La Crosse County, Wisconsin - The whole text, 1881 (part 5 of 16)

The jiosition of the watershed between the great basins of the Mississijjpi and the St. Lawrence is somewhat peculiar. On the Illinois line, it lies only three and one half miles from Lake Michigan and about i6o feet above its surface. As tra'-ed northward from this point, it retires from the lake and ascends in elevation till it approaches the vicinity of Lake Winnebago, when it recurves upon itself and descends to the portage between the Fox and the AVisconsin rivers, whence it pursues a northerly course to the heights of Michigan, when it turns westward and tassts in an undulating course across the northern part of the state. It will be observed that much the greater area of the state is drained by the Mississippi system.

The relationship whi( h the drainage channels have been observed to sustain to the topographical features is ]>artly that of cause and partly that of effect. The general arching of the surface, giving rise to the main slopes, is due to deep-seated geological causes that produce an upward sw elling of the center of the state. This determined the general drainage systems. On the other hand, the streams, acting upon strata of varying hardness, and presenting different attitudes, wore away the surface une(iually and cut tor themselves anomalous channels, leaving corresponding divides between, which gave origin to the minor irregularities that diversify the surface. In addition to this, the glacier - that great ice stream, the father of the drift - planed and jilowed the surface and heajied up its i/t/'/vV ujion it, modifying both the surface and drainage features Looked at from a causal standpoint, we see tiie results of internal forces elevating, and external agencies cuttiirj down, or, in a word, the fa'-e of the state is the growth of geologic ages furrowed by the teardrops of tiie skies.

In harmony with tiie historical character of this atlas, it may be mosl vvcceptable to weave our briet sketch of tlie geologii:.il structure of the state into the ibrm of a narrative of its growth.

I'he physical history of Wisconsin cm be traced back with certaintv to a state of complete submergem e beneath the w.iters of the ancient ocean, by which the m.uerial of our oldest and deepest strata were deposited. Let an extensive but shallow sea, covering the whole of the present territory of the sl.Ue. be pictured to the mind, and let it be im.igined to be depositing mud and sand, as at the jiresent day. and wt- lia\c before us the first authentic stage of the history under consideration. IJack of tliat, the history is lost in the mists of geologic antiquity. The thickness of the sediments that accumulated in that early period was immense, being measured by thousands of feet. These sediments occujiied of course an essentially horizontal position, and were, doubtless, in a large degree hardened into beds of impure sandstone, shale, and other sedimentary rock. But in the progress of time an enormous pressure, attended by heat, was brouc^ht to bear upon thcni laterally, or edgewise, b\- w'nicrh they were folded and crumpled, and forced up out of tlie w.Ltcr, giving rise to an island, the nucleus of \Visconsin. The force which produced this upheaval is believed to have arisen from the cooling and consequent contraction of the globe. The foldings ma)- be imaged as the wrinkles of a shrinking earth. But the contortion of the beds was a scarcely more wonderful result than the change in the character of the rock which seems to have taken place simultaneously with the folding, indeed, as the result of the heat and pressure attending it. The sediments, that seem to have previously taken the form of imjuire sandstone and shale for the most jiart, underwent a change, in which re-arrangement and crystalization of the ingredients jilayed a conspicuous part. By this metamor[)hism, granite, gneiss, mica schist, syenite, hornblende rocks, chloritic schists and other crystalline rocks were formed. These constitute the Laurentian formation and belong to the most ancient period yet distinctly recognized in geology, although there were undoubtedly more ancient rocks. I'hey are therefore very fittingly termed Archrean - ancient - rocks (formerly .\zoic.) No remains of life have been found in this formation in \\'isconsin, but from the nature of rocks elsewhere, believed to be of the same age, it is probable tiiat the lowest forms of life existed at this time. It is not strange tliat the great changes through wliich the rocks have passed should have so nearlv obliterated all traces of them. The original extent of this Laurentian island can not now be accurately ascertained, but it will be sufficiently near the truth for our present purposes to consider the formation as it is now exposed, and as it is represented on the maps of the geological survey, as showing approximately the original extent. This will make it include a large area in the north-centra! portion of the state and a i^ortiou of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. All the rest of the state was beneath the ocean, and the same may be said of the greater portion of the United States The height of this island was doubtless considerable, as it has since been very much cut down by denuding agencies. The strata, as now exposed, mostly stand in highly inclined attitudes and present their worn edges to view. The tops of the folds, of which they are the remnants, seem to have been cut away, and we have the nearl) vertical sides rem.iining.

Hl'Roman Period

As soon as the Laurentian island had been elevated, the waves of the almost shoreless ccean began to beat against it, the elements to disintegrate it, and the rains of the then tropical climate to wash it; and the sand, ci.iy and other J,/>>:s, thus formed, were deposited beneath the waters around its base, giving ri>e to a new sedimentary formation. There is no evidence that there was any vegetation on the island: the air and water were, doubtless, heavily charc'cd with carbonic acid, an efficient agent of disintegration: the climate was warm and doubtless vcrv moist - circumslaiices which C(jinliined to hapten the erosion of the i^l.md and increase the deposition in the surroundini; :,ea. \n addition to these agencies, we judge from the large amount of carbonaceous matter contained in some of tiie l>eds, that there must have been an abundan<e of marine vegetation, and, from the liuie.-tone bcU that accuidiulated, it is probable that there was marine animal life al-,o, ^iiue in later ages that was the chief smirce ot limestone strata. 1 he joint accunmlanons from the^e several sources gave rise to a series of shales, sandstones and lime-^toiie^. whose combined thickness was several tliousand feet.

At length the process of upheaval and metaniorphibni that closed the Laurcntian jjeriod was rcjicated, and tlioe sandstones became ipiart/ites; the limestones were crystalized, the shales were changed to slates or schists, and inte. mediate graders of sediments became diorites, (piartz- porphyries and other forms of crystalline rocks. The carbonaceous matter was changed in part to graphite. There were also associated witli these deposits extensive beds of iron ore^ whl( h we now hr.d chictly in the f jrni of magnetite, nematite and speciil.ir ore. These constitute the lluronian rocks. From the amount of iron ere they contain, the\ are aUo fittingly termed the iron-bearing series. As in the preceding case, the strata were contorted, flexed and folded, and the whole island was further elevated, carrying with it these cin umjacent strata, by whii h it^ extent was p.uich. enlarged. The area of the island after receiving this increment was considcraljly greater tliari the surface represented as Laurcntian and Huronian on the accompanying mail, since it was subsecpaently covered to a considerable extent by later formations. Penokee range, in .Ashland county, is the most conspicuous development of the Huronian rocks in the state. The ui)turned edge of the formation forms a bold rampart, extending across the country for sixty miles, making the nearest approach to a mor.ntain range to be found within the state. A belt of magnetic schist may be traced nearlv its entire length. In the northern part of Oconio county , there is als(.i an import, mt deve!o[)ment of this formatiiin, being an extension of tile Menonionee iron-bearing series. A third area is found in iJarron counts', which includes deposits of pipestone. In the south central part of the state there are a considerable number of small areas and isolated outliers of quartzite and quarlz-por;)li\rv, that, without much doiibt,. belong to this series. The most conspicuous of these are the Karaboo quartzite ranges, in !^auk and Columbia counties, and from thence a chain of detached outliers extends northeasterly through several counties. The most southerly ex[iosnre of the formation is near Lake Mills, in Jefferson county.

I'revio'as to the u[iheaval of the Huronian strata, tliere occurred in the Lake Superior region events of peculiar and striking interc--t. If we may not speak with afisolute assurance, we may at least say with reasonable probabilit}', that the crust of the earth was fissured in that regic^n, and iluit there issued from beneath an immense mass of molten rock, tliat spread itself over an area of more than three hundred miles in length and one hundred miles in width. The action was not confined to a single overflow, but eruption fjllowed eruption, sometimes apparently in quick succession, sometimes evidently at long intervals. Each outpouring, u hen soliditicd, finned a stratum of ir.qi rock, and where these followed each other witiioat any intervening deposit, a series of tra[i|ieaii beds were formed. In some cases, however, an interval occurred, during which the waves, at ting upon the rock iireviousiy t'ormed, produced a bed of sand, gravel and clay, which afterwartl solidified into sandstone, conglomerate and siiale. The history of these beds is lithographed ovt their surface in beautilV.l riiiple-marks and other evidences of waveactitm. .Vfter the cess.ition of tlie igneous eruptions, there accumulated .i vast tliickness of sand-.' one, shale and conglomerate, so t'uat the whole series is literally miles in thickness.

The eruptive jionions h.ive been sjiokeii of as tr.(i>>, for convenieiice ; but tliey do not now ]xjssess the usual ch.ir.u-teristics of ignous rocks, and apjiear to have undergone a chemical metamorphisin by which the mineral ingreilients have been changed, tile leading ones now being an iron chlorite and a fehJspar, with which are tissociated. as accessory minerals, q.iartz, epidote, Jirenite, calcite, l.iumontite, anah.ite. d.itolite. m.ignetite, native copper and silver, and, more rarely, other miner. ils. The rock, as .i whole, is now known ,is a melapli\ r. Tlie upjper [jortiim of each bed is Usually ch.ir.icteri/ed by :dniond-si/ed cells filled with tiie minerals above mentioned, giving to the rock an amygdaloidal nature. The native copper was not injected in a.

molten stnte, a-, has ven- generally been sai)posed, l)ut u\is deposited by chemical means aftet the beds u-ere formed and after a [lortion of the chemical change of the minerals above mentioned had been acconiplisheti. The same is true of the silver. The copper occar.i in all the different forms of rock - the melaphyrs, amygdaloid-, sandstones, shales and conglomerates, but most abundantly in the amygdaloids and certain conglomerates.

This series e.\tends acro-,s the northern portion of the state, occupying jiorlions of Ashland, liayfield, Douglas, liurnett and Polk counties. When the Huronian rocks were elevated, tliey carried the-;e up «-ith them, and they partook of the folding in some measure. The copperbearing range'of Keweenaw Point. Michigan, e.xtend^ southwestward through Ashland, Eurnett and Polk <;ounties, and throughout this wliule extent the beds dip north-norlhwesterly toward Lake Superior, at a high angle; but in Douglas and Bayfield counties there i^ a parallel range in which the beds incline in the opj,osite direction, and undoubtedly form the opposite side of a trough formed by ;i downward fle.xure of the strata.

