La Crosse County, Wisconsin - The whole text, 1881 (part 7 of 16)

Lead And Zinc

These metals are considered together because they are found occurring together in the same 'region and under exactly the same circumstances, being even obtained from the same openings. Lead has for many years been the mo-t important metallic production of Wisconsin, and, together with zinc, whose ores have been utilized only since ib6o, still holds this prominent position, although the production is not so great as formerly. Small quantities of lead and zinc ores have been found in the crystalline (.Vrch.'ean) rocks of the northern part of the state and in the cojjperbearing rocks of the Lake Sufierior country, but there are no indications at present that these regions will ever produce in quantity. .\11 of the lead and zinc obtained in Wisconsin comes then from that jjortion of the southwestern part of the state whicli lies west of Sugar river and south of tlie nearly east and west ride,e that forms the southern side of the valle}' of the Wisconsin, from the hcail of Sugar river westward. Tliis district is commonly known in Wisconsin as the "Lead Region,'' and forms the larger part of tlie "Lead Region of the Upper ^Mississippi." which includes also smaller portions of Iowa and Illinois.

^\'ilat European first became acquainted with the deposits of lead in the up]ier portion of valley nf the Mississippi is a matter of sume doubt. Charlevoi.\ (Mistoire de la Nou\elle France, I^I' 397- 3')'^-) ''"^ discovery to NicisLis Perrot, about 1692 ; and states that in ryci the deposits still bore Perrot's name. Perr.)r himscll", however, in the only one of his writings that remains, m, ikes no mention of the matter. The itiaei.iry of Le Sueur's voyage up the Mississippi, 1700-1 701, given in La Harpe's History of Louisiana, wir.cli was written early in the 1 8th century, shows that the former fuuud lead on the banks of the Mississippi, not tar from the i>resent southern boundary of Wisconsin, August 23, 1700. Captiia Johathan Carver, 1766, found lead in abundance at the Blue Mounds, and found the Indians in all the country arn\ind in possession of masses of galena, which they had obtained as '' flcjjt mineral," and which they were incapable of putting to any use. There is no evidence of any one minin" before Julien Dubuque, who, 17SS to 1S09, mined in the vicinity of the flourishing city wiiich now bears his name. After his death in 1S09 nothing more was done until 1S21, when the attention of American citizens was first drawn to the rich lead deposits of this region. By 1S27, the mining had become quite general and lias continued to the 'present time, the maximum production having been reached, however, between the years 1S45 and 1S47.

The fallowing talile, ])repared by the late Moses Strong, shows tlie mineral production of southwestern Wisconsin for the years 1S60 to 1S73 in pounds:

Blende

Until within the last decade the lead mines of the Mississippi valley, including now both the " Upper" and the " Lower " regions - tlie latter one of wliich lies wholly within the limits of the state of Missouri - liave far eclipsed the rest of the United States in the production of lead, the district being in fa'-t one of the mo.sr important of the lead districts in the world. Of late years, however, these mines are far surp.issed in production by the " silver- lead " mines of Utah and other Rocky Motint.iiii regions, which, though worked especially for their siher, jiroduce incidentally a very large amount of lend. Nevertheless, the mines of the i^Iississippi valley will long continue to be a very important source of this metal. The lead ore of the Wisconsin lead region is of one kind only, the sulphide known as _!,'-i:/cv/i7, ox t^a/i'm'ti. 'I'his ore, when free from mechanically mingled impurities, contains 86.6 per cent, of lead, the balance being sulphur. Small quantities of other lead ores are occasionally found \n the uppermost portions of the deposits, having been produced by the oxidi/'ing influence of the atmosphere. The chief one of these o.^idation products is the earthy carbonate known as cc-'-!:su/r\ Galena almost always contains some silver, commonly enough to pay lor its extraction. The Wisconsin galenas, however, are unusually free from silver, of which they contain only the merest trace.

The zinc ores are of two kiiuK, the mo.--t abundant being the ferruginous sulphide, or the "black-jack " of the tniners The pure sulphide, -i//ir,.' contains 67 per cent, of zinc, but the iron-bearing variety, known m!nerallogic;illy as marinaliU, generally contains 10 per cent, or more of iron. A ferrugi.ioas variety of the carbonate, sinithsonitc, also occurs in abundance, and is known to the miners as "dry-bone," the name being suggested by the peculiar structure of the ore.

Both lead and zinc ores occur in limited deposits in a scries of limestone beds belonging to the Lower Silurian series. The lead region is underlaid by a nearly horiitiintal series of strata, witli .ui aggregate thickness of 2,000 t'eet, which lie upon an irregular surf.ice of ancient crystalline rocks (gneiss, granite, etc.). 'I'he names and order of succession of the several strata are indicated in the following scheme, the last named beinj the lowest in the series :

' The first two of tliesc layers, in the Wisconsin pnrt of the lead iey:ion, are met with onlv in a few isolated peaks and ridges. The prevailing surface rock is tlie Galena limeatone, through which, however, the nninerous streams cut in deej) and narrow valleys which not uni'requentlv are carved all the w.iy into the Lower Magnesian..

The lead and zinc ores are entirely confined to tlie Galena, Bltte and Buff limestones, an aggregate vertical thickness of some 350 to 375 feet. 'I'he upper and lower strata of the series are entirely barren. Zinc and lead (jres are found in tire same kind of deposits, and often together; by far the larger part of the zinc ores, hov.'cver, come from the Blue and Buff limestones, and the lowest layer= of the (Jalcna, whdst the lead ores, though obtained throughout the whole thickness of tlie mining ground, are especially abundant in the middle and upper Liyers of the Galena beds.

The ore deposits are of two general kinds, winch may be distinguished as vertical crevices and llat crevices, the former being much the mi)-.t < oniinoii. The simplest form of the vertical crevice is a narrow crack in the rock, having a width of a few inches, an extension laterally trom a few yards t<j scN'er.d hundred feet, .md a vertical iir-iirht of 20 to 40 feet, thinning out to nothing in all direction.^, and tilled from side to >!de with liighly crystalline, brilliant, large-surfaced galena, which has no accompanying metallu. mineral, or gangue matter. Occasionally the vertical extension e.xceetls a luindred feet, and sometimes a number of thcrjc sheets are clo=e together and can be mined as one. Much more ciMnmonly the vertical crevice shows irregul.ir expansions, which .ire sometiines large ca\'es, or in certain layers, the crevice between retaining its normal character, while in other cases the e.\pan.-,ion affects the whole cre\ii-e, occasionally widening it througiiout into one l.trge opening. These openings are rarely entirely filled, and commonly contain a loose, disintegrated rock, in which the galena lies loose in large masses, though often adhering to the of the cavity in large stalactites, or in cuLiical cryst.ils. The Vertical crevices show a veiy distinct arrangement ji.ir.dlel with one another, there being two systems, which ruughly trend east and we^t, and r.rirtii and south. The east and west crevices are far the iiKist abundant .md most productive of ore. 'I'he vertical crevices are confined ne.irly altogi.-ther to the upper .md mid.dle portions of the (.'.ileii.i, and .ire not productive of zinc ores. 'Iiie> are evidently meiely the p.ir.ili-'l joint crack-> wiiich at'fect evers gieat rock formati(.)n, filled by cliemical action with the lead ore. The crevico with openings have evidentl)' bern enlarged l)y tile solvent power of .ilmospheric w.Uer c.irr\"ing < arbonic acid, and from tlie way in wiiich the ore oci:urs loose in the cavities, it is eviilent thai this solving action has often been subsequent to the first deposition of lead ore in the crevic e.

'I'he " fiat crevii e>." '" tlat sheets," and fi.it openings," are analogous to tiie deposits just de^ci ilied, but have, .Is indic.ited b)' the names, a horizontal position, being char.u tei istic of certain lasers, which h.ive evidentlv been more su-,>.eptible to chemical actitm than others, the dissolving water.-^ iiaviiig, moreover, been rlirected .lioiig them by le>s pervious layers .ibove and below. The fi.it openings differ from the vertical crevices also, in h.iving associated with the galena much of either the black-jack or dry-bone zinc ores, or both, the galena not unfrequently being entirely wanting. Cleavable calcite also accompanies the ore:, in these openings in large riuaiitities, and tlie same is true of the sulphide of iron, which i. the variety known as marcasite. These materials have sometimes a symmetrica' arrangement on the bottom and top of the opening, the central portion being empt\-. The flat o[)enings characteri/.e the Blue and IJuff and lower Galena beds, and from tiicm nearly all the zinc ore is obtained.

It is not pos-,it)le, in the limits of this short papei, even to mention the various mining districts. It may mereb' be said that the amount of galena raised from single crevices has often been several hundred thousand, or even over a million pounds, and that one of the principal mining districts is in tiie vicinity of Mineral I'oint, where there are two furnaces constantly engaged in smelting. Between the years 1S62 and 1S73, these two ctablishments have produced 23,903,260 pounds of metallic lead, or an average of 1,991,938 pounds, the ma.ximum being, in 1S69, 2,532,710 pounds, tire mii;iuiuin, in 1S73, 1,518,888 pounds.

The zinc ores were formerly rejected as useless, and have only been utili/.ed since 1S60. An attempt to smelt them at Mineral Point was not successful, because the amount neciled of fuel and clav, l)oth of which have to come from a distance, e.xceeding even the amount of ore used, caused a very heavy expense fur transportation. The ores are therefore now taken altogether to LaSalle, Illinois, where they meet the fuel and c'l.n-, and the industry at that place has become a flourishing one. The amount of zinc ore in the Wisconsin lead region is, beyond doubt, very great, and will be a source of wealth for a king time to come.

