distinguished for its extensive dairies.

Education, etc. - Great interest is taken in the education of youth, and the educational system of the commonwealth is admirable. The board of education consists of the governor and lieutenant-governor, and eight persons appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the council, each to hold office eight years. This board has charge of the funds, as well as the general administration of the school laws. It elects its secretary, who is the personal executive of the school law in tbe State. The school fund is in charge of a board of commissioners. A special fund is provided for the Indians of the commonwealth. Teachers are required to undergo an examination by the town school committees. They receive certificates which must be filed with the selectmen before the opening of school. The Bible is required to be read in the schools, but without oral comment. Parents, however, may interpose their conscientious scruples against their children's reading from any particular version. In 1870 a law was passed compelling every parent or guardian, having charge of a youth between eight and fourteen years old, to send him or her to some public school twelve weeks during each year. Truant officers are chosen to enforce its provisions. The penalty is a fine not exceeding twenty dollars. The schools are open to all without distinction of race or color.

Among the other educational institutions is Harvard University, which is the oldest educational institution in the United States. It is beautifully located at Cambridge, three miles from Boston. It was so named in recognition of the liberal endowment of about £700, left by the will of the Rev. John Harvard, in 1638. It was founded in 1636. It has fourteen university buildings, and a library of about 125,000 volumes. Harvard is not only the leading educational institution in America, but it ranks high among the best of its kind in the world. It is modeled rather after the system of the German than of the English universities, and in addition to its numerous faculty there are regular lectures upon almost every branch of knowledge. The curriculum is comprehensive and liberal, and adapted to the most technical or most liberal education. Williams College, Wiiliamstown ; Boston College, Boston; Tuft's College, Medford; College of the Holy Cross, Worcester; Amherst College, Amherst; New England

Massachusetts And Rhode Island

Female College, Boston; and Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge. There is a Theological Seminary at Boston, one at Newton Centre, and one at Andover. There' is a State normal school situated at "West Held, Framingham, Salem, and Bridgewater. Boston and Worcester each have a city normal school. At Northampton there is an institution for deaf mutes.

Massachusetts has many public institutions, charitable and others. There are two State lunatic hospitals, one of which is located at Worcester and the other at Taunton. At Somerville, the McLean Asylum for the insane is situated. An excellent mode of treating the "unfortunate is here observed. Ipswich and Cainbridge each have an institution where incurably insane paupers are conHned. At Westborongh there is an institution for the reformation of juvenile delinquents. The State Prison is located in Charlestown. Almshouses are generously distributed throughout the commonwealth.

According to the census of 1870 Massachusetts lias a population of 1,457,351, of which 13,947 are colored, 151 are Indians, 87 Chinese, and 10 Japanese.

Boston is the chief city and capital of Massachusetts. In point of commerce, it is second only to New York. As a city, it is badly laid out and built; but it is one of the best-regulated cities in the world. The second city in point of population is Worcester, but Lowell follows closely after it. The other large and flourishing cities are Lawrence, Lynn, Fall River, Springfield, and Salem.

Boston supports 13,179 industrial establishments, whose aggregate capital is 8231,9S6,S02, and which afford occupation to 278,861 males, females, and youths; the aggregate wages given, being $118,170,030 annually, the raw materials used costing §334-, 682,1SS, and the products having a value of § 55 5,445, ti 9 7. Of Boston manufactures that of cotton goods tabes the lead, while woolen goods, boots and shoes, iron work, machinery, and paper rank next, in the order given ; the smallest manufactures are those of canned fruits, toys, and boats. On Sunday, Nov. 9th, 1872, a terrible conflagration destroyed 60 acres of the finest business portion of Boston, inflicting a loss aggregating about §30,000,000.

Rhode Island

RHODE ISLAND, one of the thirteen original members of the federation, and the smallest state in the Union, is bounded on the north and east by Massachusetts, south by the Atlantic Ocean, and west by Connecticut. It has an area of 1,040 square miles, and in proportion to the number of its inhabitants is without a peer in point of wealth. The surface of Rhode Island is generally broken and hilly. Narraganset Bay, which occupies the southeastern quarter of the State, is from three to twelve miles wide, and filled with beautiful islands, the largest of which, Rhode Island, is fifteen miles long by three to three and one-half miles wide.