.After the great .Irchcean upheaval, there followed a long period, concerning wnich very little is known - a " lost interval " in geological history. It is only certain that immense erosion of the Arch.eaa strata took place, and that in time the sea advanced upon the island, erodin- its strata and redqwsiting the wash and wear beneath its surface. The more resisting beds withstood this advance, and formed reel's and rocky islands olY the ancient shore, about whose ba;es the sands and accumulated, as ti-.ey did over the bottom of the surrounding' o<.ean. The breakers, da.Jiing against the rocky cliff,, threw down masses of rock, which imbedded themselves in the sands, or were rolled and rounded on the be.icii, and at length were buried, ui either case, to tell their own history, when they should be ag.iin disclosed by the ceaseless of the very elements that had buried them. In addition to the accumulations of wash and wear that have previously been the main agents of rock-formations, abundant life now swarms in the ocean, .md the sands become tlie great cemetery of its dead. Though the contribution of each bttle being was small, the myriad millions tli.it the waters brought forth, yielded by their remains, a large contriluition to the accumulating sediments. Among plants, there were sea-weeds, and among animaU, protozoans, radiates, mollis'-;, .uid articulates, all the sub-kingdoms excefit the vertebrates. Among these, the most rem.nrkable, both in nature and number, were the trilobites who have left their casts in countless multitudes in certain localities. The result of the action nf these several agencies was the formation nf extensive bed-, of sandstone, with interstratilied l.iyer:, of limestone and shale. The>e surrounded the Arch.van nucleus on all sides, and rei'Osed on us flanks. On the Lake Superior margin, the sea acted mainly upon the copper and ironliearing series, which are highly terrugi:iou,, and the result wa the red Lake Superior sandstone. On the oppoMte side of the inland, the wave-action was mainly upon quartzite,, iwrphyries and .L'ranites, and re-ulted in light-colored >,ii.dotones. The former is contined to the immedi.ite vicinity of Lake Superior ; the bitter occuiiie^ a broad, irregular belt bordering the Arch.eaii area on the south, and, being widest in the central part of the state, is often likened to a rude ire^cent. The form and po-,itioii uf the area will be be>t api)rehended by relerring to the in.tp. It will be understood from the foregoing de-cription, tluu the .-.trata'^ of this formation lie in a nearly horizontal position, and repOse unconfurmably upon the worn surlace of the crystalline rocks. The close of this period wa, not m.irked by any great upheaval; there was no crumpling or rnetamorphism of the strata, and they have remained to the present day very much as they were originally depositeii, save a slight arching upward in tile central porti >u uf the state. The lieds have been somewliat compacted by the pressure of superincumbent strata and solidified by the cementing action of calcareous and ferruginous waters, and by their own coherence, liat the original character of the formation, as a great sand-bed, has not been obliterated. It still bears the ripple-m.irks, crOiS-laminatiori, worm-burrows, and similar markings that characterize a sandy beach. Its thickness is very irregular, owing to the unevenness of its Archa-an bottom, and may be said to range from i,ooo feet downward. The strata slope gentlv away fxom t!ie Arclix^an core of the state and underlie all the later formations, and may be reacliC'l at an) point in bouthern Wisconsin by penetrating to a sufficient depth, which can be calculated with an approximate correctne.is. As it is a water-bearing formation, and the source of fine .Vrtesian wells, this is a f.ici of uuicli ini[iortance. The interbedded layers of limestone and sliale, by supplying impervious strata, very much enhance its value as a source of fountains.

During the previous period, the accumulation of sandstone gave place for a time to the formation of limestcjne. and afterward liie deposit of sandstone was resumed. At its close, without any very marked disturbance of e.xisting conditions, the formation of limestone was resumed, and progressed with little interruption till a tliickness ranging from 5-0 to 250 feet was attained. This vari.-itiou is due mainly to irregulariticM of the upper surtace of the formation, which is undulating, and in some localities, may appropriately be termed billowy, the surface rising and fallin'4 100 feet, in some cases, within a short distance. This, and the preceding similar deposit, have been s['oken of as limestones simply, but they are really ilolomitea, or magnesian limestones, since they contain a large proportion of carbonate of magne>ia. This rock also contains a notable (]uaiitity of silii.:a, which occurs disseminated througli tiic mass of the rock; or, variously, as nodules or masses of chert; as cry^tals of quart/., filling or lining drusy cavities, forming beautiful miniature grottos; as the nucleus of oiilitic ccncretion^, or as sand. Some argillaceous matter also enters into its composition, and small ipiantities of the ores of iron, lead .md copper. are sometimes found, but they give little promise of value. The evidences of life are verjscanty. Some sea-weeds, a tew mollus!v5, and an occasional indication of other forms of life embrace the known l:-t, except at a lew tavored localities where a somewhat ampler fauna is found. But it is not. therefore, safe to a-sume the absence of life in the depositing seas, for it is certain that most limestone has orignated from the remains of anini.iU and plants that secrete calcareous material, .ivid it i^ most consistent to believe that such was the case in the [iresent instance, and that the distinct traces of life were mostly obliterated. This formation occupies an irregular belt skirting the I'otsdam area. It was. doubtless, originally a somewhat uniform band swinging around the nucleus of the state alreaily formed, but it has since been eroded by streams to its [irescnt jagged outline.

At the close of this limestone-making period, tliere appears to have been an interval of which we have no record, and tlie next chapter of the history introduces us to another era of sand accumulation. The work began by the leveling up of the inetiualities of the surface of the Lower Magnesi.in limestone, and it ceased before that was entirely accomplished in all [uirts of tiie State, f )r a few prominences were lett projecting through the sand deposits. The material laid down consisted of a silicious sand, of uniform, well-rounded - doubtless well-rolled - grains. This was evidently deposited horizontally upon the uneven limestone surface, and so rests in a sense uiiconforinably iipon it. Where the sandstone abuts against the sides of the limestone prominences, it is mingled with material derived by ua\ e action from them, which tells the story of its formation. But aside from these and other exceptional impurities, the formation is a very pure sandstone, and is used for glass manufacture. At most points, the sandstone has never become firmly cemented and readily crumbles, so that it is used for mortar, the simi^le handling \\ ith pick and shovel being sufficient to reduce it to a sand. Ouing to the unevenness of its bottom, it varies greatly in tliickness, the greatest jet obser\ed being 212 feet, but tlie average is less than 100 feet. Until rc( cntly. no organic remains had ever been found in it, and the traces now collecteol are very mt^ager indeed, but they are sul'ticient to show the existence of marine life, and demonstrate that it is an oceanic deposit. The rarity of fossils i-, to be attributed to the porous nature of the rock, which is unfavorable to their preservation. This porosity, however, subserves a very useful purpose, as it renders this pre-eminently a v.ater-bearing horizon, and supplies some of the finest Artesian fountains in the state, and is competent to hunish many more. It occupies but a narrow area at the surface, fringing that of the Lower Magne»iau limestone on the south.

Trento.v Limf,5tone. A slight change in the oceanic conditions caused a return to limestone formation, accompanied with the deposit of consideralile clayey material, which formeil shale. The origin of the limestone is made evident by a close examination of it, which shov.s it to be full of fragments of shells, corals, and other organic remains, or the impressions they have left. Countless numbers uf the lower formi of life tlourislu-d in the seas, and left their remains to be comminuted and consolidated into limestone. A jcirt of the time, the accumidation of clayey matter jircdominated, and so layers of shale alternate with the limestone beds, and shaly leaves and partings occur in the limestone layers. Unlike tiie calcareous strata above and below, a portion of these are true limestone, containing but a very small proportion ot magnesia. .\ suftlcient amount of carbonaceous matter is jiresent in some la_\ers to cause them to burn readily. This formation is quite highly metalliferous in certain portions of the lead region, containing zinc espccialh, and considerable lead, with, less quantities of other metals. The tbrmation abounds in fossils, many of them well preserved, and. from their great antif|uity, they yiossess uncommon interest. All the animal sub-kingdoms, except vertebrates, are represented The surface area of this rock borders tl'ie St. Peter's sandstone, but, to a\ oid too great complexity uii the m.-qi, it is not distinguished from the next formation to which it is closely allied. Its thickness reaches 120 I'eet.

With scarcely a change of oceanic conditions, limestone deposit continued, so that we find reposing upon the surface of the Trenton limestone, 250 feet, or le.ss, of a light gray or buff colored highly magnesiau limestone, uccurring in he.ivy beds, and having a sub-crystalline structure. In the southern portion of the state, it contains but little shaly matter, but in the northeistern part, it is modified by the addition of argillaceous lasers and leaves, and presents a bluish I'r gieenish-gray aspect. It receives its name from the sulphide of lead, - galena, of which it < ontains large quantities, in the southwestern p.irt of t!ie st ite. 7iiic ore is also abundant, and these minerals gi\e to this and the underlying I'ormation gre.u importance in that region. Elsewhere, althouL;h these ores are jiresent in small quantities, t;ie\' ha\e not developed economic importance. This limestone, though changing its nature, as abo\e stated, occupies a large area in the southwestern pirt of the state, and a broad north and south belt in e.ist-rentral Wisconsin. It will be seen th.it our island is growing ajiace by com eiuric additions, and that, as the several I'lrmations sweep around the central nucleus of .VrrhaMu rocks, thi'V swing off into adjoining -slates, whose formation was somewhat more tardv than tnat of Wisconsin

A change ensued upon the furmition of the Galena limestone, by virtue of which there followed the de[)osition of large quantities of clay, accompanied by some calcareous material, the whole reaching at some points a thickness of more than :oo feet. The sediment has never become more than partially indurated, and a portion of it is now only a bed of compact clay. Other portions hardened to shale or limestone according to the material. The shales are of various gray, green, blue, ])urple and other hues, so that where vertical clift's are exposed, as along Green bay, a beaut,iful appearance is presented. As a wliole, this is a very soft formation, and hence easily eroded. Owing to this fact, along the east side of the Green-bay-Kock-river valley, it has been extensively carried away, leaving the hard overlying Xiagara limestone projecting, in the bold cliffs known as " The Ledge." Tlie prominence of the mounds in the southwestern ])art of the state are due to a like cause. Certain j)ortio!is of this formation abound in astonishing numbers of well jireservcd fossils, among which corals, bryozoans, and brachiopods, predominate, the first named being especially abundant. A little intelligent attention to these might have saved a considerable waste of time and means in an idle search for coal, to which a slight resemblance to some of the shales of the coal measures has led. This formation imderlies the mounds of the lead region, and forms a narrow belt on the eastern margin of the Green-bay-Rockriver valley. This was the closing pernd of the Lower Silurian Age.