Since the ores of zinc and lead in this region are confined to such a small thickness of strata greatly eroded by the atmospheric waters, the entire thickness having frequently been removed,, it becomes a matter of great importance to know how much of the mining ground remains at every point throughout the district. The very excellent topographico-geological maps of the region, made by Mr. Moses Strong, and since published by the State in the Report of the Geological Survey, make this knowledge accessible to all.

Iron mining in Wisconsin is yet in its infancy, although some important deposits are producing a considerable quantity of ore. A number of blast furnaces have sprung up in the eastern pare of the state, but these smelt Michigan ores almost entirely. Much remains yet to be done in the vvay of exploration, for llie most promising iron fields are in the heavily timbered and unsettled regions of the north part of the state, and are as yet imperfectly known. It ajipears [irobable. however, that iron ores will, in the near future, be t!ie most important mineral production of \Vi.,consin. The several ores will be noted in the order of their praent importance-

The iron in these ores exists as an anhyilrous sesquioxide, wliich is, however, in an earthy condition, and entirely witiiout tlie brilliant inet.dlic luster that ch.iracteri/.es the specular hematites. Pure hematite contains seventy per cent, of metallic iron, but the red hematites, as mined, are always so largely mingled witii mechanical impurities that the) r.irel) contain more than fifry per cent. The most important red hematite mined in Wisconsin i^ tli.it known as the Clinton iron oir, the name coming from the t'ormation in whicl; l!ie ore occurs. This formation is a member of the Upper Silurian series, and is named from a locality in Oneida county, Xew Wjrk, wliere it was first recognized. Associated with its rocks, which are limestones and sh.des, is constantly found a peculiar red hem.itite, which is so iierr,i.-,tent in its characters, both [ihysical and and chemical, that one familiar with it from any one locality can hardly fail to recognize it when coming from others. The iron produceJ from it is always "cold-short," on account of the large content of phosphorus; jjut, mingled with siliceous ores free from phosphorus, it yields always a most excellent foundry iron. It is mined at numerous points from New York to Tennessee, and at some points reaches a very great total thickness. In Wisconsin the Clinton rocks merge into the great Niagara limestone series of the eastern part of the state, but at the bottom of the series, in a few places, the Clinton ore i- found immediately overlying the Cincinnati shales. The most im[iortant 1 jcality is tliat kiiOwn as Iron Ridge, on sections twelve and thirteen in the town of Hubbard, in Dodge county. Here a north-and-^outh ledge of Niagara limestone overlooks lower land to the west Underneath, at the I'oot of the ridge, is the ore bed, fifteen to eighteen feet in thickness, consisting of horizontally bedded ore, in layers three to fourteen inches thick. The ore has a concretionary structure, being composed of lenticular graiu>, one twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter, but the top layer is without this structure, having a dark purplish color, and in places a slight metallic appearance. Much of the lower ore is somewhat hydrated. Three quarters of a mile north of Iron Ridge, at Mayville, there is a total thickness of as much as forty feet. According to Mr. E. T. Sweet, the percentages of the several constituents of the Iron Ridge ore are as follows: iron peroxide, 66,3.'^; carbonate of lin.e, 10.42; carbonate of magnesia, 2.79; silica, -1..7 2 ; alumiria, 5.54 ; manganese o.xide, 0.44 ; sulphur, 0.23 ; phosphoric acid, 0.73; water, 8.7s =^ too: metallic iron, 46.66.

Two small charcoal furnaces at Mayville and Iron Ridge smelt a considerable quantity of these ores alone, producing an iron very rich in phosphorus. An analysis of the Mayville pig iron, also by Mr. Sweet, shows the following composition: iron, q;.7S4 per cent; phosphorus, 1.675 : carbon, 0.S49; silicon, o. loS = 100.286. l"lie average furnace yield of the ore is fortyfive per cent. By far the larger part of the ore, however, is sent awa}' to mingle with other ores. It goes to Chicago, Joliet and Springfield, 111., St. Louis, Mo., Wyandotte and Jackson, Mich., and Appleton, Green Bay and Milwaukee, Wis. In 1S72, the Iron Ridge mines yielded 82,371 tons. 'I'he Clinton ore is found at other places farther nortli along the outcrop of the base of the Niagara formation in \\''isconsin , but no one of these appears to promise any great quantity of good ore. Red hematite is found ai numerous places in \Visconsi;i, highly charging certain layers of the Potsdam sandstone series, the lowest one of the hori.^ontal ^Visconsin formations. In the eastern part of the town of W'estficld, Sauk county, the iron ore excludes the sandstone, forming an excellent ore. No developments have been made in this district, so that the size of the deposit is not definitely known.

These ores contain their iron as the hydrated, or brown, sesqiiioxide, which, when pure, has about sixty per cent, of the metal; tlie ordinary brov.-n hem.itites, however, seldom c<;ntain over forty per cent. Bo^ iron ore, a porous brown hem.itite that forms by deposition from the water of bogs, occurs somewhat widely scattered underneath the large marshes of Portage, Wood and Juneau counties. Very excellent bog ore, containing nearly 50 per cent, of iron, is found near Necedah, Juneau county, and near Grand Rapids, Wood county, but the amount obtainable is not definitely known. The Necedah ore contains: silica, S. 52 ; alumina, 377; uon [leroxide, 71.40; manganese oxide, 0.27; lime, 0.58; magnesia, trace; phosphoric acid, 0.21; sulpliur, 0.02; organic matter, 1.62; water, 13.46 - 99.85, metallic iron, 49. 98 - according to Mr. V,. T. Sweet's analysis. \n ore from section 34, tw[). 23, range 6 east, Wood county, yielded, U< Mr. Oliver Matthews, silica, 4. Si ; alumina, i.od; iron peroxide, 73.23 ; lime, o. II, magnesia, 0.25; sulj.ihuric acid, 0.07 ; phosphoric acid, o. 10 ; organic matter, 5. 83; water,

Brown hematite, mingled with more or less red ore, occurs also in some quantity filling cracks and irregular cavities in certain portions of the Potsdam series in northwestern Sauk county and the adjoining portion of Richland. A small charcoal furnace has been in operation on this ore at Ironton, Sauk county, for a number of years, and recently another one has been erected at Cazenovia in the same district.

These are taken together here, because their geological occurrence is the same, the two ores occurring not only in the same group of rocks, but even intimately mingled with one another. These ores are not now produced in Wisconsin ; but it is quite probable that they may before many years become its principal mineral production. In magnetic iron ore, the iron is in the shape of the mineral mai;netite, an oxide of iron containing 72 4 per cent of iron when pure, and this is the highest percentage of iron that any ore can ever have. Specular hematite is the same as red hematite, but is crystalline, has a bri^jht, metallic luster, and a considerable hardness. As mined the richest magnetic and specular ores rarely run over 65 per cent., while in most regions where they are mined they commonly do not reach 50 per cent. The amount of rich ores of this kind in the northern peninsula of .Michigan is so great, however, that an ore with less than 50 per cent, finds no sale; and the same must be true in the adjoining states. So largely does this matter of richness aftect the value of an ore, that an owner of a mine of 4.^ per cent. " hard " ore in Wisconsin would find.it cheaper to import and smelt Michigan 65 per cent, ore, than to smelt his own, even if his furnace and mine were side bv side.

The specular and magnetic ores of Wisconsin occur in two districts - the Penokee iron district, ten to twenty miles south of Take Superior, in Bayfield, Ashland and Lincoln counties, and the Menomonee iron district, near the head waters of the Menomonee river, in tov.-nship 40, ranges 17 and iS east, Oconto county. Specular iron in veins and nests is found in small quantities with the quartz rocks of t!ie Karaboo valley, Sauk county, and Xecedah, Juneau county; and very large quantities of a peciiliar quartz-schist, charged with more or less of the magnetic and specular iron oxides, occur in the vicinity of Elack River Falls, Jackson county ; but in none of these places is there anv promise of the existence of valuable ore.

In the Penokee and Menomonee regions, the iron ores occur in a series of slaty and quartzose rocks known to geologists as the Haronian series. The rocks of these districts are really the extensions westward of a great rock series, which in the northern Michigan peninsula contains the rich iron ores that have made that region so famous. In position, this rock series may be likened to a aireat elongated parabola, the head of which is in the Marquette iron district and the two ends in the Penokee and Menomonee regions of Wisconsin. In all of its extent, this rock series holds great beds of lean magnetic and specular ores. These contain large quantities of t[uart/., which, from its great hardness, renders them very resistant to the action of atmospheric erosion. As a result, these lean ores are found forming high and bold ridges. Such ridges of lean ores have deceived many explorers, and not a few geologists. In the same rock series, for the most part occujiying portions of a higher layer, are found, however, ores of extraordinary richness and purity, wiiich, from their comparative softness, very rarely outcrop. The existence in quantity of these very rich ores in the Menomonee region has been definitely proven. One de[)Osit, laid open during the Summer of 1S77, shows a width of over 150 feet of first class specular ore; and cxreeding in si.'.e the greatest of the famous deposits of Michigan. In the Penokee region, however, thougli the indications are favorable, the existence of the richer ores is as yet an inference only. The Penokee range itself is a wonderful development of lean ore, which forms a continuous belt several hundred feet in width and over thirty miles in length. Occasionally portions of this belt are richer than the rest, and become almost merchantable ores. The probability is, however, that the rich ores of this region will be found in the lower country immediately north of the Penokee range, where the rocks are buried beneath heavy accumulations of drift material.