History, Government, and Finances. - Rhode Island was first settled by Roger Williams, at Providence, in 1036. He had been driven from the Massachusetts colony for not thinking as others did on the subject of politics and religion. In 1638, William Coddington and eighteen others, to escape religious persecution, followed Williams, and settled at Newport. Providence was so named by Roger Williams out of gratitude to the Almighty's "kind providence to him in his distress/' Most of the early settlers were fugitives from religious persecution in the neighboring colonies. In 1642 a third settlement was formed at Warwick by a party under Samuel Gorton. Portsmouth was settled by Coddington's party contemporaneously with Newport. In 1643 Williams obtained a patent for the sovereignty of Providence Newport, and Portsmouth. In 1663 Charles II granted a new charter incorporating the colony of "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.'7 This charter formed the basis of government until the birth of the present constitution in 1843. In 1842 a party called the "suffrage" party framed a new constitution, and electing a senate and liouse of representatives, and Thomas W. Dorr governor, they endeavored to maintain their authority by force of arms, but were dispersed by the State troops. Rhode Island suffered severely from King Philip's war which broke out in June, 1675. Providence and many other places were burned, and families slaughtered.

It took an active part in the Revolution. It resisted the odious Stamp Act with great determination. In 1776 the State was invaded by the British, who occupied Newport several years. General Sullivan, aided by a French naval force, made several vain attempts to dislodge the enemy. Toward the close of 1779 the enemy withdrew, and in 1780 Rochambean arrived with 6,000 French auxiliaries.

Rhode Island was the last of the thirteen States admitted to the Union, having taken no part in the convention which framed the National Constitution, and failing to ratify that instrument until 1790. The State furnished 2.3.30-') soldiers to the national army in the late war. In the first battle of Bull Run the little State "had two regiments and her governor.

The government of Rhode Island, which is peculiar in some of its features, is founded on the constitution of 1 S42. The executive authority is lodged in a governor and lieutenant-governor, who are elected annually by the people. The former presides in the senate, and receives a salary of SI, 000, the latter gets $250. A secretary of state, attorney-general, and treasurer are elected at the same time; an auditor is chosen by the general assembly, and a superintendent of education and an adjutant-general are appointed by the governor. The legislative power is vested in a senate and liouse of representatives. The senate is composed of the governor, the lieutenant-governor, and one member from each city and town in the State. The house of representatives cannot exceed seventy-two members, and consists of one for every 2,200 inhabitants of every town and city, and one additional member for every fraction of every town and city exceeding one- half the ratio mentioned. Each town is entitled to at least one representative, and none can have more than twelve. Legislative acts acquire the force of laws without the formal approval of the governor.

The legislature holds its regular session at Newport, beginning on the last Tuesday in May, and an adjourned session at Providence in January. In order to exercise the right of suffrage in Rhode Island, it is necessary to own real estate to the value of §134, or rent proper of an annual value of %1. A residence of one year in the State and six months in the town is also required.

In this State criminals can testify in their own behalf, and. married women have the control of their separate property not acquired from their husbands.

The judiciary consists of a supreme court, composed of one chief justice, whose salary is si'500, and three associate judges, whose salary is $1,800 each, elected by the general assembly, and hold office until removed by a resolution of both houses. The court of common pleas in each of the five counties is held by a single judge of the supreme court. Providence, Newport, and Woonsocket have magistrates' courts. The justices are elected by the general assembly for one year.

Climate and Soil. - The climate of Rhode Island is mild, owing to the proximity of the State to the sea, which tempers the severity of winter and mitigates the heats of summer. It is said to resemble that of England.

The soil is moderately fertile, but in many parts it is rou°'h and difficult of cultivation. During the Revolutionary War, while the island of Rhode Island was in possession of the British, it was entirely stripped of its forest trees. The soil of the islands is better than that of the main land. Several small rivers, as the Pawtucket, Pawtuxet, Parocatuck, etc., rising in the hills of Massachusetts, flow into Narraganset Ba}', and their frequent falls afford water-power to numerous manufacturing villages.