On the surface of tlie --hales just described, there were accumidated.here and there, beds of peculiar lenticular iron ore. It is probable that it was deposited in detached basins, but the evidence of this is not conclusive. In our own state, this is chiefly known as Iron Ridge ore, from tiie remarkable de\'elopment it attains at that point. It i= made up of little concretions, which from their si/.e and co'or are fancied to resemble tiax seed, and hence t!ie name " seed ore," or the roe of fish, and hence oolitic ore. " .Shot ore " is also a common term. This is a soft ore occurring in regular horizontal beds which are quarried with more ease than ordinary limjstone. This deposit attains, at Iron Ridge, the unusual thickness of twenty-five feet, and affords a readily accessible supply of ore, adequate to all demands for a long time to conie. Similar, but much, less e.xtensive beds, occur at Flartford, and near iJepere, besides some feeble deposits elsewhere. Large quantities of ore from Iron Ridge have been sh pped to various points in this and nei'diboring States for reduction, in addition to that sme.ted in tiie vicinity of the mines.

Following the period of iron deposit, there ensued tiie greatest limestone-forming era in thehistory of Wisconsin. During its progress a series of beds, summing up, at their points of greatest thickness, .sca:ce!y less th.m eigiit hundred feet, were laid down. The process of formation was essentially that already described, the accumulation of t'le calcareous secretions of marine life. Toward the close of tlie pjrioJ, reefs appeared, tiiat closely resemble the coral reefs of the present ieas, and doubtless have a similar histor\'. Corals form a very prominent element in the lite of this period, and with them were associ.ited gre.it numiier.^ of moUusks. one of which {Pt-nt.iiHi-rui vblo'i^us) sometimes occurs in beds not unlike cert.iin bivalves of to-dav, and niav be saui to h.ive been the oyst^-r of tlie Silurian se.is. .\t cert.iin points, thosj wonderful animals,, the stone lilies (C/v'/.'.j/.A'), grew in remarkable almndanre, mounted on stems like a jilant, vet true animals. Those unique crustaceans, the trilobite^. were conspicuous in numbers and variety, while the gigantic cephalopods held sway over the life of the seas. In the vicinity of th.' reefs,.

there seem to have been extensive calcareous sand flats and areas over which fine calcareous mud sett'ed, the former resulting in a pure granular dolomite, the latter in a compact close-textured stone. The rock of the reefs is of very irregular structure. Of other portions of the formation, some are coarse heavy beds, some fine, even-bedded, close-grained la\ers, and some, again, irregular, impure and cherty. All are highly magnesian, and some are among the purest dolomites known. The Niagara limestone occupies a broad belt lying adjacent to Lake Michigan.

On Mud creek, near Milwaukee, there is found a thin-bedded slaty limestone, that is believed to represent this period. It has nsgle ted, however, to leave us an unequivocal record of its history, as fossils are extremely tare, and its stratigrapliical relations and lithographical -character are capable of more tlian one interpretation. Xear the village of Waubeka in Ozaukee county, tliere is a similar formation, somewhat more tossllilerous, that seems to represent the same period. The area which these occupy is very small and they play a most insignifi- -cant part in the geology of the state. They close the record of the Silurian age in Wisconsin. During its progress the land had been gradually emerging from the ocean and increasing its amplitude by concentric belt.^ of limestone, sandstone and shale. There had been no general disturbance, only those slight oscillations which changed the nature of the tbrming rock and facilitated deposition. .\t its close the waters retired from the borders of the state, and an interval supervened, during which no additions are known to have been made to its substructure.

Devontax Age

.\fter a lap^e of time, during which the uppermost Silurian and the lowest Devonian strata, as found elsewhere, were Ibnued, the water? again advanced slightly upon the eastern margin of the state and deposited a magnesian limestone mingled with silicious and almuninous material, forming a combination of which a portion has recently been shown to po^se->s hydraulic properties of a high degree of excellence. With this deposition there dawned a new era in the life-history of Wisconsm. While multitudes of protozoans, radiates, moUusks and articulates swarmed in the iire\ious seas, no trace of a vertebrate has Ijeen found. The Hamilton period witnessed the introduction of the highest type of the animal kingdom into the \Vi.,consin series. I'lit even then only the li;>west class was represented - the fishes. The lower orders of life, as before, were present, but the species were of the less ancient Devonian type. Precisely how l"ar the dejwsit originally extended 1:^ not now known, as it has undoubtedly been much reduced by the eroding agencies that have acted u[)on it. That portion which remains, occupies a limited area on the lake sh(3re immediately north of Milwaukee, extending inland half a dozen miles. The cement rock [iroper is found on the Milwaukee river jusl above the ci;y. .\t the close of the Hamilton period the oceanic waters retired, and, if the\' ever sub.^ei|uently encroached upon our territory, they have Ict't us no permanent record of their intrusion.

The history of the formation of the substructure of the state was, it will be observed, in an unu-ual degree, sim|ile and (irogres-ive. Starting with a firm core of most ancient crystalline rocks, leaf upon leaf of stun;, strata were piled around it, adding belt after belt to the margin of he growing island until it exlendtd itself t.'.r beyond the limits of our state, and ( oalesced with tile forming continent. .Xn ideal map o{ the state would show the .-\rclKean nucleus surrounded i>y concentric bands of the later formati iiis in the order of tlieir de^.osition. l!ut during all the vast lapse of tinn; consiimeil in their growth, the elemcai^ were gnawing, carving and channeling the surface, and the outcropi>ing edges of the form,itior.s were becoming more and more jagged, and now, .ifter the la-;t stratum had been added, and the whole iiad been lifted from the waters that gave it birth, there ensued perhaps a still vaster era, during which tlie history was simply that of surface erosiun. The f.ice of the state became creased with the wrinkles of age. The edges of her rockv wr.iiiping-^ became ragged with tiic wear of time. The remaining Devonian periods, the great CarbfmiferL)Li> age, the Nresozoic era, and the earlier Tertiary periods passed, leaving no other record than that of denudation.

With the approach of tlie great Ice .\ge, a new chapter was opened. An immense sheet of ice moved slowly, but irresistibly, down frum the north, jilaning down the prominences, filling up the valleys, polishing and grooving the strata, and heaping up its rubbish of sand, gravel, clay and bowlders over the face of the country. It engraved tlie lines of its progress on the rocks, arid, by reading these, we learn that one prodigious tongue of ice plowed along the bed of Lake Michigan, and a smaller one puslied through the valley of Green bay and Rock river, while another immense ice-stream flov.-ed southwestv,,ird through the trough of Lake Superior and onward into Minnesota. The di\ersion of the glacier through these great channels seems to Iiave left the southwestern portion of the state intact, and over it we lind no drift accumulations. With the approach of a v.armer climate, the ice-streams were melted backward, leaving their debris heaped promiscuously over the surface, giving it a new configuration. In the midst of this retreat, a scries of halts and advances seem to have taken ])lace in close succession, by which the drift w.is pushed up into ridges and hills along the foot of tlie ice, after which a more rapid retreat ensued. The effect of this action was to produce ti;at remarkable chain of dril't hills and ridges, known as the Kettle range, which we have already described as winding over the surface of the state in a ver_\- peculiar manner. It is a great historic rampart, recording the position of the edge of the glacier at a certain stage of its retreat, and doubtless at the same time , noting a great cliinatic or dynamic change.

The melting of the glacier gave rise to large quantities of water, and hence to numerous torrents, as well as lakes. There occurred about this time a depression of the land to the northward, whith v,as perh.^.[i5 the cause, in jiart or in whole of the retreat of the ice. This gave origin to the great lakes. The waters advanced somev.hat upon the laud and deposited the red clay that borders Lakes Michigan and Superior and occu]!ies the Green bay \alley as far up as the vicinity of Fond du Lac. .-Vfter several oscillations, the lakes settled down into their present positions. Wherever the glacier plowed over tiie land, it left an irregular sheet of commingled clay, sand, gravel and bowlders spread unevenly over the surface. The depressions formed by its irregularities soon filled with water and gave origin to numerous b.kelets. Probably not one of the thousands of Wisconsin lakes had an existence bel'ure the glacial [.leriod. Wherever the great lakes advanced upon the land, they leveled its surface and left their record in lacustine clays and sandy beach lines.

Witli the retreat of the glacier, vegetation covered the surface, and by its aid and the action of the elements our fertile drift soils, among the last and best of Wi-,consin's formations, were produced. And the work still goes on-

Climatology Of Wisconsin

The climate of a country, or that peculiar state of the atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture which picvaiis in any given place, and uhich directly affects the growth of plants and animals, is determined !>y the following causes: ist. Distance from tlie equator. 2d. Distance from the sea. 3d. Height above the sea. 4th. Prevailing winds; and 5th. Local influences, such as soil, vegetation, and pro.xiinity to lakes and moimtains.

Of these causes, the first, distance from the equator, is by far the most important. The warmest climates are necessarily those of tropical regions where the sun's rays are vertical. But in proceeding from tlie equator toward the poles, less and less heat continues to be received by the same extent of surface, because t'ne rays fall more and more obliquely, and the same amount of heat-rays therefore spread over an increasing breadth of surface ; while, however, with the increase of obliquity, more and more heat is absorbed by the atmos]jhere, as the amount of air to be penetrated is greater. If the earth's surface were either wliully land or water, and its atmosphere motionless, the gradations of climate would run parallel with the latitudes from the equator to the jioles. But owing to the irregular distribution of land and water and the prevailing winds, such an arrangement is impossible, and the determination of the real climate of a given region, and its causes, is one of the most difticult problems of science.

On the second of these causes, distance from the sea, depends the difierence between oceanic and continental climates. Water is more slowly heated and cooled than land; the climates of the sea and the adjacent land are therefore much luure equable and moist than those of tiie interior.