The only cop[>er ore at present raised in A\'isi;onsin is obtained near Mineral Point, in the lead region of the southwestern part of the state, where small quantities of (r/;(7/r(7/vr;V^, the yellow sulphide of cop{ier and iron, are obtained from pockets and limited crevices in the Galena limestone. Copper pyrites is known tu occur in this way throughout the lead region, but it does not appear that the (piantity at any point is sufficient to warrant exploration.

Copper occurs also in the northernmost portions of Wisconsin; where it is found under altogether different circumstances. The great copper-bearing series of rocks of Keweenaw point and Isle Rovale stretch southwestward into and entirelv across the state of Wisconsin, in two parallel belts. One of these belts enters Wi-sconsin at the mouth of the Montreal river, and immediately leaving the shore of Lake Si. pt-rior, crosses .Vshland and ISayfield counties, and then widening greatly, occupies a large area in Douglas, St. Croix, Ilarron and Chippewa counties. The other belt forms the backbone of the Bayfield peninsnl.t, and crosses the northern part of Douglas count) , forming a bold ridge, to the Minnesnta line. The rocks of this great series appear to be for the most part of igneous origin, but they are distinctly b'edded, and even interstratified with sandstone, shales, and coarse boulder-conglomerate, the whole series having generally a tilted position. In veins crossing the rock-beds, and scattered also promiscuously through the layers of both conglomerates and igneous rocks, pure metallic copper in fine flakes is often found. Mining on a small scale has been attemi)ted at numbers of points where the rivers flowing northward into Lake Superior make gnrgcs across the rock series, but at none of them has sufficient work been done to prove or disprove the existence of copper in paying quantity.

Small traces of gold have been detected by the writer in quartz from tlie crystalline rocks of Clark county, but tliere is no probability that ar.y quantity of tliis metal « ill ( ver be found in the state. Traces of silver have aLo been found in certain layers of the copper series in Ashland county. Judging from tlte occurrence of sil'.er in the same series not t'ar to the east in Michigan, it seems not improltable that this metal may be found also in Wisconsin.

These consti'.ute a very important resource in \V'isconsin. Extending inland for many miles fiom the shore--, of Lakes Micingan and Suncrior are stratified beds of clay of lacustrine origin, h.i\ing been deposited by the lakes when greatl_\- expanded be\ond their pre.-,ent sizes. All of tliese clays are characterized b) the presence of a large amount of carljonate of lime. Along Lik.- Saperior tiiey have not yjt been utilized, but all througii the beh of country bordering L.ike .Michigan they are dug and binned, fully 50,000,000 bricks being made annually in this region. .\ Large projiortion of these bricks are white or cream-colored, and these are widely known under the n.ime of " Milwaukee brick," though by no means altogether made at Milwaukee. Others arc ordinary red brick. 'i'he difference between the light-colored and red bricks is ordinal ily attriiuited to the greater amount of iron in the clay from whic h the latter are burned, but it has been shown by Mr. E. T Sweet that the white bricks are burned from clay which often contains more iron than that from which the red bricks are made, but which also contains a very large amont of carbonate of lime. The following analyses show (i) the composition of the clay from wliich cream-colored brick are burned at JNIilwaukee, (2) the composition of a red-brick clay from near Madison, and (3) the composition of the unutilized clay from Ashland, Lake Superior. Xos. i and 2 are by ^[r. E. T. Sweet, No. 3 by Professor W. W. Daniells :

.-\t Milwaukee 24,000,000 cream-colored brick are made annually; at Racine, 3,500,000; at .A.ppleton and Mcnaslia, i,Soo,ooo each; at Xeenah, 1,600,000; at Clifton, 1,700,000; at Waterloo, 1,600,000; and in smaller quantities at Jefferson, Ft. .\tkinson, Edgerton, Whitewater, Geneva, Ozaukee, Sheboygan Falls, Manitou-oc, Keivaunce, and other places. In most cases the cream-colored brjcks are made from a bright-red clay, although occasionally the clay is lightcolored. .'Vt Whitewater and other places tile and pottery are also made from this clay.

Although these lacustrine clavs are much the most im].iortant in Wisconsin, excellent brick clays are also found in the interior of the state. In numbers of places along the Yahara valley, in Dane coimty, an e.xcellent stratified clay occurs. .-\.t Madison this is burned to a red brick ; at Stoiighton and Oregon to a fine cream-colored brick. .At Platteville, Lancaster, and other points in the southwestern part of the state, red bricks are made from clays found in the vicinity.

The word "kaolin.'' is ajjplied by geologists to a clay-like material which is used in making chinaware in this country and in Euroj-ie. Tiie word is of Chinese origin, and is applied by the Chinese to the substance from which the famous porcelain of China is made. Its application to the European porcelain-c/<7r was made under the mistaken idea - one which has prevailed among scientists until very recentiv - that the Ciiinese material is the same as the European. This we now know to be an error, the Chinese and Japanese wares being both made altogether from a solid rock.

True kaolin, using the word in its European sense, is unlike other ordinary clays, in being the result of the disintegration of t'elspathic crystalline rock> '"in pl.ice, " tint is without being removed from tlie place of its first formation. The base of kaolin is a mineral known as J:aL>/!/!!/c; a compound of silica, alutnina and water, which results from a change or decay of the felspar of felspar-bearing rocks. Felspar contains silica, alumina, and soda or jiotash, or both. ]-!y ])ercolatitm through the rocks of surface water carrvirig carbonic acid, the potash and soda are removed and kaolinite results. Mingled with the kaolinite are, however, always the otiier ingredients of the rock, rpiartz, mica, etc., and aLo always some umiecumiiosed, or only partly decomposed felspar. These foreign ingredients can all, however, he more or less perfectly removed by a system of levigation, when a pure white clay results, composed almost wholly of the scales of the mineral kaoHnite. Prepared in this way the kaolin has a liigh value as a refractory material, and for forming the base of fine porcelain wares.

The crystalline rocks, which, by decomposition, would produce a kaolin, are widely spread over the northern part of Wisconsin ; but over the most of the region occupied by them there is no sign of the existence of kaolin, the softened rock having apparently been removed by glacial action. In a belt of co\intry, however, which extends from Grand Rapids on the Wisconsin, westward to Rlack river, in Jjckson count)-, tlie dr;'"t is insignificant or entirely absent; the glacial forces have not acted, and the crystalline rocks are, or once were, overlaid by sandstone, along whose line of junction v.-ith the underlying for:]iai.ion numerous water-courses have existed, the' result being an unusual amount of disintegration. Here we find, in the beds of the Wisconsin, Yellow, and Rlack rivers, large exposures of crystalline rocks, which between the rivers are overlaid by sandstone. The crystaUine rocks are in distinct layers, tilted at higii angles, and in numerous jjlaces decomposed into a soft white kaolin. Inasmucli as tiiese layers strike across the country m long, straight lines, patches of kaolin are found ran'^in" themselves into similar lines. The kaolin patches are most abundant on the Wisconsin in the vicinity of the city of Grand Rapids, in Wood county. They vary greatl)- in size, one deposit even varying from a fraction of an inch to a number of feet in thickness. The kaolin varies, also, greatly in ch.i.racter, some being quite imj)ure and easily fusible from a large content of iron oxide or from partial decomposition only, while much of it is very pure and refractory. There is no doubt, however, that a large amount of kaolin exists in this region, and that by selection and levigation an excellent material maybe obtained, which, by mingling with powdered quartz, may be made to yield a fire-brick of unusual refractoriness, and which may eveii be employed in making fine porcelain ware.

The following table gives the composition of the raw clay, the fine clay obtained from it by levigation, and the coarse residue from the same operation, the sample having been taken from the opening on tlie land of Mr. C. B. Garrison, section 5, town 22, range 6 east, U'ood counl\- ;

Ii.N'F. Clay Coarse

Certain layers of the Lower Magnesian limestone, as at Ripon, and other points in the eastern part (.f the state, are known to produce a lime which has in some degree the hydraulic property, and the s.tme is true of certain layers of the R-lue limestone of the Trenton group, in the southwestern part of tiic state; the most valuable material of this kind, however, that is as yet known to exist in Wisconsin, is found near Milwaukee, and has become very recently somewhat widely known as the " Milwaukee" cement-rock. This rock belongs to the Hamilton formation, and i-s found near the Washington street bridge, at Brown Deer, on the lake shore at ^Vhitefish bay, and at other points in the immediate vicinity of Milwaukee. The quantity attainable is large, and a very elaborate series of tests by D. J. Whittemore, chief engineer of the Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad, shows that tlie cement made from it exceeds all native and foreign cements in strength, except the famous English " Portland " cement. The following are three analyses of the rock from different points, and they show that it has a very constant composition ;

Quick-lime is made from all of the great limestone formations of Wisconsin, but more is burnt from the Lower Magnesian and Niagara formations, than from the others. The Lower Magnesian yields a very strong mortar, but the lime burned from it is not very white. It is burned largely in the region about ^^adison, one of the largest quarries being on the south line of section 33 of that town, wlicie some 20,000 bushels are produced annually, in two kilns. The lime trom this place has a considerable local reputation under the name of " NLadison lime." The Trenton limestone is burned at a few points, but yields an inferior lime. The Galena is not \-ery generally burned, but yields a better lime than the Trenton. In the region about Watertown and Whitewater, some 40,000 to 50,000 barrels are made annually from this forni.uion.