Geology and Mineralogy. - The formation is chiefly of primary stratified and unstiatified rocks, with some coal of a poor quality, iron, limestone, and marble. Iron, copper, marble, and freestone are among the minerals; and there are extensive beds of anthracite coal; but this, though good, has been little wrought.

Products, Commerce, and Manufactures. - The population is chiefly engaged in trade and manufactures. There are in the State 147 cotton, 68 woolen, 33 iron factories; and a large coasting trade and considerable fisheries are carried on. Five radways and several steamboat lines connect the chief towns with Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York.

Rye, barley, oats, and in some places wheat, are produced in quantities sufficient for home consumption ; cider is made for exportation ; artificial grasses are raised in large quantities, and cattle of a good breed; but the inhabitants generally have applied themselves more to commerce, the fisheries, and manufactures, than to agriculture. The principal manufactures are cotton and woolen goods, leather, hardware, and machinery; there are also calico printing and bleaching works, and numerous iron foundries.

There are 280,030 acres of improved land, and 109,399 acres of woodland in the State. The present cash value of the farms is $21,574,968; value of manufactures, $111,418,354.

Education, etc. - The board of education consists of the governor, lieutenant-g jvernor, and six elective members. There are thirty-two town superintendents who are elected by the people, and receive salaries of from $50 to $2,500 a year. The sum of $90,000 is annually appropriated for public schools. The sexes attend school together in all the schools except the Providence High School. Children employed in manuiactories are compelled to attend school at least four months a year. The school population of the State is 56,934, and the average attendance is 22,444. There are 450 school-houses in the State, and a normal school, situated at Providence, and one at Bristol. At Providence there is a free polytechnic institute, and most of the large towns have evening schools. Brown University is located at Providence, and is a leading institution. There are thirty-four towns and cities in Rhode Island, and all of them support high schools. The State Prison is located at Providence, as "is also the Butler Hospital for the insane. The convicts in the prison are chiefly employed in cabinet work. The State farm establishment has reformatories for criminals, and asylums for the insane.

The two chief cities of the State are Providence and Newport both capitals. Providence is one of the most active manufacturing and commercial cities of the United States. Next to Boston it is the wealthiest and most populous city in New England and in proportion to its population is probably the richest city in the country. Newport, situated on Rhode Island, has a fine harbor and considerable commerce, and is one of the most fashionable watering-places in America. Pawtucket and Woonsocket are both flourishing manufacturing towns.

CONNECTICUT, one of the original thirteen States, is situated between latitude 40deg. and 42deg. 3min. north, and longitude 71deg. 55min. and 73deg. 50min. west, and is bounded on the north by Massachusetts, east by Rhode Island, south by Long Island Sound, and west by New fork. It has an area of 4 674 square miles, or 2,991,360 acres.

The surface of this State is generally undulating. A chain of mountains of inconsiderable Lciirht tuns north and south through the western part of the State. The principal river is the Connecticut ; it rises in New Hampshire, and having passed throuo-h Massachusetts intersects this State nearly in its center, and then bending to the east falls into Long Island Sound a little below INew Haven, after a course of 410 miles, 250 of which have been made navigable by means of locks and canals. Along the coast are several excellent harbors; the best are those of New London and New Haven.

History, .Government, and Finances. - The first permanent settlement m this State was made by Englishmen at Windsor. Hartford, Wethersfleld and New Haven were settled within a year of one another. In 1637 the Indians annoyed the settlers considerably They were finally completely subdued at Mystic, and never afterwards caused the settlers anv serious annoyance Serious consequences were apprehended from "the difficulties exist^ rag between the Dutch of New York and the colonists, as to the right of possession. An amicable arrangement was made by a treaty in 1650. For several years New Haven was a sw.rat.- colony; but m 1665, when Charles II granted a charter to Connecticut, the colonies were united into one government. In July lbb5, James II attempted to take away Connecticut's charter' which was extremely liberal for those times. He sent Sir Edmund Andros oyer as royal governor of all the New England colonies