A decrease of temperature is noticeable in ascending high mountains. The rate at which the temperature falls with the height above the sea is a \ery variable i|uantity, and is influenced by a variety of cause';, sucli as latitude, situation, moisture, or dryness, hour of the d.iy and season of the year. As a lough appro.ximation, however, the .fall of i" of the thermometer for every 300 feet is usually adopted.

Air in contact with any part of the earth's surface, tends to acquire the temperature of that surface. Hence, winds from the north are cold; those from the south are warm. Winds from the sea are moist, and winds from the land are usually dry. Pre\ai!ing winds are the result of tile relative distribution of atmospheric pressure blowingyVv/// places where the pressure is highest, teiuard places w liere it is lowest. As climate jjractically dej;>ends on the temperature and moisture of the air, and as these again dejiend on the prevailing winds which come charged with the temi)erature and moisture of the regions they liave tra\er.--ed, it is evident that charts showing the mean jin-sure of the atmos;ihere give us the key to the climates of the different regions of the world. The effect of jircvailing winds is seen in the moist and equable climate of Western Europe, especially Great Britain, ouing to the warm and moist southwest winds; and in the extremes of the eastern part of North America, due to the warm and moist wii-uls prevailing in summer and the Arctic blasts of winter.

Among locnl influences which modify climate, the nature of the soil is one of the most important. As water absorbs much heat, wet, marshy ground Usually lowers the mean temperature. A sandy waste presents tlie greatest extremes. The extremes of temjjerature are also modified by extensive forests, wliich prevent the soil from lieing as much warmed and cooled as it would be if bare. Evaporation goes on more slowly under the trees, since the soil is screened from the sun. And as the air among the trees is little agitated by the wind, the vapor is left to accumulate, and hence the humidity of the air is increased. Climate is modified in a similar manner by lakes and other large surfaces of water. During summer the water cools ths air and reduces the temperature cf the locality. In winter, on the otiier hand, the opposite effect is produced. The surface water wliich is cooled sinks to louer levels; the warmer water rising to the surface, radiates heat into the air and thus raises the temperatuie uf ;hc neighboring region. This influence is well illustrated, on a great scale, in our own state by 1-ake Michigan.

It is, lastly, of importance whether a given tract of country is diversified by hills, valleys and mountains. Winds with their warm vapor strike tlie sides of mountains and are forced up into higher levels of the atmosphere, where the vapor is condensed into clouds. Air coming in contact, during the night or in winter, with the cooled declivities of hills and rising grounds becomes cooled and consequently denser and sinks to the low-lying grounds, displacing the warmer and lighter air. Hence, frosts dften occur at these places, when no trace of them can be found at hig!itr levels. For the same reason the cold of winter is generally more intense in ravines and valleys than on hill tops and high grounds, the valleys being a receiuacle for the cold-air currents which descend from all sides. These currents give rise to gu.^ta and blasts of cold wind, which are simply the out-rush of cold air from such basins. This is a subject of great practical importance to fruit-growers.

In order to understand the [.rincipal features of the climate of Wisconsin, and the conditions on which these depend, it is necessary to consider th.e general climatology of the eastern United States. The chief cliaracteri.-tic of this area as a whole is, tliat -t is subject to great extremes - to all those variations of temperature wliich prev.'.il from the trojjical to the Arctic regions. This is principally due to the topographical conditions of our continent. The Ivocky mountains con- - densing the moisture of the warm winds from the Pacific and preventing them from reaching far inland, separate the climateof the Mississippi valley widely t'roni that of the Pacitic slope. Between the Gulf of Mexico and the .\rctic sea there is no elevation to exceed 2,000 feet to arrest the flow of the hot southerly winds of summer, or the cold northerly winds of winter. From this results a variation of temperature hardly equaled in anv part of the world.

In determining the climates of the ITnited States, western P'urope is usually taken as the basis of comparison. The contrast between these regions is indeed very great. New York is in the same latitude with Madrid, Xajilesand Constantinople. Quebec is not so far north as Paris. London and Labrador are equi-distant iVorn thee']uator ; but while England, with her mild, moist climate, produces an abundance of vegetation, in Labrador all cultivation ceases. In the latitude of Stockholm and St. Petersburg, at the 60th ])arallel, we find in eastern Xorth America vast icefields which seldoin melt. The moist and equable climate of western Europe in high latitudes is due to the Gulf Stream and the southwest winds of the Atlantic, wliich spread their warmth and moisture over the western coast. Comparison, houe\er, shows that the climate of the Pacillc coast of North America is quite as mild as that of western Europe ; and this is due to the same kinil of inl^ucn(:e.^, namelv, to the warm, moist winds and the cm rin!i o\ the Pacific. And to continue the comparison still further, in proceeding on both (ontinents from '.vest to east, or I'rom ocean into the interior, ue find .i general resemblance of climatic conditions, modified greati)', it is true, bv local infiuences.

The extreme summer climate of the eastern United States is owing to the southerly and southwesterly winds, which blow with great regularity during this season, and, after traversin<J great areas of tropical seas, bear the warmth and moisture of these seas far inland, and give this region the peculiar semi-tropical character of its summers. The average temperature of summer varies between So>^ for the Gulf states, and 60" for the extreme north. While in the Gulf states the thermometer often rises to 100°, in the latitude of Wisconsin this occurs very seldom. During winter the prevailing winds are from the northwest. These cold blasts from the Arctic sea are deflected by the Rocky mountains, sweep down unopposed into lower latitudes, and produce all the rigors of antarctic winter. The mean temperature for thi.-, season varies between 60" tor the Gulf coast and 15^ for the extreme northern part of Wisconsin. In the northern part of the valley the cold is sometimes so intense that the thermometer sinks to the freezing [.oint of mercury.

The extreme of heat and cold would give a continental climate if this extreme were not accompanied by a profusion of rain. The southerly winds, laden with moisture, distribute this moisture with great regularity over the valley. The amount of rainfall, greater in summer than in winter, varies, from the Gulf of Mexico to Wisconsin, from 63 inches to 30 inches. On the Atlantic coast, where the distribution is more equal throughout the year on account of its proximity to the ocean, the amount varies, from Florida to Maine, from 63 to 40 inches. The atmospheric movements on which, to a great extent, the climatic conditions of the eastern United States depend, may be summed up as follows:

" I. That tJie northeast trades, deflected in their course to south and southeast winds in their passage through the Carribean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, are the warm and moist winds which communicate to tlic Mississippi valley and the Atlantic slope their fertility.

"3. That m the region bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, the atmospheric disturbances are propagated from south to north ; but in the northern and middle states, owing to a prevailing upper current, from west to east.

"4. That while this uj.per current is cool and dry, and we have the apparent anomaly of rain storms traveling from west to east, at the same time the moisture supi^lying them comes from the south.

"5. That, in the winter, the south and southeast winds rise into the ujiper current, while the west and northwest winds descend and blow as surface winds, accompanied by an extraordinary dei)ression of temperature, creating, as it were, an almost arctic climate.

"7. That in summer the westerly currents seldom blow with violence, because, in passinover the heated plains, they acipiirc nearly the same temperature as the southerly currents, but in winter the conditions are reversed."

The line of conllict of these aerial currents, produced by unequal atmospheric pre=.ure, shift so rapidly that the greatest changes of temperature, moisture, and wind, are experienced within a few hours, these rhanges. usually affecting areas of great extent. In the old world, on the other hand, the mountain systems, generally running from east to west, offer an impedim'eut. especially to tlie [lolar currents, and the weather is therefore not so changeable.

Wisconsin, situated in the upj.er and central part of the Mississippi^ valley, is subject to the same general climatic conditions which give this whole area its peculiar climate.

state, and the lowest 64'^ :u B.iyfield, Lake Su;.erior. During the months of June, July and August, the thermometer often rises as hig^J as 90'^, seldom to 100''. In 1S74 the mercury reached this high point twice at l,.iCro-,3e, and three times at Dubuque, Iowa. There are usually two or three of these "heated terms'' during the si'.mmer, terminated In abrupt changes of temperature.

The isotherm of 70"-^ (an isotherm being a line connecting places having the same mean tem- Y>erature) enters this .^tate from the west, m tlie northern part of Grant county, touches Madison, takes a southerly direction through W'alu orth county, iiasses through southern Michigan, Cleveland, and Pittsburg, reaching liie Atlantic ocean a little north of New York city. From this it is seen that southern Wisconsin, southern and centra'. Michigan, northern Ohio, central Pennsylvania, and southern New 'S'ork have nearly the same summer temperature. Northwestward this line runs through southern Minnesota and along the Missouri to the foot of the mountains. Eastern Oiegon, at 47° 30' north latitude, has the same aver.-.ge summer temperature ; the line then returns and touches the Pacific coast at San Diego.

The remarkable manner in which so large a bo<3y of uateras Lake Michigan modities the temperature Ins been carefully determined, so far as it relates to Wisconsin, by the late Dr. Lapham, of Milwaukee. It is seen by the ma].) that the average summer temperature of Racine is the same as that of St. Paul. The weather map for July, 1S75, in the signal service report for 1S76, shows that the mean tenijierature I'or July was the same in Rock county, in the southern part of the state, as that of Breckenridge, ^litui, north of St. Paul. The moderating effect of the lake during hot weather is felt in the adjacent region during both day and night.

Countries in the higher latitudes having an extreme summer temperature art usually characterized by a small amount of rain-t'all. The Mississippi valley, however, is directly exposed in spring and summer to the warm and moist wind> from the south, and as these winds condense their moisture by coming in contact witii colder upper currents fioin the north and west, it has a profusion of rain which deprives the climite largely of its continental features. .-Vs already stated, the average amount of rain-fall in Wisconsin is about 30 inches annually. Ot this amount about one-eighth is precipit.ated in winter, tiiree-eightlis in summer, and the rest is equally dis- - tributed between spring and autumn - in other words, rain is abundant at the time of the year wl-.en it is most needed. In \MsconMn the rainf.dl is greatest in the southwestern part of the state; the lea^t on and along the shore of Lake Micliigan. This shows that tlie humidity of the air of a given area can be greater, and the rainfall less, than tiiat of some other.