The Niagara, however, is the great lime furnisher of the northwest. From its purity it is adapted to the making of a most admirable lime. It is burned on a large scale at numbers of points in the eastern part of the state, among which may be mentioned, Pellon's kilns, Pewaukee, where 12,000 barrels are made weekly and shipped to Chicago, Grand Haven, Des Moines, etc.; and Holick & Son's kilns, Racine, which yield 60,000 to 75,000 barrels annually. A total ot about 400,000 barrels is annually made from the Niagara formation in eastern Wisconsin.

The limestones of AVisconsin are rarely used as a fiux, because of their prevalent magnesian character. The stone from Schoonmaker'^ quarry, near Milwaukee, is used at the Bay View iron works, and is one of the few cases. There are ceitain layers, however, in the Trenton limestone, widely spread over the soatliern part of the state, which are non-magnesian, and frequently sufficiently free from earthy impuriiies tu be used as a il.ix. Fhese layers deserve the attention of the irori masters uf the state.

Mucli (if the St. Peter's sandstone is a purely siliceous, loo^e, white sand, well adapted to the making of elass. It is now being iHit to this u:,e at points in the eastern part of the state.

Peat exists in large quantities and of good quality underneath the numerous marshes of the eastern and contra! [larts of the state. Whether it can be utilized in the future as a fuel, will depend altogether u[ion the cost of its preparation, which will have to be ver)^ low in order that it may compete with superior fuels. As a fertilizer, peat has always a great value, and requires no -'reliininarv treatment.

All the rocky formations of Wisconsin are used In building, and even the briefest synopsis of the subject of the building stones of the state, would exceed the limits of this paper. A few of the more prominent kinds only are mentioned.

Granite occurs in protruding masses, and also grading into gneiss, in the northern portions of the state, at nv.uieious points. In many places ou the Wisconsin, Yellow, and Pilack rivers, and especially at Big Dull Falls, Yellow river, red granites of extraordinary beauty and value occur. These are not yet utilized, but will in the I'ature have a high value.

The handsomest and must valuable sandalone found in Wisconsin, is that v.-hich extends along the shore of Lake Superior, from the Michigan to the ^Minnesota line, and which forms the basement rock of the .\postle islands. On one of these island? a very large quarry is opened, from which are taken masses of almost any size, of a very clo3e-grai:ied, uniform, dark brown stone, which has been shipped largely to Chicago and Milwaukee. At the latter place, the well known court house is Iniilt of this stone. An equally good stone can be obtained from the neighboring ishiTids, and from points on the mainland. A very good white to brown, indurated sandstone is obtained from the middle [lortior.s of the Potsdam series, at Stevens Point, Portage county; near.CJrand Rapids, ^\'oo^! county; at hUack River Falls, Jackson county; at Packwaukee, ^^arquette county; near A\"automa, Waur,l'iar.i county; anci at several points in the Baraboo valley, Sauk county. A good buft'-colored. calcareous sandstone is quarried and used largely in the vicinity of Madison, front the uppermost layers of the Potsdam series.

All of the limestone formations of the state are quarried for building stone. A layer known locally as the " Mcndota " limestone, included in the upper layers of the Potsdam series, yields a very evenly bedded, yellow, fine-grained rock, which is largely quarried along the valley of the h'vser Wisconsin, and also in the countr\' about .Madison. In the town of ^^'estport, Dane county, a handsome, fine-grained, cream-colored limestone is obtained from the Lower Magnesian. The Trenton limestone } ields an evenly bedded, thin stone, which is frequently used for Fixing in wall. The Galena and Niagara are also utilized, and tlte latter is capable, in much of the eastern p.irt of the state, of furnishing a durable, easily dressed, compact, v.hite stone.

In jireparing this pap'er, J have made use of Professor Whitney's '' Metallic AVealth of the United States," and '' Report on the Geology of the Lead Region;" of the advance sheets of Aoluine II of the Reports of tlie Si.ite Geological Survey, including Professor T. C. Chamberlin's Re|jort on the Geology of Eastern Wisconsin, my own Report on the Geology- of Central Wisconsin, a: il Mr. Strong's Report on the Cieology of the Lead Region ; Mr. F. T. Sweet's account of the ni!ne.''al exhiljit of the state at the Centennial Exposition; .md of my ur.published reports on the geoSogy of the counties bordering Lake Superior.

Wisconsin Railroads

The territory of Wisconsin offered great advantages to emigrants. Explorers had published accounts of the wonderful fertility of its soil, the wealth of its broad prairies and forest openings, and the beauty of its lakes and rivers. lieing reached t'rom the older states by way of the lakes and easily accessible by a long line of lake coast, the hardships incident to weeks of land travel were avoided. Previous to 1S36 but few settlements had been made in that part of the then territory of Michigan, that year organized into the territory of Wisconsin, e.\(:e]it as mining camps in tlie southwestern part, and scattered settlers in th.e vicinity of the trading [losts and military stations. From that time on, with the hope of impro\ ing their condition, thousands of the enterprising yeommry of Xew England, New York and Ohio started for the land of promise. Germans, Scandinavian? and other nationalities, attracted by the glowing accounts Sent abroad, crossed tlie ocean on their way to the new world; steamers and sail-crat't 'I'len with families and their household goods left Buffalo and other lake ports, all bound f^r the new Eldorado. It may be doubted if in the history of the world any country was ever peo- with tlie rapidity of southern and eastern Wisconsin. Its population in 1S40 was 30,749; in 1.S50, 30.^,756 ; in 1S60. 773.693; in 1S70, 1,051,351; in 1S75, 1,236,729. With the development of the agricultural resoiirr.es of the new territory, grain raising became the most prominent interest, and as the settlemeiits extended back from the lake shore the difficulties of transportation of tlie products of the soil were seriously felt. The expense incurred in moving a load of produce seventy or eighty miles to a market town on the lake shore frequently exceeded the gross sum obtained for the same. .\11 good:., wares and merchandise, and most of the lumber used must also be liauled by teams from Lake Michigan. Many of our early settlers still retain vivid recollections of trying exjieriences in the Milwaukee v.-oods and other sections bordering on the lake shore, from the south line of the state to Manitowoc and Sheboygan. To meet the great want - better facilities t'or transportation - a valuable land grant was obtained t'rom Congress, in 1S3S, to aid in building a canal from Milwaukee to Rock river The company which n'as organized to construct it, built a dam across Milwaukee river and a short section of the canal; then the work stopped and the plan was finally abandoned. It was early seen that to satisfy tlie requirements iif the people, railroads, as the inost feasable means of eouuuuLiicauon wuiuu their reach, were an indisj^ensable necessity.

Between the years 1S3S anil r.*^4i, the territorial legislature of Wisconsin rhartered several railroad rouipanies, Imt with the exception of the "Milwaukee & Waukesha Railroad Company,' ineorporated in 1S47, none of the corporations thus created took any particular shape. The commissioTiers n.imed in its charter met November 2;^. I'U?. -ind elected a president, Dr. L. W. Weeks, and a serret.iry, .\ W. Rand.ill .(al'terward governor of Wisconsin). On the first Moaday of Febraary. 1S4S, they opened books of subscription. The ciiarter of the compan)' provided that §100,000 should be subscribed and five percent, tliereof paid in before the company should fully organize as a corporation. The country was new. There were plenty of active, energetic men, but money to build railroads was scarce, and not until .\pril 5, iS.}9, was the necessary subscription raised and percentage paid. .\ board of directors was elected on thu loth day of ^^ay, and Byron Kilbourn chosen president. The charter had been previously amended, in 1848, authorizing the company to build a road to the Mississippi river, in Grant county, and in 1S50, its name was changed to the " Mihraukee & Mississi[i;)i Railroad Company." After the company was fully organized, active measures were taken to [iush the enterprise forward to completion. The city of Milwaukee loaned its credit, and in 1S51 the pioneer Wisconsin railroad reached W.uikesha, twenty miles out from Milwaukee. In the spring of 1^^:^, Edward H. Broadhead, a [)rominent engineer, from from the state of New \'ork, was put in charge of the work as chief engineer and superintendent. Under his able and energetic administration the road was pushed forward in 1S52 to Milton, in 1S53 to Stoughton, in 1S54 to Madison, and in 1S56 to the Mississippi river, at I'rairie du Chien. In KS51 John Catlin of Madison, was elected president in place of Kilbourn.

llie proposed length of this article will nol admit of any detailed statement of the trials, struggles and triumphs of the uk-u who projected, and finally carried across the state, from the lake to the river, this first \\''isconsin railroad. .Milchcll, Kilbourn, Holton, Tweedy, Catlin, Walker, Broadhead, Crocker and many odiers, deserve to be remembered by our people as benefactors of the state. In 1S59 and iSflo, the company defaulted in the payment of the interest on its bonds. .\ foreclo-surc was made and a new com])any, called the " Milwaukee & Prairie du Chien," took its place, succeeding to all its rights and firoperty.