He found the assembly sitting, on his arrival in Hartford, and going to their chamber, demanded the surrender of the old charter. The parchment was laid upon the table pending a long discusMon, which was protracted until late in the evening. Suddenly the lights were put out, and when they were re-lighted the charter was nowhere to be found. Captain Joseph Wadsworth had seized it, and rushing out of doors, hid it in the hollow of an oak tree Ilus tree, long known as the "Charter Oak," was blown down in 1856, and its place is now marked by a marble slab. Andros seized and administered the government in a very oppressive manner, until the overthrow of James II in 1689, when the former government was resumed and continued until the adoption of the present constitution in 1818. This State took a prominent part in the Revolution, and sent 54,468 soldiers to the late war.

The charter granted in 1662 by Charles II, formed the basis of the government until 1818, when the present constitution was formed. The legislature consists of a senate and house of representatives. The senate is not to consist of less than 18 nor more than 24 members. Senators are chosen by districts of equal populatiun, and by a plurality of votes, and in case any two candidates have an equal and highest vote, then the house of representatives shah elect one of them. Representatives are chosen by towns, and in the same manner as senators; but in case of no candidate receiving the highest vote, the senate chooses one as member from the two candidates having the highest. The legislature, until 1870, met alternately at Hartford and New Haven, on the first Monday in May in each year. ' ' The governor exercises the chief executive power. He has power to grant reprieves, except in cases of impeachment, but not pardons. A lieutenant-governor (ex-qffieio president of senate), secretary of state, treasurer, and comptroller are elected annually.

The judiciary of this State consists of a supreme court, a superior court, county courts, etc. The supreme court consists of a chief and four associate justices, and meets annually in each county. The superior court is held by one judge of the superior court semiannually in each county. County courts are held three times each year in the several counties by a judge elected annually by the legislature. Appeal lies from the county courts to the superior court. According to law the supreme court justices are superanuated at seventy.

Climate arid Soil. - Owing to the more southern situation of Connecticut, vegetation begins earlier in this State thau in some of the other New England States. The climate, though severe, is healthy. In March and April it is subject to chilling northeast winds from the ocean. The summer heat is tempered by the sea air, and the nights rendered pleasant.

The soil is generally good, but in some portions it is better adapted to cereals than pasturage. The northern, western and eastern parts of the State are well suited to grazing, but the westem part has many fertile districts adapted to grain growing. The soil in the Connecticut valley is generally very fertile The same may be said of the valleys of the Quinnip'iac and Housatonic Geology and Mineralogy. - "The State of Connecticut" says Dr. Frankfort, in Lippincott's Gazetteer of the World, may be geologically divided into two fields, the first of which is conposed of the unstratified and metamorphic rocks, and the other of those secondary strata which, under the name of 'freestone,' are so extensively quarried in different parts of the State for building purposes, and constitute the new red sandstone of Lyell. The best place to study this peculiar formation is near Portland, in Middlesex county. In the vicinity of the new red sandstone are to be found, m nearly every part of the State, large dykes of trap which protrude and traverse it, as, for example, at Meriden This gives Connecticut a great analogy to the Lake Superior copper region, in which large veins of native copper, unequaled as yet in any other part of the world, are found nearly always at the' junction of these trapdykes with the red sandstone. From this fact we might expect that in Connecticut also similar deposits of copper would exist. In several instances, indeed, vestiges of the presence of such have been found; as, for example, near New Haven, where a large mass of native copper was discovered ; and also near Meriden, where ancient excavations made in search of copper may be seen.