In compari.^on with western Europe, even wiiere the mean temperature is higher than in the Mississippi valley, the most striking tact in the climatic cond.itions of the United States is the great range of jdants of tropical or sub-tropical origin, such as Indian corn, tobacco, etc. The conditions on whicii the character of the vegetation depends are temperature and moisture, and the mechanical and chemical com[)Osition of the soil.

basis of this great capacity (the great range of plants) is the high curve of heat and moisture for the summer, and the l.ict that the measure of heat and of rain are almost or quite tropical for a j.eriod in dur.ition from one to li\e months, in the range from Quebec to the coast of the Gulf." Indian corn attains its full perfection lietween the summer isotherms 72*^ and 77'^, in Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, ,ind Kansas; but it m.ay be grown iiii tei the line of 65^, which includes the whole of Wisconsin. Tlie successful cultivation of this impurt.iiu staple is due to the intense he.it of summer and a virgin soil rich in nitrogen.

While .Mi!u.iukee an<l central Wisc('n^in have a mean anr.ual temperature of 45°, that of southern Ireland and central EtiL^Iand is 50*^; the line of -2'-', the average temiierature tor Juu, runs from Wab.'. orth county to St. Paul, while during the same month Ireland and England have a mean temperature of only 60'^. In Wisconsin the thermometer rises as high as 90*^ and above, while the range above the mean in England is very small. It is the tropical element of our summers, then, that causes the grape, the corn, etc., to ripen, while England, with a higher mean temperature, is unable to mature them successfully. Ireland, where southern plants may remain oat-doors, unfrosted, the whole winter, can not mature those fruits and grasses which ripen in Wisconsin. In England a depression of i'-"' below the mean of 60'^ will greatly reduce the quantity, or prevent the rijiening of wheat altogether, 60" being essential to a good crop. Wheat, requiring a lower temperature than corn, is better adapted to the clmialc of Wisconsin. This grain may be grown as far north as Hudson bav.

including September, October and November, is of short duration in Wisconsin. North of the 42d parallel, or the southern boundary line of the state, November belongs properly to the winter months, its mean temperature being about 32°. The decrease of heat from August to September is generally from S^"" to 9'';-ti'^ from September fo October, and 14° from October co November. The average temperature for these tliree months is about 45°. A beautiful season, commonly known as Indian summer, frequently occurs in the latter part of October and in November. This period is characterized by a mild temperature and a hazy, calm atmosphere. According to Loomis, this appears to be due to "an uncommonly tranquil condition of the atmosphere, during which the air becomes filled with dust and smoke arising I'rom numerous fires, by which its transparency is greatly impaired." This phenonienon extends as far north as Lake Superior, but it is more conspicuous and protracted in Kansas and Missouri, and is not observed in the southern states.

Destructive frosts generally occur in September, and sometimes in August. " A. temperature of 36° to 40'^ at sunrise is usually attended with frosts destructive to vegetation, the position of the thermonieter being usually such as to represent less than the actual refrigeration at the open surface." In 1S75, during October, at Milwaukee, the mercury fell seven times below the freezing point, arid twice below zero in November, the lowest being 14'-'.

The winters are generally long and se\'ere, but occasionally mild and almost without snow. The mean winter temiierature varies between 23*^' in the southeastern part of the state, and 16'^' at Ashland, m the northern. For this season the extremes are great. 'ihe line of 20° is of importance, as it marks the average temperature which is fatal to the growth of all the tender trees, such as the pear and che peach. In the winter of 1S75 and 1S76, the mean temperature for I'ecember, January and I'ebruary, in the upper lake region, was about 4" above the average mean for many years, while during the pres'ious winter tlie average temperature for January and February was about 12° below the mean for many years, showing a great difference between cold and mild winters. In the same winter. iS75-'76, at Milwaukee, the thermometer fell only six times below zero, the lowest being i2'-\ while during the preceding winter the mercury sank thirty-six limes below zero, the lowest being 23". In the northern and northwestern part of the state the temperature sometimes falls to the freezing jioint of mercurv. During the e.xceptionally cold Winter of 1S7 2-3, at La Crosse, the thermometer sank nearly fil'ty times below zero; on December 24, it indicated 37"^ below, and on Januarv iS, 43'-' below zero, averaging about 12'' beUuv the usual moan for those months. The moderating effect of Lake Michigan can be .seen by observing how tiic lines indicating the mean winter temperature curve northward as they a]iproach the lake. Milu aukee, Sheboygan, .Manitowoc, Two Rivers, and the Grand Traverse region of Michigan, have the same average wintei temperature. The same is true regarding Cialena, III., lieloit, .iiul Kewaunee. A smular inllaence i.-. noticed in all j)arts of the state. 1 'r. La]jhara concludes th.it this is not wholly due to the presence of Lake Michigan, but tliat tlie niountain range which extends from a little west of Lake Superior to the coast of Labrador (from 1,100 to 2,240 feet higli) protects the lake region in no inconsiderable aegiee from the rxccssive cold of winter.

According to the same autliorit}, the time at which the ilihvaukee river wac closed \vi h ice, for a period of nine years, \aned between November 15 and Iiecember i ; the time at wliich it became free from ice, between March 3 and A;>ril 13. In the lake district, snow and rain are interspersed thr(jiii;h all tiic winter months, rain being sometimes as profuse as at any otlier season. In the iiortliwestern part tlie winter is more rigid and dry. Northern New York and the New England states usually have snow lying on the ground the whole winter, but in the southern lake district it rarely remains so long. In 1842-43, however, sleighing commenced about the middle of November, and lasted till about the same time in April - fi\e months.

The average temperature for the three months of spring, March, April and May, from Walworth county to St. Paul, is about 4^". In central Wisconsin the mean for March is about 27"^, -which is an increase of nearl)- 7'^ from February. The lowest temperature of this month in 1S76 was 40" above zero. April shows an average increase of about 9'-" over Maich. In 1S76 the line of 45" for this month passed from LaCrosse to Evanston, 111., touching Lake Erie at Toledo, showing that the interujr wf-tof Lake Michigan is warmer than the lake region. The change from winter to spring is niire sudden in the interior than in the vicinit}' of the lakes. "In the town of Lisbon, fifteen miles from Lake Michigan," says Dr. Lapham, " early spring flowers show themselves about ten days earlier than on tlie lake. In spring vegetation, in places remote from the lakes, shoots up in a very short time, and (lowers show their petals, while on the lake shore the cool air retards them and brings them more gradually into existence." The increase from Ajiril to May is about 15"". In Ma\-, 1S76, Pembina and Milwaukee had nearly the same mean temperature, about 55^'.

The extremes of our climate and the sudden changes of temperature no doubt have a marked inHueiice, both physically and mentally, on the American peopile. And though a more equable climate may be more conducive to j'crfect health, the great range of our climate from arctic to tropical, and the consequent variety and abundance of vegetable products, combine to make the Mississippi valley perhaps one of the most favorable areas in the world for the development of a strong and wealthy nation.

During the months of summer, in the interior of the eastern United States, at least three- ' fourths of the rain-fall is in showers usually accompanied by electiicai discharges and limited to small areas. Put in autumn, winter, and spring nearly the whole precipitation takes place in general storms e.xtending over areas of 300, 500 and sometimes over 1,000 miles in diameter, and generally lasting tao or three d.iys. .\n area of low atmospheric jiressure causes the wind to blow toward that area from all sides, and when the depression is sudden and great, it is accompanied by much rain or snow. On account of the earth's rotation, the wind blowing toward this region of low pressure is deflected to the right, causing the air to circulate around the center with a motion spirally inward. In our latitude the storm commences with east winds. When the storm center, or area of lowest barometer, is to the south of us, the wind gradually veers, as the storm passes from wer,t to east with tlie upper current, round to the northwe^t by the north point. On the south side of the storm center, the wind veers from southeast to southwest, by the south "[)oint. The phenomena attending such a storm when we are in or near the part of its center are usually as follows: After the sky has become overcast with clouds, the wind from the northeast generally begin, to nse and blows in the opposing direction to the march of the storm. The clouds which are now mo\ing over us, discharge' rain or snow according to circumstances. The barometer to fall, and the rain or snow is brought obliquely down from the northern qu.irter by the prevailing wind. .\f'.er a wliile tile wind changes slightly in direction and then ceasi's. Thethernirjiueter rises and the barometer has reached its lowest point. This is the center <if the storm. .After the calm the wind has changed its direction to northwest or west. The

Climatology Of Wiscoxsix. 12T

\vind blows again, usually more violently than before, accompanied by rain or snow, which is now generally of short duration. The sky clears, and the storm is suddenly succeeded by a temperature lo or 20 degrees below the mean. Most of t!ie rain and snow falls with the east winds, or before the center passes a given point. The path of these storms is from west to east, or nearlv so, and only selcfom in other directions. These autumn, winter, and spring rains are generally first noticed on the western jilains, but may originate at any point along their path, and move eastward with an average velocity of about 20 miles an hour in summer and ^o miles in winter, but sometimes attaining a velocity of over 50 miles, doing great damage on the lakes. In predicting these storms, the signal service of the army is of incalculable practical benefit, as well as in collecting data fur scientific conclusions.

A subject of tile greatest importance to every inhabitant of ^\'isconsin is the influence of forests on climate and the effects of disrobing a county of its trees. The general influence of forests in modifying the extremes of temperature, retarding evaporation and the increased humidity of the air, has already been mentioned. That clearing the land of trees increases the temperature of the ground in summer, is so readily noticed that it is scarcely necessary to mention it; wliile in winter tlie sensible cold is never so extreme in woods as on an open surface exposed to the full force of the winds. " The lumbermen in Canada and the northern United States labor in the woods without inconvenience: when the mercury stands many degrees belo\i' zero, while in the open grounds, with only a moderate lireeze, the same temperature is almost insupportable." "In the state of Mirliigan it has been found that the winters have greatly increased in severity within the last forty years, and that this increased severity seems to move along even-paced with the destruction of the forests. Thirty years ago the peach was one of the most abundant fruits of that State; at that time frost, injurious to corn at anytime from .^L^y to October, was a thing unknown. Now the peach is an uncertain crup, and frost often injures the corn." The precise influence of forests on temperature may not at present admit of definite solution, yet the mechanical screen which they furnish to the soil often far to the leeward of them, is sufficiently established, and this alone is enough to encourage extensive planting wherever this protection is wanting.