The "Southern \Visconsin Railway Company" was chartered in 1S52, and authorized to build a road from .Milton to the Mississippi river. When tiie .Milwaukee and Mississippi road reached Milton in 1S53, it was not authorized by its charter to go to Janesville, but, under the charter of the Southern Wisconsin, a company was organized that built the eight miles to Janesville in 1853. Under a subsequent amendment to the charter, the Milwaukee and Mississippi company was autliorized to build from .Milton to the Mississippi river. The Janesville branch was then [lurchased and extended to .Mtjnrue, a distance of about thirty-four miles, or forty-two miles west of Milton Surveys were made and a line located west of Monroe to tlie river. The people of La Fayette and Grant counties ha\e often been encouraged to e.xpect a direct railroad communication with the city of Milwaukee. Other and more important interests, at least so considered by the railroad conijiany, have delayed the e.xecution of the original plan, and the road through the counties mentioned still remains iip.built.

The " LaCrojse iV .Milwaukee Railroad Com[ia:i_\- " was chartered in 1S52, to construct a road from LaCrosse to .Milwaukee. During the year in which the charter was obtained, the company was organized, and the first meeting o'i the commissioners held at LaCrosse. .\mong its projectors were Byron Kilbourn and Mo^cs M. Strong. Kilbourn was elected its first president. X'l work was done upon tliis line until after its consolidation with the '" Milwaukee, Fond du Lac \' ("iieen Bay Raiiroaii Company" in 1.^54. 'I'he iatter company v,-as chartered in 1S53, to build a ro:ul from .Mihvaukee ::\z West Bend to Fund da Lac and Green B.iy. It organized in the spring of I '^^53, and at once commenced active operations under the supervision of J.imes Kneeland, its nr:,t president. The city of Milwaukee loaned its credit for §200,000, and gave citv bonds. The ( i-nipany secured depot grounds in Mihvaukee, ami did consuler.ible grading for the tlrst twentyir.e miles out. Heeoining emljarra^seii in J,i:iii.ir_\ , 1X54, the Milw.uikee, Fond dii Lac & Green Bay c onsolid.it. with th.e I.aCto>,e ^; .Milwaukee company. Work was at once resumed on the parliallv graded line. In 1S55 the ri.ad \v,is completed to Horicon, fifty miles.

Wiscoxsin Railkoads

The Milwaukee & Watertown company was chartered in 1S51, to build from Milwaukee to Watertown. It soon organized, and began the construction of its line from Brookfield, fourteen miles west of Milwaukee, and a point on the Milwaukee & Mississippi road leading through Oconomoivoc to ^N'atertown. The charter contained a provision that the company might extend its road by way of Portage to La Crosse. It reached Watertown in 1S56, and was consolidated with the LaCroise & Milwaukee road in the autumn of the same year.

In the spring of 1S56 congress made a grant of land to the state of Wisconsin, to aid in the building of a railroad from Madison, or Columbus, ~jia Portage City, to the St. Croix river or lake, between townships 25 and 31. and from thence to the west end of Lake Superior, and to Bayfield. An adjourned session of the Wisconsin legislature met on September 3 of that year, to dispose of the grant. The disposal of this grant had been generally discussed by the press, and the public sentiment of the state seemed to tend toward its bestowal upon a new company. There is little doubt but that this was also the sentiment of a large majority of tlie members of both houses when the session commenced. When a new comp^n}- was proposed a joint committee of twenty from the senate and assembl)- was appointed to prepare a bill, conferring the grant upon a company to be created by the bill itself The work of the committee proceeded harmoniously until the question of who should be corporators was to be acted upon, when a difference of opinion was f jund to exist, and one that proved difficult to harmonize. In the meantime the LaCrosse and Watertown companies had consolidated, and a sufficient number of the members of both houses were " propitiated " by " pecuniary compliments" to induce them to pass the bill, conferring the so called St. Croix grant upon the LaCrosse & Milwaukee railroad company. The vote in the assembly in the passage of the bill was, ayes 6j, noes 7. In the senate it stood, ayes 17, noes 7.

At the session of the legislature of 1S5S a committee was raised to investigate the matter, and their report demonstrated that bonds were set apart for all who voted for the LaCrosse bill; to members of assembly $5,000 each, and members of senate §10,000 each. A itw months after the close of tlie legislative sesssion of 1S56 the land grant bonds of the LaCrosse road became worthless. Xeither the LaCrosse company nor its successors ever received any portion of the lands granted to tlie state. During the year 1S57 the LaCrosse company completed its line of ronil through Portage City to LaCrosse, and its Watertown line to Columbus.

The "Milwaukee & iloricon Railroad Compan}-" was chartered in 1S5-;. Between the years 1S55 and 1S57 it built through Waupun and Ripon to Berlin, a distance of forty-two miles. It was, in effect, controlled by the LaCrosse & Milwaukee comp.my, although built as a separate branch. This line was subsequently merged in the LaCrosse company, and is now a part of the northern di\i';irin fil thi.- Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul railway.

The ' Madison, I'ond du Lac & Lake Michigan Railroad Company" was chartered in 18^5, to build a road from Madison via I'ond du Lac ti-> Lake Michigan. In 1S57 it bought of the LaCrosse company that p(5rtion of its road acquired b)- consolidation with the Milwaukee & ^\^^tertown company. Its name was then changed to '' Milwaukee & Western Railroad Comjiany." It owned a line of road from Brookfield to Watertown, and branches from the latter place to (.'"olunibus and Sun Prairie, in all about eighty miles in length.

In 1S58 and 1S50 tlie La Crosse &: Milwaukee and the Milwaukee & Iloricon companies defaulted in tlie payment of the interest on their bon^led debts. In the same years the bondholders of the two companies instituted toreclosure proceedings C)n the different trust deeds given to secure their bonds. Other suits to enlbrce the payment of their floating debts were also commenced. Protracted litigation in both the state and federal courts resulted in a final settlement in 1S6S, by a decision of the supreme court of the United States. In the meantime, in 1862 and

1S63, both roads were sold, and purchased by an association of the bondholders, who organized the " Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company." The new company succeeded to all the rights of both the La Crosse and Horicon companies, and soon afterward, in 1863, purchased the property of the Milwaukee & \\'estcrn company, thus getting control of the roads from Milwaukee to La Crosse, from Horicon to Berlin, from Brookfield to W'atertown, and the branches to Columbus and Sun Prairie. In 1S64 it built from Columbus to Portage, from lirookfield to Milwaukee, and subsequently extended the Sun Prairie branch to ALidison, in 1S69. It also purchased the Ripon & Wolf River road, which had been built fi.fteen miles in length, from Kipon to Omro, on the Fox riser, and extended it to ^Vinneconnc on the Wolf river, five miles farther, and twentj* miles t'rom Ripon. In 1S67 the Milwaukee i St. Paul railway company obtained control of the Milwaukee & Prairie du Chien railroad. The legislature of 1S57 had passed an act, authorizing all stock-holders in all incorporated companies to vote on shares of stock owned by them. The directors of the Milwaukee & St. Paul company had secured a majority of the common stock, and, at the election of 1S67, elected themselves a board of directors for the Prairie du Cliieu company. All the rights, property and interests of the latter company came under the ownership and control of the former.

In 1865, Alexander Mitchell, of Milwaukee, was elected president, and S. S. Merrill general manager of the Milwaukee & St. Paul railway company. They were retained in their respective positions by the new organization, and still continue to hold these offices, a fact largely owing to the able and efficient manner that lias characterized their management of the company's affairs. The company operates eight h'lndred and thirty-four miles of road in Wisconsin, and in all two thousand two hundred and seven miles. Its lines extend to St. Paul and Minneapolis in Minnesota, and to .\lgona in Iowa, and over the Western Union to Savanna and Rock Island in the State of Illinois.

The " Oshkosh & Mississippi Railroad Company " was chartered in 1S66 to build a road from the city of Oshkosh to the Mississippi river. Ts construction to Ripon in 1S72 was a move on the part of citizens of O=hko.-,h to connect their town with the Milwaukee & St. Paul .road. It is twenty miles in length and leased to the Chicago, Milwaukee &: St. Paul company.

In 1S71 and 1S72 the '"Wisconsin Union Railroad Company," of which John W. Cary was president, built a road from Milwaukee to the state line between Wisconsin and Illinois, to connect with a road built from Chic. .go to the state line of Iliinois. This new line between Milwaukee and Chicago wa^ built in the interest ot', and in fact 1 y, the Milwaukee ^: St. Paul company to afford a connecti-./u betu-een its Wirjcoiisin, Iowa and Minnesota S)steni of roads, and the eastern trunk lines (entering in C-hicago. It runs parallel with the shore of Lake Michigan and from three to six niiles from it, and is eighty-live miles in length.