" The State is very rich in mining resources, as veins of the different metals have been discovered, and more will undoubtedly be found. In every part of the world such veins are chiefly known to exist where the metamorphic strata are in junction with the secondary; and the mineral veins of Connecticut are near these junctions, of which a great many may be found throughout the State, the following is a brief statement of the different localities in which valuable minerals are known to exist in veins or deposits: Gold has been found in small quantities in Middle Haddam, Middlesex county; silver, in the argentiferous lead ore of the Middletown mines, now extensively worked. One of the richest copper mines in the United States has been worked in Bristol, Hartford county, for ten years. The ores found here are chiefly sulphurets. Copper deposits also exist near Litchfield, Simsbury, Plymouth, Granby, larmington, and Middleton. Lead occurs, as galena, at the mines near Middleton; also near Wilton and Brookfield, and near Monroe, Fairfield county. Iron is mined at Salisbury, where large furnaces are supplied with 'brown hematite' the ore chiefly found at the mines. Koxbury furnishes an excellent ore, from which the very best of steel could be manufactured, if the large deposits of pure spathic iron, known to exist there, should be worked. Bismuth is found at different places in the town of Monroe. The only vein containing these valuable metals (cobalt and nickel) in abundance in the United States, is in the town of Chatham, where at present extensive mining operations for their extraction are carried on."

The granite quarries of Haddam, Middle Haddam, and Middle town, furnish excellent granite for building purposes. Spar is extensively found in certin districts.

Products, Commerce, and Manufactures. - Indian corn, oats, common potatoes, sweet potatoes, wool, butter, and cheese are among the products of the State. Of late years large quantities of tobacco have been raised, especially in the Connecticut valley, where the soil is well suited to its growth. The tobacco is of a superior quality, and is known in the market as the best tobacco for " wrappers" that is grown.

The domestic trade of Connecticut consists principally in the export of her manufactures. Her foreign trade is carried on chiefly through New York and Boston, although she has some direct trade with the "West Indies, and an active coasting trade.

The manufacturing interests of Connecticut are immense. She annually consumes large quantities of cotton and wool in the manufacture of goods. Copper, tin, iron, and brass ware, hats, boots, shoes, coaches, axes, combs, buttons, saddlery, and paper are extentensively manufactured ; also agricultural and mechanical implements.

Education, etc. - The board of education is composed of the governor and lieutenant-governor and four elective members chosen by the legislature. Each township has one or more superintendents, who are denominated "acting school visitors." The school fund consists of bank stock, State bonds, and contracts, bonds, and mortgages on real estate. Children under fourteen years of age are not allowed to be employed in manufacturing establishments or other business unless they attend school three months a year, and parents and guardians are obliged to enforce attendance on school when the employees are temporarily discharged for that purpose. There are 1,665 school-houses in the State, and a State normal school at New Britain. Yale College, one of the oldest and largest in the United States, was founded in 1700 as the collegiate school of the colony of Connecticut. It was first established at Saybrook, and in 1716 removed to New Haven. It derives its name from Governor Yale, one of its early patrons. The medical faculty was founded in 1813, the theological and the legal in 1822, and the scientific in 1846. In 1872 the custom of the governor appointing six senators to govern the affairs of the college was substituted for the alumni representation. The collection in mineralogy and geology, embracing over 30,000 specimens, is excellent, and the scientific apparatus is extensive. The college library contains about 40,000 volumes; the libraries of two literary societies, 12,000 volumes each, it has 45 instructors, and of late years has averaged about 600 students. It has law, medical, and theological departments. Trinity college is beautifully situated in Hartford. There are theological schooTs at Hartford and Middletown. "Wesleyan University is located at the latter place. At Meriden there is a State Reform School for youthful offenders under sixteen years of age. At Hartford the Retreat for the Insane is located", and is liberally treated by the State. The Deaf and Dumb asvlum at the same place was the first institution of the kind founded in the United States. Other States send their patients to this institution. The State Prison is located at "Wethersfield.

New Haven is the largest city in the State, and until 1871 was one of the capitals of the State. It is odo of the most beautiful cities in America; has a considerable coasting-trade and regular steamboat communication with New York. Hartford, the present capital, is a great railroad center, and is the seat of flourishing manufactures. Norwich, Bridgeport, Water bury, and New London are growing and prosperous cities, the latter being the seat of an important fishery trade. Middleton also is a prosperous and growing town on the Connecticut River, and there are many picturesque little towns much frequented by residents in the large

New York

NEW YORK, one of the thirteen original States, and first in population, is situated between latitude 40deg. 29min. 40sec. and 45deg. Omin. 42sec. north, and longitude 71deg. 51min. and 79deg. 47min. 25sec. west, and is bounded on the north by Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, the River St. Lawrence and Canada, east by Lake Champlain, and the States of Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and by the Atlantic Ocean ; south by the ocean, New- Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and west by Pennsylvania, the Niagara River, and the Lakes, which make its irregular northwestern boundary. It has an area of 47,000 square miles, or 30,800,000 acres.