With regard to tiie quantity of rain-fall, "we can not positively affirm that the total annual quantity of rain is even hscdly diminished or increased by the destruction of the woods, though both theoretical considerations and the balance of testimon\' strongly favor the opinion that more rain falls in wooded than in ojien couiitries. One imjioriant conclusion, at least, ui>on the meteorological influence of forests is certain and undisputed: the proiiosition, namely, that, within their own limits, and near their own borders, they maintain a more uniform degree of humidity in the atmosphere than is observed in cleared grounds. Scarcely less can it be questioned that tiiey tend to promote the frequency of showers, and, if they do not augment the amount of precipitation, they probably equalize its distribution through the different seasons."

There is abundant and undoubted evidence that the amount of water e.xisting on the surface in lakes and rivers, in many parts of the world, is constantly diminishing. In Germany, observations of the Rhine, Oder, 1 >anube, and the Llbe, in the Later case going back for a period of 142 years, demonstrate beyond doubt, tiiat each of these rivers has much decreased in volume, and there is reason to fear t'.iat they will eventually dh^appear from the list of na\igable rivers.

The ' Blue-Grass region of Kentu. ky, once the i)ride of the West, ha-, now districts of such barren and arid nature tint their stock t'armers are moving toward the Cumberland mountains, because the creeks .md old springs drietl uj), and their wells became too low to furnisli water for their cattle." In our own sratc "such luis been the change in the flow of the Miiwau- kee river, even wliile the area from which it recci\es its supply is but partially cleared, that the proprielor>- of" most of the mills and factories have found it necessary to resort to the use of steam, at a largely increa-icd \early cost, to supply the deficiency of water-power in dry seasons of the year." " What has happened to the Milwaukee river, has happened to all the other water courses in the state from whose banks tire forest has been removed ; and many farmers who selected land uqon which there was a livinfr brook of clear, pure water, now find these brooks dried up during; a considerable iiortion of the year.

li'stricts striiiped uf their forest are said to be more expiosed than before to loss of harvests, to droughts and frost. "Hurricanes, before unknown, sweep unopposed over the regions thus denuded, carrying-terror and de\a>tation in their track." Parts of Asia Minor, North .Africa, and other countries bordering (ju the Mediterranean, now almost deserts, were once densely populated and the granaries of the world. And there is good reason to believe " that it is the destruction of the forests wliich has produced tliia devastation." From such facts Wisconsin, already largely robbed of its forests, should take warning before it is too late.

Trees, Shrubs And Vines

It is not the purpose of this article to give a botanical description, but merely brief notes on the economical value of the woods, and the fitness of the various indigenous trees, shrubs and vines for the purpose of ornament, to be found in Wisconsin.

White Oak. - Qucrats Alba. - This noble tree is the largest and most important of the American oaks. The e.xccllent properties of the wood render it eminently valuable for a great variety of uses. Wherever strength and durability are re(|uired, the white oak stands in the first rank. It is employed in making wagons, coache,^ and sleds ; staves and hoops of the best quality for barrels and casks are obtained from tliis tree ; it is extensively used in architecture, shipbuilding, etc.; vast quantities are used for fencing ; the bark is employed in tanning. The domestic consumjition of this tree is so great that it is of the first importance to jireserve the young trees whcre\er it is practical.>le, and to make voung plaiuations where the tree is not found. The white oak is a graceful, ornamental tree, and \sorthy of j-articular attention as such ; found abundantly in most oi the timbered districts.

IIURR Oak - Q. yfiUroiarpa. - ^This i.-, jierhaps the most ornamental of our oaks. Nothing c.Tn exceed the gracet"ul beauty of these trees, when not crowded or cranqied ifi their growth, but I'.ft free to follow the laws yA their development. W'lio has not admired these trees in our extensive burr o.ik ojienings ? 'I'he large leaves are a dark green above and a bright silvery white beneath, which eives the tree a singularly fine appearance when agitated by the wind. The wood i-> tough, close-grained, and more durable than the white oak, especi.illy when exposed to frequent < liangcs of moisture and drying ; did tlie tree grow to the same si.'e, it would be preferred for most uses. .MnindaiU, and richly worthy of cultivation, both lor utility and ornament.

.S\v.\MP ^V'II1TI", Oak - Q. lU:oi,>r. - Is a valua'ole and ornamental tree, not quite so lartje or as common as the burr (xik. The wood is close-grained, durable, splits freely, and is well worthy of cultivati'>n in wet, swampiv grounds, where it will thrive.

Swamp Chf.'^tnl't Oak - Q. Prinus. - This species of c^hestnut oak is a large, graceful tree, wood rather open-^r.iined, yet valuable for most purfjoses to which the oaks are applied; makes the best fuel of any of tliis family. A rare tree, found at Janesville and Brown's lake, near Burlington. Worthy nf cultivation.

Rkii Oak - Q. Rubra. - The red oak is a well-known, common, large tree. The wood is coarse-grained, and the least durable of the oaks, nearlv worthless for fuel, and scarcely worthy of culti\ ation, even for ornament.

Pin 0,\k - Q. Pa/m/n's. - This is one of the most common trees in many sections of the state. The woQd is of little value except for fuel. The tree is quite ornamental, and should be sjiaringly cultivated for this purpose.

Shingle 0.\k - Q. Imhricciria. - Is a tree of medium size, found sparingly as far north as Wisconsin. It is ornamental, and the wood is used for shingles and staves.

Scarlet Oak - Q. Coccincj. - This is an ornamental tree, especially in autumn, when its leaves turn scarlet, hence the name. \Vood of little value ; common.

Sugar Maple - Acc-r SaLchariii>n. - 'Y\\\'i well-knov.n and noble tree is found growing abundantly in many sections of tlie state. The wood is close-grained and susceptible of a beautiful polish, which renders it valuable ("or manv kinds of furniture, more especially the varieties known as bird's-eye and curled maples. The wood lacks the durabilit\- of the oak ; consequently is not valuable for purposes where it will be exposed to the weather. For fuel it ranks ne.xt to hickory. The sugar manufactured from this tree affords no inconsiderable resource for the comfort and even \veaith ot"- many sections of the northern states, especially those newly settled, where it would be diilicult and expensive to jirocure their sujiply from a distance. .A.san ornamental tree it stands almost at the head of the catalogue. The foliage is beautiful, compact, and free from the attacks of insects. It puts forth its yellow blossoms early, and in the autumn the lea\es change in color and show the most beautiful tints of redand yellow long before they fall. \\'orthy of especial attention for fuel and ornament, and well adapted to street-planting.

Red Maple - A. Kulruui. - Is another fine maple of more rapid growth than the foregoinospecies. With wood rather liginer, but quite as valuable for cabinet-v.-ork - for fuel not quite so good. The young tjees bear transplanting even better than other maples. Though highly ornamental, this tree hardly equals the first-named species. It puts forth, in early spring, its scarlet blossoms before a leaf has yet appeared. Well adapted to street-planting.

SiLVFR M.APLL - A. Dasycarpuvi. - This is a common tree growing on the banks of streams, especially in the uestern part of the slate, grown largely for ornament, yet for the purpose it is the least valuable of the maples. The branches are long and straggling, and so brittle that thev are liable to be injured b\ winds.

Bo-K Maple - Xi-'^^uudii Accrciilcs. - This tree is frequently called liox elder. It is of a rapid growth ai>d quite ornamental. The wood is not much used in the art.-., but is good fuel. Should be cultivated. It grows on Sugar and Rock rivers.

White F.lm - ulniui Amcricdiia. - This large and graceful tree stands confessedly at the head of the li^-t of orr.amental deciduous trees. Its wide-spreading branches and long, pendulous branchlets fiinn a beautiful and conspicuous head. It grows rapidly, is free from disease and the destructive attacks of insects, will thrive on most soils, and tor planting along streets, in [iubJic grounds or lawns, is uiisur[)asscd by any American tree. The wooil is but little used in the arts; makes gO(.id hre\\(.ud; ^ho^lld be planted along al! the roads and ^<ireels, near everv <lwellin;i, and on all pul.lie grounds.

Slipi'ERV Kim - f. Fulia. - This smaller and less ornamental species is also common. The wood, however, is much more valuable tlian the w hite elm, beiiiL; durable and splitting readily. It makes excellent rails, anil is much used for the framework of buildings; \aluablc for fuel; should be cultixated

WiLii Black Chikrv - Cciasus Sootiua. - This large and beautiful species of cherry is one of the most valuable of American trees. The wcjd is compact, fine-grained, and of a brilliant reddish color, not liable to \vai|i, or shrink and swell with atinosj.iheric changes ; extensively employed by cabinet-makers for every species of furnishing. It is e.\ceedingly durable, hence is valuable for fencing, building, etc. Richly deserves a place in the lawn or timber plantation.

Wild 1'lu:.: - Pnmus Americana. - The common wild plum when in full bloom is one of the most ornamental of small flowering trees, and as such should not be neglected. The fruit is rather agreeable, but not to be compared to une cultivated varieties, which may be engrafted on the wild stock to the very best advantage. It is best to select small trees, and work them on the roots. The grafts should be inserted about tiic middle of .April.

H.iCKDERRV - Ceitis Occidoil.ilis. - This is an ornamental tree of medium size ; wood hard, close-grained and elastic ; makes the best of hoops, whip-stalks, and thills for carriages. The Indians formerly made great use of the hackbeir\' v,-ood for their bows. A tree worthy ot a limited share of attention.

LiXDKX OR B.\ssv.'ooD - Ttiiu Aiiw) icana . - Is one of the finest ornamental trees for fiublic grounds, parks, etc., but will not thrive where the roots are e.xposed to bruises; for this reason it is not adajjted to planting along the streets of populous to\\ns. I'hc wood is light and tough, susceptible of being bent to almost anv curve ; durable if kejjt from the weather; takes .paint well, and is considerably u^ed in the arts ; for fuel it is of little value. This tree will flourish in almost any moderately rich, damp soil; bears transplanting well; can be propagated readily from layers.