The territorial of 184S chartered the "'Madison Cv Deloit Railroad Company" v.ith authority to build a railroad from P>eluit to .Madison only. In 1S50, l.\ an act of the legislature, the company was auth'.nized to extend the road to the Wisconsin river and La Crosse, and to a jioint on the Missis.sippi river near St. Paul, and also Ironi Janesville to Fond du Lac. Its n.iine was chaiiged, iiiuler le,i;i-lati\e authorit), to the '"Rock River \'alle_\- I'nion Railroad Company." In i.-.5i,the line from JanesviUe north not being pushed as the people expected, the legislature of Illinois ch.irtered -.iie '" lUinoi-^ >.V Wisconsin Railro.id Company " with authority to consolidate with any roail in Wisconsin. In iS^^.an ait of the \\'isconsin legislature consolidated the Illinois and Wisconsin coinp.mies with tlie '" Rock River \'alle)' Union Railroad Company." and the new oiganization took the i.ame of the "Chicago, St. I'aul iV Pond du Lac Rail- road Company." In 1S54, and previous to the consolidation, the connpany had failed and passed into the hands of tiie bondholders, wlio foreclosed and took stock for their bonds. The old management of A. Hyatt Smith and Joiin B. Macy was superseded, and Wni. B. Ogden was made president. Cl.icago was all along deeply interested in reaching the rich grain fields of the Rock river valley, :is well as the inexhaustible timber and mineral wealth of the northern part of Wisconsin and that part of Michigan bordering on Lake Superior, called the Peninsula. It also sought a connection v.iih the uj/per MisDi^sipjn region, then being rapidly peopled, by a line of railroad to run through Madison to St. Paul, in Minnesota. Its favorite road was started from Chicago on the wide (si.x fee;) gauge, and so constructed seventy miles to Sharon on the ^V'isconsin state line. This was changed to the usual (four feet, eight and one-half inches) width, andthe work was \igorously pushed, reaching Janesville in 1S55 and Fond du Lac in 1S5S. The Rock River Valley Union railroad company had, however, built about thirty miles from Fond du Lac south toward Minnesota Junction before the consolidation took place. The partially graded line on a direct route between Janesville and Madison was abandoned. In 1S52 a new charter had been obtained, and the " Beloit & Madison Railroad Company " had been organized to build a road from Beloit rv'i? Janesville to Madison. A subsequent amendment to this charter had left out Janesville as a point, and the Beloit branch was jiushed through to Madison, reaching that city in 1S64.

The '"Galena and Chicago L'l'nion Railroad Company" had built a branch of the Galena line from Belvedere to Beloit previous to 1S54. In that year, it leased the Beloit & Madison road, and from 1856 operated it in connection with the Milwaukee & Mississippi, reaching Janes- \ille by wa) of Hanover Junction, a station on its Southern Wisconsin branch, eight miles west of Janesville. The consolidation of the Cialena it Chicago Union and the Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac companies was effected and approved by legislative enactment in 1S55, and a new organization called the "Chicago & Xorthwestern Railway Company" took their place.

The "Green Bav, Miluar.kee & Chicago Railroad Company " was chartered in 1S51 to build a road from Mih^aukee to the state line of Illinois to connect with a road from Chicago, called "the Chicago & Milwaukee railroad. Both roads were completed in 1S55, and run in connection until 1S63, when they were consolidated under tlie name of the '"Chicago & Milwaukee Railroad Company." To ]>rcvent its falling into the hands of the Milwaukee & St. Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern secured it by jierpetual lease. May 2, 1S66, and it is now operated as its Chicago division.

The Kenosha & Beloit Railroad Company" was incorporated in 1^53 to build a road from Kenosha to Beloit, and was organized soon after its charter>was obtained. Its name was afterward changed to the '"Kenosha, Rockford & Rock Island Railroad Compan\," and its route changed to run to Rockford instead of Beloit. The line starts at Kenosha, and runs through the rounty of Kenosha and crosses the state line near the village of Genoa in the county of Walworth, a distance of thirty miles in the state of Wisconsin, and there connects with a road in Illinois running to Rockford, and with which it consolidated. Kenosha and its citizens were the principal subscriber,-- tc its capital stock. The company issued its bonds, secured by the usual mortgage on its frtmchises and property. Failing to pa\- its interest, the mortgage was foreclosed, and the road was sold to the Chicago \' Xorthwestern company in 1S63, and is now oj)erated by it as the Kenosha division. The line was constructed trom Kenosha to Genoa in 1S62.

'i'he " NVirthv.estern I ninti Railway Company " was organized in 1S72, under the general railroad law of the state, to build a line of road from Milwaukee to I'ond du Lac, with a branch to Lodi. The load was constriu ted during the years 1S7:; and 1S73 from Milwaukee to Fond du Lac. The Chicago & Xortliwestern company were principall)' interested in its beins built, to

The " I'.arabno Air-Line Railroad Company" was incorporated in 1S70, to build a road from Madison, Columbus, or AVaterloo lia Barahoo, to I, a Crosse, or any point on the Mississippi river. It organized in the interest of the Ciiicag'i & N'orthuestern, witli which company it consolidated, and the work of building a connecting line between Madison and Winona Junction was vigorously pushed forward. Lodi was reached m :S7o, Baraboo m 1S71, and \\'inona Junction in 1874. The ridges between Elroy and Sparta were tunneled at great expense and with much difficulty. In 1S74 the company reported an exiienditure for its three tunnels of $476,743.32, and for the 129 i-io miles between Madison and Winona Junction of $5,342,169.96, and a large expenditure yet required to be made on it. In 1^67 the Chicago & Northwestern company bought of D. N. Barney & Co. their interest in the Winona & St. Peters railway, a line being built westerly from Winona in Minnesota, and of which one hundred and five miles had been built. It also bought of the same parties tlicir interest in the La Crosse, Trempealeau & Prescott railway, a line being built from Winona Junction, three miles east of La Crosse, to Winona, Minn. The lattei line was put in operation in 1870, and is twenty-nine miles long. With the completion of its Madison branch to Winona junction, in 1S73, it had in operation a line from Chicago, n'a .Madison and Winona, to Lake Kampeska, Minn., a distance of sl.x hundred and twenty-three miles.

In the year 1S56 a valuable grant of land was made by congress to the state of Wisconsin to aid in the construction of railroads. The Cliicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac company claimed that the grant was obtained through its effoits, and that of rigiu it should have the northeastern grant, so-called. At the adjourned session of tlic legislature of 1S56, a contest over the disposition of the grant resulted in conferring it upon the '' Wisconsin & Superior Railroad Company," a cor]ioration chartered for the express purjjosc of giving it this grant. It was generally believed at the time tliat the new company was organi.'ed in the interest of tlie Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac comjiany, and at the subsequent session, in the t'ollowing )"ear, it was authorized to consolidate v.ith the new company, which it did in tlie spring of that year, and thus obtained the grant of 3, acres ]ier mile along its entire line, from Fond du Lac northerly to the state line between 'Wisconsin and Mi'-higan. It extended its road to Oshkosh in 1S59, to .Appleton in iS6i,and in iSii2 to Fort Howard, forming a line two hundred and forty-two miles long. The line from Fort Howard to I'.scanaba, one hundred and fourteen miles long, was opened in December, 1872, and made a connection with th.e penins'ilar railroad of Michigan. It now became a jjart of the Chicago &: Northwesiern, extending frmn Escanaba to the iron mines, and thence to Lake Superior at Marquette. .\lbert K.ep, of Chicago, is president, and Marvin Hughitt, a gentleman of great railroad exjierience, is geiieral superintendent. The company operates five hundred and sixty-seven miles of road in Wisconsin, and in all sixteen hundred and sixteen miles. Its lines extend into five different states. Over these lines its equipment is run in common, or transferred from place to place, as the changes in. Lj.sine3s may temporarily require.

The " Milwaukee & Northern Railway Conqiany " was incorporated in 1S70, to build a road from .Milwaukee to some point on the Fo s nver below Winnebago lake, and thence to Lake Superior, with branches. It completed i'.s ro;d t.i .Menasha, one hundred and two miles from Milwaukee, with a branch t'ro-.n Hil'.icrt to Crei n Bay, twenty-se\'en miles, in 1S73, and in that vvar lea-cd Us line to the " Wisconsin Ccr.tral Railroad Comjjany," which is still operating it. In

1S64 congress made a grant of land to the state of Wisconsin to aid in the cunatruction of a railroad from Rerlin, Doty's Island, Fond du Lac, or Portage, by way of Stevens Point, to Layfield or Superior, granting the odd sections within ten miles on eacli side of the line, wuh an indemnity limit of twenty miles on each side. The legislature of 1S65 failed to dispose of this grant, but that of 1S66 provided for the organization of two companies, one to build from Portage City 1)V way of BerHn to Stevens Point, and t!ie other from Menasha to the same point, and then jointly to Bayfield and Lake Superior. 'I'lie former was called the "Winnebago and Lake Superior Ilailroad Company," and tlie latter tlie "' Portage & Superior Railroad Company." In 1S69 an act was jxassed consolidating the two companies, wiiich was done under the name of the '" Portage, Winnebago iS: Superior Railroad Company." In 1S71 the name of the company was changed to the " Wisconsin Centra! Railroad Company." The ^\'innebago & Lake Superior conii)any was organized under Hon. Cenrge Reed as president, and at once commenced the construction of its line of road between Menasha and Stevens Point. In 1S71 the Wisconsin Central consolidated with the " Manitowoc &: Mississippi Railroad Compaii}." The articles of consolidation provided that Gardner Colby, a director of the latter company, should be president, and that George Reed, a director of the former, should be vice president of the new organization ; with a further provision that Gardner Colby, George Reed, and Elijah B. Phillips should be and remain its executive committee.