The surface of the State is elevated, the most of it being a section of the great Alleghany table-land. However, there is a great diversity in the aspect of the several physical divisions. The eastern half of the State is traversed by mountainous ranges ; the surface of the interior is uneven, and contains several large and deep lakes. The Appalachian or Alleghanian chain of mountains enters the southeast of the State in mountainous ridges from New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The New Jersey ridge crosses the Hudson River at and around West Point about fifty miles fi'om its mouth, and forms the celebrated Highlands of the Hudson, which hath given this noble river a fame only second to that of the Rhine. After passing the Hudson, this range takes a northerly course under the name of the Taconic Mountains to join the Green Mountains in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Where the Highlands are divided by the Hudson they are about twenty miles in breadth, but do not often attain a height of 1,500 feet, though in one instance, on the east bank of the river near Fishkill, they reach an altitude of nearly 1,700 feet. Northwest of the Highlands, and running nearly parallel, are the Shawangunk Mountains, which are followed by the widely celebrated Catskill Mountains which approach the Hudson River from the southwest, then turn off to the northwest, toward the Mohawk River. The grandest chain of mountains lie north of the Mohawk River, and Tjetween Lake Ontario on the west and Lakes Champlain and George on the east. They traverse, under various local names and in different directions, a dozen of the northern counties of the State. The most important group, mainly lying in Essex county, is the famous Adirondack, where hundreds of tourists repair every season to recreate themselves, and enjoy the excellent fishing and hunting which there abound. The highest peak is Mount Marcy, which has an elevation of 5,379 feet, and is the loftiest Summit in the State. The Catskill Mountains appear to resume their course beyond the Mohawk River, in Herkimer county, and to extend beyond the St. Lawrence into Canada, under the name of the Chateaugay Range.

Among the natural curiosities of New York are the Falls of Niagara ; of the Genesee, three cascades of 96, 25, and 84 feet in two and one-half miles ; of the Trenton, which falls 200 feet in five cascades; the Taghanie Falls, of 230 feet; the oft-painted Catskill Falls, 175 and 85 feet, in a gorge of the Catskill Mountains ; and Cohoes Falls in the Mohawk.

History, Government, and Finances. - On September 9, 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman employed by the Dutch East India Company, entered the Bay of New York in his little vessel, the Half Moon. Three days later, he sailed up the majestic stream which bears his name, and continued his voyage to some point between the present cities of Hudson and Albany. The territory discovered by this navigator was claimed by Holland, and named New Netherland. In 1621 the Dutch East India Company was incorporated, and under its auspices, two years later, eighteen families settled at Fort Orange, and thirty families at New Amsterdam, now New York City. In 1626, Peter Minuits, the directorgeneral, purchased Manhattan Island of the Indians for the equivalent of twenty-four dollars. The Dutch settlement, spreading to the east and west, came in collision with the English upon the Connecticut, and the Swedes upon the Delaware. In 1655, Stuyvesant took forcible possession of the Swedish territory and annexed it to New York. The English claimed New Netherlands as part of Virginia, a claim founded upon the prior discovery of Cabot. On March 12, 1664, Charles II granted a charter of all the territory lying between the" Hudson and Delaware to his brother the Duke of York. Colonel Nicolls, with English troops, appeared before New Amsterdam, and demanded its surrender. Its governor, Peter Stuyvesant, unable to resist, complied with the demand, and the whole country passed into the hands of the English. New Amsterdam was named New York, and Fort Orange, Albany. The whole providence was designated New York. For many years, New York was engaged in conflicts with the Indians and French. The linal struggles between England and France to determine the sovereignty of North America commenced in 1754. Along the frontier of New York the French had erected fortresses on Lake Champlain, at Frontenac (now Kingston), on the St. Lawrence, and at Niagara. The English advanced posts were at Fort Edward on the Hudson, and at Osewego on Lake Ontario. In 1756 the latter place was taken by the French and destroyed, and the following year Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George, was taken by the French, aDd the garrison, after capitulation, mercilessly butchered by the Indians. In 1758, Abercrombie, at the head of 16,000 men", was defeated in an attack upon Ticonderoga, and in the same year Colonel Bradstreet journeyed through the wilderness, and took Fort Frontenac. In 1759 Niagara surrendered to General Prideaux and Sir "William Johnson, and Ticonderoga and Crown Point were abandoned, leaving no French force in the colony. Under the administration of Pitt, the crown pursued a liberal policy towards the colonies, but upon the conquest of Canada, England renewed her aggressive policy, and was met with determined opposition. New York entered with zeal into the measures of common defence. In February, 1776, an American force entered New York city, but in the following August, the disastrous battle of Long Island placed New York into the hands of the British. On November 25, 1783, New York was evacuated by the British, which was the closing event of the Revolution. The first constitution of the State was adopted in March, 1777, and was revised in 1801, 1821, and 1846. '