White Thorn - Ciataczits Coca'nea, and Dotted Tm'rtJN' - C. /^.v«,-A/A7.^These two species of thorn are found everywhere on the rich bottom lands. When in bloom the) are beautiful, and should be cultivated for oriument. The wood is remarkabh compact and hard, and were it not for the small size of the tree, would be valuable.

Crai; Afi'IE - Fynis C,'i\'i\ii la. - This common small tree is attractive when covered with its highly fragrant rose-colored blossoms. ^\'ocd h".', fine, compact grain, but the tree is too small for the wood to be of much practical value. W ell worthy of a place in extensive grounds.

Mountain Ash - /'. Ami: itwna. - This popular ornament to our )ard3 is found growing in the northern part of tlie state and as tar south as 43°. The wood is useless.

\\ HITE \~\\'- I'raxi,.tis .-icuDuiuila. - Is a large, interesting tree, which combines utility with beauty in an eminent liegree. The wood possesses strength, suppleness and ehisiicity, which renders it valuable for a great variety of uses. It is e.xtensively em|)loyed in c.irriage manufacturing; for various agricultural implements ; is esteemed superior to any otlier wood for oars; excellent ftir fuel. The white ash grows rapidly, and in open ground forms one of the most lovely trees tii.it is to be luund. The foliage is clean and handsome, and in autumn turns from its bright green to a violet pur]'lc hue, which adds matcrl.iUy to the beauty of our autumnal sylvan scenery. It is rirlily deserving our es]'ecial care and protection, and will amply repay all labor and c-xjiense bestowed on its cultivation.

I'.LACK Ash - F Sa:::hucifolij. - T;li^ is another t.ill, pr.-ctfu} and well-known species of ash. The wood is us^d for making baskets, hoojis, etc.; when thorouj;h!y dry, afords a good article of iucl. lleserves to be cultnated in low, rich, swampy situations, where more useful trees will not tiirive.

IIlack. Walnut - Juglans Nigra. - This giant of the rich alluvial bottom lands claims s;iccial attention for its valuable timber. It is among the most durable and beautiful of American woods ; susceptible of a fine polish ; not liable to shrink and swell by heat and moisture. It is e.xtcnsively employed by the cabinet-makers for every ^ariety of furniture. Walnut forks, a:e frequently found which rival in richness and beauty the far-famed mahogany. This tree, in favorable .situations, grows rapidly; is highly ornamental, and produces annually an abundant crop of nuts.

BuTTEKNtJT - -J. Cineyea. - This species of walnut is not as valuable as the above, yet for its beauty, and the durability of its wood, it should claim a small portion of attention. The wood is rather soft for most purposes to which it otherwise might be applied. When growij ne;ir streams, or on moist side-hills, it produces regularly an ample crop of excellent nuts. It grows rapidly.

Shf.li.-Bark Hickory - Carya Alba. - This, the largest and finest of American hickories, grows abundantly throughout the state. Hickory wood possesses probably the greatest strength and tenacity of any of our indigenous trees, and is used for a variety of purposes, but, unfortunately, it is liable to be eaten by worms, and lacks durability. For fuel, the shell-bark i'.ickory stands unrivakd. The tree is ornamental and produces every alternate year an ample crop of tlie best of nuts.

Sn.\G-r-AKK HiCKonv - C. Indaia. - Is a magnificent tree, the wood of which is nearly as valuable as the above. The nuts are large, thick-shelled and coarse, not to be compared to the C. alba. A lare tree in Wisconsin ; abundant further south.

Pignut Hickory - C. Glabra. - This species possesses all the bad and but few of the good qualities of the shell-bark. The nuts are smaller and not so good. The tree should be preserved and cultivated in common with the shell-bark. Not abundant.

BiTTERNUT - C. Amara. - Is anabundant tree, valuable for fuel, but lacking the strength and elasticity of the preceding species. It is, however, quite as ornamental as any of the hickories.

Rld I'.F.ECH - Fagiis Ferruginea. - This is a common tree, with brilliant, shining light-green leaves, and long, fle.\ible branches. It is highly ornamental, and should be cultivated for this purpose, as well as for its useful wood, which is tough, close-grained and compact. It is much used for plane-stocks, tool handles, etc., and as an article of fuel is nearly equal to maple.

Water Beech - Cii/bini/s Auu-rLaaa. - Is a small tree, called hornbeam by many. The w-ood is exceedingly Kitd and compact, but the small size of the tree renders it almost useless.

Iron Wood - Ostrya Virginica. - This small tree is found disseminated throughout most of our woodlands. It is, to a considerable d.gree, ornamental, but of remarkably slow growth. The wo'id i»3-.scsses valuable properties, being heavy and strong, as the na.me would indicate; }et, from its small si.^e, it is oi'^iut little use.

Bai.sa.m Pori-AK - Pupalus Candicani. - This tree is of medium size, and is known by sevcr.il names: ^Vild balm of Gilead, cottonwond, etc. It grows in moist, sandy soil, on river bottf nis. It has broad, heart-sh.i|)ej Iea\-j>, vx hich tiun a line \ellow after th.e autumn ('rosts. It grows more rapidly than any other of nar trees; can be transplanted v.-ith entire success when eight or nine inchcb in diameter, and makes a beatiful shade tree - the most ornamental of 1)0['- lars. The wood is soft, spongi", and nL-.uU useless.

Large Aspkn - y. GnuuliJenLjta. - Is the largest of our poplars. It frequently grows to the height of si.xty or seventy feet, with a diameter of two and one-half feet. The wood is soft, easily split, and used for frame buildings. It is the most durable of our poplars.

Cotton Wood - /'. Monolifera. - This is the largest of all the poplars ; abundant on the Mississip])i river. Used largely for fuel on the steamboats. The timber is of but little use in the arts.

Sycamore or Buttonwood - Platanus Ocfidintalis. - This, the largest and most majestic of our trees, is found growing only on tlie rich alluvial river bottoms. The tree is readily known, even at a considerable distance, by its whitish smootli branches. The foliage is large and beautiful, and the tree one of the most ornamental known. The wood speedily decays, and when sawed into lumber warps batUy; on these accounts it is but little-used, although susceptible fcf a fine finish. As an article of fuel it is of inferior merit.

Canoe Birch - Bctula FapyraceLi. - Is a rather elegant and interesting tree. It grows abundantly in nearly every part of tlie state. Tlie wood is of a fine glossy grain, susceptible of a good finish, but lacks durability and strength, and, therefore, is but little used in the mechanical arts. For fuel it is justly ])ri7,ed. It bears transplanting without difficulty. The Indians manufacture their celebrated bark canoes from the bark of this tree.

Cherry Birch - B.Lenta. - Tiiis is a rather large, handsome tree, growing along streams. Leaves and bark fragrant. Wood, hnc-grained, rose-colored; used largely by the cabinet- makers.

Yellow Birch - B. Lutca. - This beautiful tree occasionally attains a large size. It is highly ornamental, and is of value for fuel; but is less prized than the preceding species for cabinet work.

Kentucky C'jffee Tree - Gymnodadus Canadcnsii. - This singulaily beautiful tree is only found sparingly, ami on rich alluvial lands. I met v.ith it growing near the Peccatonica, in Green county. The wood is fine-giained, and of a rosy hue ; is exceedingly durable, and well worth cultivating.

JuxE Berry - Amdanchicr Canadensis. - Is a small tree which adds materially to the beauty of our woods in early spring, at v.-hich time it is in full bloom. The wuod is of no particular value, and the tree interesting only when covered with its w hite blossoms.

White Pine - Pinus Sha'iis. - This is the largest and most vakiable of our indigenous pines. The wood is soft, fre-e from resin, and works easily. It is extensively employed in the mechanical arts. It is found in great profusion in the northern parts of the state. This species is readily known by the leaves being \n j~:ys. It is highly ornamental, but in common with all pines, will hardly bear transpL.nting. Only small plants shoi;ld be moved.

Norway or Ri n Pine - /". Resin,'. a, and Yellow Pine - /'. .IZ/.'/j. - These are two large trees, but little inferior in size to the white pine. The v.-ood contains more resin, and is consequently more durable. The leaves o^ both these species are in l:.:'os. Vast quantities of lumber are yearly manufactured from these two varieties and the white pine. The e.xtensive pineries of the state are rapidly diminishing.

Shrue Pine - /'. Bannsiana. - Is a small, low tree; only w'orlhy of notice iiere for the ornamental shade it ]uoduces. It is fnmd in tiie nortiiern sections ot the state.

Balsam Fik - .-Hies Baisa/nea - This beautiful evergreen is multiplied to a great extent on the shores of Lake .Superior, where it grows forty or fifty feet iiT height. The wood is of but

Double Si'RUCF. - .-/. A'r^Tt:. - This grows in the same localities with the balsam fir, and assumes the same pyramidal form, but is considerably larj;er. The wood is light and possesses considerable strength and elasticity, which renders it one of the best materials for yard's and topmasts for shipping. It is extensively cultivated for ornament.

Hemi-OCk - ./. Cditdiknu's. - The hemlock is the largest of the genus.- It is gracefully ornamental, Dut the wood is of little value. The baik is e.xtensively employed in tanning.

Tamaracr - Lan'x Aiuericana. - This beautiful tree grows abundantly in swampy situations throughout the s^atc. It is not quite an evergreen It drops its leaves in winter, but quickly recovers them in early spring. The wood is remarkably durable and valuable for a varietv of uses. The tree grows rapidly, and can be successfully cultivated in peaty situations, where other trees would not thrive.

Arbor Vn.i: - Tlmja Oca'Jcnfalis. - This tree is called the white or flat cedar. It grows abundantly in man\- parts of the state. The wood is durable, furnishing better fence posts than any other tree, exce[)ting the red cedar. Shingles and staves of a superior quality are obtained from these trees. .\ beautiful e\ergreen hedge is made from the young plants, which bear transplanting better than most evergreens. It will grow on most soils if sufficiently damp.

Rki) Cedar - Juuipcrus V{n:^!iiiana. - Is a well known tree that famishes those celebrated fence posts that " last forever." The wood is highly fc'agrant, of a rich red color, and h:ie grained ; hence it is valuable for a varietv of uses. It should be extensively cultivated.

Dwarf JuxIpf.r - /. Salniia. - This is a low trailing shrub. Is conside'ably jirized f : ornament. Especially worthy of cultivation in large grounds.