In iSyi, an act was passed incorporating the "Phillips and Colby Construction Compiany," which created E. B. Phillips, C. L. Colby, Henry Pratt, and such others as they might associate with them, a body corporate, with authority to build railroads and do all manner of things relating to railroad construction and operation. Under this act the construction company contracted with the Wisconsin Central railroad company, to build its line of road from Menasha to Lake Superior. In November, 1S73, the \Visconsin Central leased of the Milwaukee & Northern company it-^ line of road extending from Schwartzburg to Menasha, and the liranch to Green Bay, foi the term of nine hundred and ninety-nine years, and also acquired the rights of the latter company to use the track of the Chicago, Milwaukee &: St. Paul company between Schwart.'.burg and .Milwaukee, and to dei^ot facilities in Milwaukee. The construction of the land grant portloi. of this important line of road was commenced in 1S71, and it v.ms com[)leted to Stevens Point iii November of that year. It was built from Stevens Pciint north one hundred miles to Vv'orcestor in 1.S72. During 187 j and 1S73, it was built from Ashland south to the Penoka iron ridge, a distance of thirty miles. The straight line between Portage City and Stevens Point, authorized by an act of the legislature of 1S75, was constructed between October i, 1075, and October, 1S76, seven'y-one miles in length. The gap of furty-two mile-, between ^Vorcester and Penoka iroii ridge w.as closed in June, 1S77. E. B. Pliillip-. of Milw.iitkee, is president and general manager. This line of road passes through a section of our state hitlierto unsettled. It has been pushed through with energy, and opened uji for settlement an immense region of heavily timbered land, and thus contributed to tlie growth and prosperity of the state.

The " Racine, Janes\ille >-^' Mississippi Railroad Cf.mpauy " was chartered in 1852,10 build a road from Racine to Bcloit, and was organized the same ye.ir. The city of Racine issued its bonds for $300,000 in p^iyment for tliat .unount of .itock. Tlie towns of R.icinc, Elkhorn, Delevan and Beiolt gave $iyo,ooo, and issued their botuls, attil firniers along the line m,ale liberal subscriptions and secured the same by nMVtgage- on their fanii.^. The ro.id wa=; built to Burlingt'ln in 1855, to Delavan e.irly in 1S56, and to Beloit, sixty-eight miles from Racine, during tlie same jear. Failing to meet tlie interest on its bonds and its floating indebtedness, it was sur- rendered by the company to tlie bond-holder.i in 1S59, who completed it to Freeport during that year, and aftcrvvard huilt to the Mississippi river at Savannah, and thence to Rock Island. The bond-holders purchased and sold the road in 18C6, and a new organization was had as the " Western Union Railroad Company." and it has since been operated under that name. In 1S69, it built a line from Elkliorn to F.agle, seventeen miles, and thus made a connection with Milwaukee over the Cliicago, Milwaukee & St. I'aul line. The latter company owns a controlling interest it its IIt.c. Alexander Mitchell is the president of the company, and D. A. Olin, general superintendent.

The lands granted by congress in 1S56 to aid in the construction of a railroad in Wisconsin. tVom Tomah to Superior and Bayfield, were disposed of as mentioned under the history of tlie Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul company. Tb.e l,a Crosse company, as we have seen, prevailed in the legislature of 1S56, and secured legislation favorable to its interests; but it failed to build the line of road provided for, and forfeited its right to lands granted. In 1863, the "Tomah & Lake St. Croix Railroad Company " v/as incorporated, with authority to construct a railroad from some point in the town of Tomah iit Monroe county, to such point on Lake St. Croix, between townships ^5 and 31 as the directors might determine. To the company, by the act creating it, was granted all the interest and estate of this state, to so much of the lands granted by the United States to the state of Wisconsin, knov.-n as the St. Croi\ grant, as lay between Tomah and Lake St. Croix. -A few months after its organization, the company passed substantially into the hands of D. .\. Baldwin and Jacob Ilumbird, who afterward built a line of road from Tomah, via Elack River Falls, and Eau Claire to Hudson, on Lake St. Croi.x, one hundred and seventy-eight miles. Its name was afterward changed to the ''West \Visconsin Railroad Company." In 1S73, it built its road from ^\'arren's Mills rv'iz Camp liouglass, on the St. Paul road to Elroy, and took up its track from the first-named [j'.ace, twelve iniku, to Tomah. A law-suit resulted, whicli went against the railroad company, and tlie matter was ilnaily compromised by the payment of asum of money by the company to the town of Tomah. The road was built through a new and sparsely settled country, and its earnings have not been sufficient to enrich its stock-holders. It connects at Camp P)ouglas3 witli the Chicago, Milwaukee i\: St. Paul road, and at Elroy with the Chicago & Northwestern railway company's line, which gives the latter a through line to St. Paul. It is operated in connection witli the Chicago & Northwestern r.iilway, and managed in its interest. It is now in the hands of \Vm. H. Ferry, of Chicago, as receiver; H. H. Potter, of Chicago, as president'; and E. W. Wiiitcr, of Hudson, superintendent.

In 1S70, the "Milwaukee, Manitowoc & Cieen L)av Railroad Company" was chartered to buiiil a road from Milwaukee t-i Cireen I!ay by \vay of Manitowoc. It built its line from Milwaukee to M.initowor in 1S73, wiien its name was changed to " Milwaukee, Lake Shore & \\'estern liailro.nl Company." I'ndcr a decree iy\ foreclosure, it was sold Dec. 10, 1S75, and its name wAi changed to " Milwaukee, Lake Sii')rc Oe Western Railway Company," by which name it is still known.

In iS'io, the " .\p[)!etou is: New London Riilroa.d Company" v.-as incorporated to build a road ircni .\ppIcton to New London, .ii;d thence to Lake Superior. A subsequent amendment to i;s charter authorized it to extend it. road ^o .Manitov.oc. It built most of the line from .^pplelon to that city, and then, under legisl.itive autliority, sold this extension to the Milwau- kee, Lake Shore & Western railroad company. The last-named company extended it to New London, on -the Wolf river, twenty-one miles, in 1S76, where it connects with the Green Bay & Minnesota road. It now operates one hundred and forty-si.K miles of road, extending t'roni Mil- \\aukee to New London, pjassin.; through Sheboygan, Manitowoc and Appleton, which includes a branch line six rnile^ in iLnijlh from to Two Ri\ers. F. W. Rhinelander, of New York, is its president, and H. (r. H. Reed, of Milwaukee, superintendent.

The Tine of road operated by this company extends from Fort Howard to the Mississippi ri\er, opposite \\'innna, Minnesota. It is two hr.ndred and sixteen miles in length, and was l)uilt through a sparsely settled and heavily timbered section of tlie state. It began imder most discouraging circumstances, yet was pushed througli by the energy of a few men at Green Bay and along its line. It was originally chartered in iSi>6 as the "Green l!ay & Lake Pepin Railroad Company " to build a road fro.m the mouth of tlie I'ox river near Green Bay to the Mississippi river oppiositc Winona. But little was done except the making of preliminary surveys in 1S70. During 1S70 and 1S71, forty miles were constructed and put in operation. In 1S7?, one hundred and fourteen miles were graded, the track laid, and the river reached, si.xty-two miles farther, in 1873. In 1S76, it acquired the right to use the " \\'inona cut-off " between Winona and Onalaska, and built a line I'rom the latter point to La Crosse, seven miles, thus connecting its ro.id with the ch.ief city of Wisconsin on the Mississippi river. The city of 1-a Crosse aided this extension by subscribing ;5'75'0°'' giving its corjioration bonds for that amount. Henry Keti hum, of New London, is president of the company, and D, M. Kelly, of Green l!ay, general manager.

The "AVisconsin A'allcy Railroad Comj.an} " was incorporated in 187 i to build a road from a yioint on or near the line of the Milwaukee & La Crosse railroad, between Kilbourn City and the timnel in said road to the village of \\"ausau, in the county of Marathon, and the road to pass not more than one mile west of the village of Grand Rapids, in the county of A\'ood. The road was conmienced at Toinah, and graded to Centralia in 187:;, and opened to that village in 1S73, and during 187.1. it was completed to Wau.sau, ninety miles in its whole length. Boston capitalists furnished the money, and it is controlled in the mt-.-rest of the Dubuque iV Minnesota railroad, through which the ecjuipment was jirocured. The lumber regions of the \\'isconsin ri\er find an outlet over it, and its junction with the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul road at Tomah enables a connection with the railroads of Iowa and Minnesota. It gives the people of Marathon county an outlet long need-d for a large liunber traffic, and also enables t'aem to receive theirgoods and supplies of various kinds tor tlie lumbering region tributary to Wausau. James F. Joy, of Detroit, is president, and F. 0. Wyatt, >upcrintendent.

The Sheboygan &: Mis-.issippi Railroad Company " was incorporated in 185.% to build a road from Sh.eboygan to the Mississippi river. It was completed from Sheboygan to Plymouth in 1850, to Glenbeulah in iSCo, to Fond du Lac in 1S6S, and to Princeton in 1S72. The extension from Fond du Lac to Prmceton was built under authority of an act passed in 1S71.

Under a loreclosure in io'ji the line from .Sheboygan to I'onddu L.ic was sold, and the name of the comjiany clianized to "Shcbo_\gan & Fond du Lac Railroad Company.'" The length of the line is seventy-eight miles, and it passes through a fertile agricultural country. The city of Sheboygan, county, city and town of Fond da Lac, and the towns of Ri\ trdale, Ripon, Brooklyn, Princeton, and St. Marie, aided in its building to an amount exceeding $250, ooc. D. L. Wells is president, and Geo. P. Lee, supcrindendent.

The " Mineral Point Railroad Cunij.any " was chartered in 1S52, to build a road from Mineral Point, ill the county of Ljwa, to the i^tate line, in township number one, in either the county of Green or La Fayette. It was com[ileted to Warren, in the state of Illinois, thirty-two miles, in 1855, making a conneclion at tliat point with the Illinois Central, running from Chicago to Galena. Iowa county loaned its credit and issued its bonds to aid in its construction. It was sold under foreclosure in :S56. Suits were brought against Iowa county to collect the amount of its bonds, and judgment obtained in the federal courts. Mucli litigation has been had, and ill feeling engendered, the supervisors of the county having been arrested for contempt of the decree of the court. Geo. W. Cobb, of Mincr.il Point, is the general manager.