New York sent 473,443 men to the national army in the late war. The legislature of New York consists of a senate and assembly, the former composed of 32 members, chosen every two years, and the latter of 12S members, elected annually. A governor is elected biennially. A lieutenant-governor is elected at the same time, and for the same period. A secretary of state, comptroller, treasurer, State engineer, and surveyor are all elected by the people. The chief officers of the administrative department are a superintendent of public instruction, nineteen regents of the university without salary, superintendent of the banking and insurance departments, three inspectors of State prisons, three canal commissioners, three canal appraisers, superintendent of weights and measures, and three State assessors. The judiciary consists of eight justices of the court of appeals and thirty-three judges of the supreme court, a clerk of the court of appeals, and a State reporter. The State is divided into two Federal judicial districts, and a district court is held in each. The State courts consist of a court for the trial of impeachments, which is composed of the senate and the judges of the court of appeals, and is a court of record ; the court of appeals ; the supreme court ; and court of oyer and terminer, the latter being a tribunal of criminal jurisdiction only. The county courts are held by the county judge, assisted by two justices of the peace elected annually. The judge also performs the duties of surrogate. In counties where the population is over 40,000 a surrogate may be elected. In this State a criminal can testify in his own behalf. A married woman may sue and be sued in her own name as respects her separate estate, and she may carry on business in her own name. New York sends 32 representatives to Congress, and casts 35 electoral votes.

Geology and Mineralogy. - New York has been more thoroughly surveyed than any other State in the Union. Beginning in the northeast, the greater portion of the district north of the Mohawk and east of Lake Ontario is of primary formation, "with, however, a belt of Potsdam sandstone on the north, which is in turn separated from the St. Lawrence by a second belt of calciferous (lime-producing) sandrock. Between Lake Ontario and the primary region mentioned above in the order named, proceeding south to Oswego, are groups of Potsdam sandstone, calciferous sandrock, Black River, Bird's Eye, and Fenton limestone, Utica slate, Helderberg limestone (including grits and sandstone), and gray sandstone ; south of Lake Ontario, narrow belts are found ; the Medina sand tone, which is usually red, but sometimes variegated, giving origin to salt springs ; the Clinton group, composed of sandstones, shales, impure limestones, iron ores, etc. ; the Niagara group, a limestone resting upon shale, and forming the farfamed cataract of that name; the Onondaga salt group; the Helderberg limestone; and the Hamilton group, composed of calcareous, sandy, or fossiliferous shales. Iron is found in great abundance in many couuties of the State. Lead exists in vast quantities in St. Lawrence county, and mines are worked in Ulster and several other southwestern counties ; zinc, copper and titanium exist in several counties. Molybdenum, manganese, arsenic, cerium, silver, cobalt, and bismuth are occasionally found. Gypsum abounds in the central and some of the western counties, and is an excellent fertilizer. Lime is also abundant in the same regions. An excellent quality of marble is quarried at Sing-Sing. New York contains numerous valuable mineral springs of great celebrity. Some of them are noted for tiieir healing properties. Among those most resorted to are the Saratoga, Ballston, New Lebanon, Sharon, and Avon Springs. Natural issues of carbur- . etted hydrogen are found in several counties. In Fredonia, Chautauqua county, the supply is so abundant that it is used for illuminating purposes, and the lighthouse at Portland, on Lake Erie, is supplied with it. Oil and gas springs exist in different portions of the State, but they are insignificant when compared with the springs existing in the neighboring State of Pennsylvania.