Sassafras - Sassa/i as ojiu'inale. - Isa small tree of tine appearance, with fragrant leaves bark. (Irows in Kenosha county. Should be cultivated.

Willows. - There are many species of willows growing in every part of the state, sever:il of which arc worthy of cultivation near streams and j'onds.

W'liiTF. \\'ii,Low - -S'.7/:.\- t7/.'\i. - Is a fine tree, often reaching sixtv feet in height. The '.vood is soft, anil maizes the best charcoal for the manufacture of gun-powder. Grows rapidly.

DoGwoons. - There are several species found in our forests and thickets. All are ornamental when covered with a profusion of white blossoms. I would esiH'rially recommend : coiui scru-fii, C. stolcDiifcra, C. paniculata, and C. altemifolia. All these will repay the labor of trans- I'b'.nting to ornamental grounds.

VinuR.vuMS. - These are very beautit'ul. We have vthurniiin Unlii-::^o, \'. p> unifoliu'it. I'. n:iihan, I . denlatiiiii, I', pu/'esicris, V, accrifoliiiin. J'. /d!/c///i'ri////, and ]'. opiilus. The last is known as the cranberry tree, and is a most beautiful shrul> when in blumn. and also when ctivered with it> ted, acid fruit. The common snow-ball tree is a cultivated Nariety of the /'. cpiuui.

I'URNi.xo linsH - Juionynnis atropurpureus. - This flue shrub is called the American stra\v- and is exceedingly beautiful wheti covered wiiii its load of crimson fruit, which remains dann \Yinter.

Sx-^iKZYi - Rhus typhi tia. - Is a tail shrub, 11 known, but seldom cultivated. When well grown it is ornamental and well adapted for planting in clumps.

Hop 'rkii: - Ptclca trifoHdui. - This is aslio'.vy slirub with shining leaves, which should be cultivated. Conimcv .a rich, alluvial ground.

Bi..-\i>nER >.' L'T - Staphylea trifo'.ia. - Is a fine, upright, showy shrub, found sparingly all over the state. Is ornamental, with greenish striped branches and showy leaves.

ViRGlNM.A. Creeper - Ampelopsis quinquefoHa. - This is a noble vine, climbing extensively by disc-bearing tendrils, so well known as to require no eulogy. Especially beautiful in its fall colors.

BiTTF.R SwEF.T - Cdaslrus scandcns. - Is a stout twining vine, which would be an ornament to any grounds. In the fall and early winter it is noticeable for its bright fruit. Common.

Yellow Huxevsucrle - Lcuicci a plava. - Is a fine native vine, which is Ibund climbing over tall shrubs and trees. Ornamental. There are several other species of honeysuckle; none, however, worthy of special mention.

Frost Gr.ape - I'ltcs ccrdifolia. - This tall-growing vine has deliciously sweet blossoms, which perfume the air for a great distance around. For use as a screen, this hardy species will be found highly satisfactory.

Fish And Fish Culture

Fish are cold blooded aquatic vertebrates, having fins as organs of progression. They have a two-chambered heart; their bodies are mostly covered with scales, yet a few are entirely naked, like catfish and eels; others again are covered with curious plates, such as the sturgeon. Fish inhabit both salt and fresh water. It is admitted by all authority that fresh-water fish are more universally edible than those inhabiting tiie occ.';n. Marine fish arc said to be more highly fla"ored than those inhabiting fresh waters ; an as.sertion I am bv no means prepared to admit. As a rule, fish are better the colder and purer the water in whicii tliey are found, and where can you find those ccnJitions more favorable than in the cold dej ths of our great lakes 'i We have tasted, under the most favorable conditions, about every one of the celebrated salt-water fish, and can say that whoever eats a whitefish just taken from tlie jmre, cold water of Lake Michigan will have no reason to be envious of the dwellers by the sea.

Fish afford a valual.ile article of food for man, being highly nu.ritious and easy of digestion ; they abound in phosphates, hence are valuable as affording nutrition to the osseous and nervous system, hence thev have Ijcen termed, not inapjiropriately, brain lood - certainly a very desirable article of diet for some people. They arc more savory, nutritious and easy of digestion when just taken from the w.\ter; in f.ict, the sooner they arecouked after being caught the better. No fish should be more than a few hours from its watery element before being placed upon the table. For convenience, I will group our fish into families as a basis for what I shall offer. Our bony fish,.

having spine rays and covered with comb-like scales, belong to the perch family - a valuable family ; all take the hook, are gamey, and S[)a\vn in the summer.

The yellow j]erch and at least four species of bl.ick or striped bass have a wide range, being found in all the rivt-rs and lakes in the state. There is a large species of fish known as Walleyed pike (Lcuui^i-rra atiu-r:ca>ui) belonging to this family, which is found sparingly in most of our rivers and kikes. The pike is an active and most rapacious animal, devouring fish of considerable size. The flesh is firm and of good flavor. It would probably be economical to propagate it to a moderate e.xtcnt.

The six-spipcd bass {J'o>noxvs hexacanthus, Agas.) is one of the most desirable of the spine- Tayed fish found \\\ the State. The flesh is fine flavored, and as the fish is hardy and takes the hook with avidity, it should be protected during the spawning season and artificially propagated. 1 have examined the stomachs of a large number of these fisii and in every instance found small crawfish, furnishing an additional evidence in its favor. Prof. J. P. Kirtland, the veteran ichthyologist of Ohio, says thcU this so-callea " gra.-.s bass" is the fish for tlie million.

The white bass (^Roccus clirysops) is a species rather rare even in the larger bodies of water, but ought to be introduced into every small lake in the State, where 1 am certain they would flourish. It is an exi'ellent fish, possessing many of the good qualities and as few of the bad as any that belong to the family. There is another branch of this family, the sunfish, Fonwtis, which numbers at least si.\ species found in ^Visconsin. They are beautiful fish, and afford abundant sijort for the boys; none of them, however, are worth domesticating (unless it be in the aquariian') as there are so many better.

The carp family {^CypitKiiLc') are soft finned fish without maxillary teeth. They include by far the greater number of fresh-water fish. Some specimens are not more than one inch, while others are nearly two feet in length. Our chubs, silversides and suckers are the j)rincipal members of this family. Dace are good pan-fish, yet their small size is objectionable; they are the children's game fish. The Cyprinidce all spawn in the spring, and might be profitably propagated as food for the larger and more valuable fish.

There are six or seven species of suckers found in our lakes and rivers. The red horse, found every where, and at least one species of the buffalo, inhabiting the Mississippi and its tributaries, are the best of the genus Catastonius. Suckers are bony, and apt to taste suspiciously of mud ; they are only to be tolerated in the absence of better. The carp {Cyprenius carpo) has been successfully introduced into the Hudsonriver.

The trout family {Siih/wnidcp) are soft-finned fish with an extra dorsal adipose fin without rays. They inhabit northern countries, spawning in the latter part of fall and winter. Their flesh is universally esteemed. The trout family embrace by far the most valuable of our fish, including, as it does, trout and whitefish. 'I'lic famous speckled trout {SaliKO fontina/is) is a small and beautiful species which is found in nearly every stream in tlie northern half of the State. Wherever there is a sjjring run or lake, the temperature of which does not rise higher than sixty-five or seventy in the summer, there trout can be propagated in abundance. The great salmon trout {Sal. amei/nstus) of the great lakes is a magnificent fish weighing from ten to sixty pounds. 'V\\t Sisci'U'it sali/ii' siscowil o( Lake Superior is about the same size, but not quite so good a fish, being too fat and oily. They will, no doubt, flourish in the larger of the inland lakes.

The genus Corcgonus includes the true whitefish, or lake shad. In this genus, as nowrestricted, the nose is square and the imdcr jaw short, and when first caught they have the fragrance of fresh cucumbers. There are at least three species found in Lake Michigan. In my opinion these fish are more delicately flavored than the celebrated I'otniiiac shad ; but I doubt whether they will thrive in the small lakes, owing to the absence of the small crusiacea tin which the)' subsist. The closely allied genus Argyrosomus includes seven known species inhabiting the larger lakes, and one, the Ar^yrosar/^iis sfsio, which is found in several of the lesser lakes. The larger species are but little inferior to the true whitcfish, with which they are commonly confounded. The nose is pointed, the under jaw long, and they take the hook at certain seasons with activity. They eat small fish as well as injects and crttstaceaus.

Of the pickerel family, we have three or four cli,'-e!y allied species of the genus Esox, armed with prodigious jaw s filled w ith cruel teeth. They lie motionles eady to dart, swift as an arrow, upon their prey. They are the sharks of the fresh water. The pickerel are so rapacious that they spare not their own species. .Sometimes they attempt to swallow a fish nearly as large as themselves, and perish in consequence. Their flesh is moderately good, and as they are game to the backbone, it might be desirable to propagate them to a moderate e.xtent under peculiar circumstances.

The catfish (SHiirliLr) have soft fins, protected by sharp spines, and curious fleshy barbels floating from their lips, without scales, covered only with a slimy coat of mucus. The genus Pimlodiis are scavengers among fisii, as vultures among birds. They are filthy in habit and food. There is one interesting trait of the catfish - the vigilant and watchful motherly care of the young by the male. He defends them with great spirit, and herds them together when they straggle. Even the mother is driven far off; for he knows full well that she would not scruple to make a full meal off her little black tadjiole-like progeny. There are four species known to inhabit this State - one peculiar to the great lakes, and two found in the numerous affluents of the Mississippi. One of these, the great yellow catfish, sometimes weighs over one hundred pounds. \\'hcn in good condition, stuffed and well baked, they are a fair table fish. The small bull-head is universally distributed.

The sturgeons are large sluggish fish, covered with plates instead of scales. There are at least three sjiecies of the genus Acipenser found in the waters of Wisconsin. Being so large and w-ithout bones, they afford a sufficiently cheap article of food ; unfortunately, however, the quality is decidedly bad. Sturgeons deposit an enormous quantity of eggs ; the roe not unfrequently weighs one fourth as much as the entire body, and numbers, it is said, many millions. The principal commercial value of sturgeons is found in the roe and swimming bladder. The much prized caviare is manufactured from the former, and from the latter the best of isinglass is obtained.