Climate and Soil. - The climate is not capable of description in general terms. Each locality varies in its temperature, and has its peculiarities. In the northern part of the State the winters are long and severe, snow covering the ground during most of the winter months. In the western part the severity of winter is mitigated by the* proximity of the great lakes and the prevalence of southwest winds. -In the southeast, below the Catskill Mountains, the sea air tempers the heats of summer and chills the air of spring. The mean average temperature of the whole State is 46deg. 49min. Fahrenheit. The lpiean maximum is 90deg., and the mean minimum 12deg. below zero ; the mean annual range is 104deg. The prevailing winds are from the southwest. On the seaboard, easterly winds invariably bring rain, while westerly winds are unfailing harbinger of pleasant, dry weather, and in winter of protracted seasons of frost.

The soil varies in fertility and productiveness. Genesee flats and the Mohawk and Hudson valleys enjoy fertile soils. In the northeastern portions the soil is inferior and less productive. The soil of New York cannot be generally described, but this State may be termed fertile, and such it is, with the exception of the poor soils in the mountainous regions.

Products, Commerce, and Manufactures. - New York produces in great abundance live-stock, Irish potatoes, grass-seeds, oats, wool, rye, orchard, and market-garden products, butter, cheese, hops, hay, maple-sugar, beeswax, and honey. Large quantities of Indian corn, barley, buckwheat, peas, beans, flax, maplemolasses, and tobacco are annually produced. The vineyards of this State, which of late years have increased in number, produce large quantities of excellent champagne, etc. Sweet potatoes, hemp, and silk are produced in moderate quantities. Among the fruits are apples, pears, grapes, plums, peaches, cherries, and berries of various kinds.

The geographical position of New York State, especially its capital, gives it great facilities for foreign and domestic commerce. In commercial importance it ranks first in the Union. Its admirable systems of railroads and canals and excellent water-ways afford unequaled facilities for internal transportation and traffic, and its splendid harborage and seaward outlet have given it an immense foreign trade.

New York has extensive manufactories of woolen and cotton goods, boots and shoes, Hour, steam-engines, iron founderies, tanneries, manufactories of carriages, leather goods, etc.

Education, etc. - The superintendent of public instruction is elected by joint ballot of the senate and assembly for three years. District school commissioners are elected by the people for three years; it is a part of their duty to examine teachers. Trustees are elected in each district, who are the executive officers in the district where chosen. A teacher is required to show an uncancelled diploma granted by the State Normal School, or an unrevoked certificate of qualification given by the superintendent of public instruction, or an unexpired certificate from a school commissioner of the district where employed, or by the school officer of the city or village in which he is employed, authorized by special act to grant such certificate. No person who is within two degrees of relationship by blood or marriage to any trustee shall be employed as a teacher, except with the approval of two-thirds of the voters of the district. Their certificates hold good for periods ranging from one to three years. Union free schools may be established, under certain provisions, by two or more adjoining districts ; a two-thirds vote of the citizens being necessary to effect that purpose.

New York And New Jersey

The amount expended every year consists of the increase of the Common School Fund, $170,000, the increase of the United States Deposit Fund, $165,000, and a State school-tax of one and onequarter mills upon each dollar of valuation. There are eleven theological, and seven medical institutions in the State. Albany, Oswego, Brockport, Cortland, Fredonia, Potsdam, Buffalo, and Genesee each has a State normal school.