The Dubuque, Platteville & ^Milwaukee railroad was completed in July, 1S70, and extends from Calamine, a point on the Mineral Point railroad, to the village of Platteville, eighteen miles, and is operated by the Mineral Point railroad compan\'

The legislature of 18^5 chartered the "Sugar Rivtr \' alley Railroad Compjany " to build a road from a point on the north side of the line of the Soutliern Wisconsin road, within the limits of Green county, to r)ayton, on the Su;_ar river. In 1S57 it was authorized to build south to the state line, and make its nortlicrn terminus at Madison. In 1S61 it was authorized to build from Madison to Portage City, and from Columbus to Port.igc City, and so much of the land grant act of i'856, as related to the building of the road from Madison, and from Columbus to Portage City, was annulled and repealed, and the rights and privileges that were conferred upon the LaCrosse company were given to tlic Sugar River ^'allL-y railroad company, and the portion of the land grant, applicable to the lines mentioned, was conferred uijon the last named company. L'nder this legislation about twenty miles ol the line between. Madison and Portage were graded, and the right of way secured for about thirty of the thirty-nine miles. The T.a Crosse company had done considerable grading before its right was annulled. In 1S66 the company was relieved from constructing the ro.ni from Columbus to Portage City. In 1S70 tlie jnirchasers of that part of the Sugar River Valie_\ railroad lying between Madison and Portage City were incorporated as the " Madison & Portage Railroad Compaiiv," and to share all tlie rights, grants, etc., that were conferred upon the Sugar River ra;lroad company by its charter, and amendments thereto, so fir as related to that portion of the lirie.

Previous to this time, in iS6.|.;.nd iSf)5, judgments had been obtained against the Sugar River Valley company ; and its righ.t of "ay, grading and dejiot grounds sold for a small sum. James Campbell, wiio h.ul been a contr^u tor wiih the Si-gar River \'aile_\- companv, with others, became tlie jiurchaser.-, and nrg.mi/ed under the act of 1-^70, and, (luiiiig the year iS7i,coml>!eted it between Madison and Port.ige City, and in M.irch, 1S71, leased it to the Milwaukee &: St. I'j'd company, and it is still operated by that corporation. In 1S71 the Madison iS," Portage company was authorized to extend its road south to the Illinois sl.ile line, and nortli from Portage City to Lake Winneb.igo. The same year it was consolid.Ued with the " Rockford Central

Railroad Company," of Illinois, and its name changed to the " Chicago &' Su[)erior Railroad Company," but still retains its own organization. The Madison & I'ortage railroad company claims a share in the lands granted by acts ol" congress in 1356, and ]ia\e .ommenced proceedings to assert its claim, which case is still [jending in the federal courts.

'I'he "North Wisconsin Railroad Company" was incorporated in 1S69, to build a r<jad from l,,ike St. Croix, or river, to Bayfieid on Lake Superior. The grant of land by congress in 1S56, to aid in building a road frvim Lake St. Croix to Bayfield on Lake Superior, under the decision of the federal court, was yet at the disiiosal of the state. This company, in 1S7 i, built a short section of its line of road, witii the exjiectatioa of receiving the grant. In 1S73, the grant was conl'erred upon the Milwaukee ii' St. I'aul company, hut under the terms and restrictions contained in the act, it declined to accept it. The legislature of 1S74 gave it to the North Wisconsin company, and it has built forty miles of its road, and received the lands pertaining thereto. Since 1S76, it has not completed any part of its line, but is trying to construct twenty miles during the present year. The comiian\' is authorized to construct a road both to Superior and to Bayticld, but the act granting the lands confers that portion from Superior to the intersection of the line to Bayfield ujjon the Chicago &: North Pacific air-line railroad. This last-named company have projected a line from Cliicago to the west end of Lake Superior, and are the owners of an old grade made tlirough \\'alworth and Jefferson counties, by a comi)any chartered i:! i8t3 as the " Wisconsin Central," to build a road from Portage City to Geneva, in the county of Walworth. The latter company had alsj graded its line between Geneva and the state line of Illinois. This grade was afterward appropriated by the Chicago & Northwestern, and over it ihey now operate tlieir line from Chicago to Geneva.

This is a line two miles in length, connecting Prairie du Chien in Wiiconaia, with McGregor in lov.-a. It i:. owned and operated by John Lawler, of the latter-named place. It extends across both channels of the Mississippi river, and an intervening island. The railroad bridge consists of substantial piling, except a pontoon draw across e.-ch navigable channel. Each pontoon is four imiuired feet long and thirty teet wide, provided with suitable machinery and operated by steam I>o\ver, Mr. Lawler has secured a patent on his invention of the pontoon draw for railroad bridges. His line was put in operation in .\pril, 1074.

This road was built in 1S74, bv a company organized under the general law of the state. It IS eleven mile.i in length, and connects tile " Falls " with tile West Wisconsin line at Eau Claire. It was constructed by the energetic business men and capitalists of Chippewa Falls, to afford an <-' itlet for the great Uiniber .lad other intere-,ts of tiiat thriving and prosperous city. The road j^ substantially built, and the track laid with steel rails.

The "Galena & Southern Wisconsin Railroad Company" was incorporated in 1S57. Under Us ch.irter, a number of capitalists of the city of Cjalena, in the state of Illinois, commenced the constructioa of a narrow (three feet) gauge road, running from that city to Platteville, thirtyone miles in length, twenty miles in Wisconsin. It runs through a part of La Fayette county to Platteville, in Grant county, and was completed to the latter point in 1S75. Surveys arebeing made for an exten^iion to Wingvillc, in Grant county.

The "Fond du Lac, Auiboy & Peoria Railway Company " was organized under the general law of the state, in 1S74, to l>uild a narrow gauge road from the city of Fond du Lac to the south line of the state in the county of Walworth or Rock, and it declared its intention to consolidate with a company in Illinois that had projected a line of railroad from Peoria, in Illinois, to the south line of the state of Wisconsin. The road is constructed and in operation from Fond du Lac to Iron Ridge, a point on tiie Chicago. Milwaukee & St. Paul rai!wa\. twenty-nine miles from Fond du Lac.

The " Pine River & Steven's Point Railroad Company " was organized by the enterprising citizens of Richland Center, and has built a narrow gauge road from Lone Rock, a point on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul road, in Richland county, to Richland Center, sixteen miles in length. Its track is laid with wooden rails, and it is operated successfully.

The " Chicago & Tomah Railroad Company " organized under the general railroad law of the state, in 1S7;, to construct a narrow gauge road from Chicago, iu Illinois, to the city of Tomah, in Wisconsin. Its president and active managi-r is D. R. Williams, of Clermont, Iowa, and its secretary is L. M. Culver, of Wauzeka. It has graded about forty-five miles, extending from Wauzeka up the valley of the Kickapoo river, in Crawford county, Wisconsin. It expects to have fifty-four niiles in operation, to Ploomingdale, in Vernon county, the present year (rSyy). The rolling stock is guaranteed, and the [iresident is negotiating for the purchase of the iron. South of Wauzeka the line i:^ located to Pelmont, in Iowa county. At Wauzeka it will connect with the Chicago, Milwaukee cV St. Paul line.

The public-spirited citizens of Xecedah, in Juneau county, have organized under the general law of the state, and graded a road-bed from their village to New Lisbon, on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul company's line. The latter couijiany furnish ,md lay tlie iron, and will operate the road. It is thirteen miles in length.

The railroads of Wisconsin have grown up under the requirements of the several localities that have planned and commenced their construction, and without regard to any general system. Frequently the work of construction was begun before adequate mean-, were provided, and bankruptcy overtook the roads in their early stages. The consolidation of the various companies, as in tlie <-ase5 of the Chicago, Milwaukee ^- St. Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern, and others, has been effected to give through lines and the public greater facilities, as well as to introduce economv in management. At times the people have become ap[irehensive, and by legislative action prohibited railroads from consolidating, and have sought to control and break down the power of these corporations and to harmonize the interests of the companies and the public. The act of 1S7.), called the "Potter law." was tiie assertion, by the legislative power of the state, of its rigiit to control coriiorations created by itself, and limit the rates at which freight and passengers should be carried. After a long and expensive contest, carried through the state and federal courts, V.\h rigin has been established, being finally settled by the decision of the supreme court of tlie L'nitc.J States.

Quite all the railroads of Wisconsin have been built with foreign ca]jital. The plan pursued after an organization was eUe< ted, w.is to obtain stock subscriptions from those immediately interested in the enterprise, procure the aid of tuunties and municipalities, and then allure the farmers, with the prospect of joint ownership in railroads, to subscribe for stock and mortgage their farms to secure the paymeiit of their subscriptions. Then the whole line was bonded and a mortgage executed. The bonds and mortgages thus obtained, were taken to the money centers of New York, London, Amsterdam and other places, and sold, or hypothecated to obtain the money with which to prosecute the work. The bonds and mortgages were made to draw a high rate of interest, and the earnings of these new roads, through unsettled localities, were insufficient to pay more than running and incidental expenses, and frequently fell short of that. Default occurring in the payment of interest, the mortgages were foreclosed and the property passed into the h..inds and under the control of foreign capitalists. Such has been the history of most of the railroads of our state. The total number of farm mortgages given has been 3,7^5, amounting to $4,079,433 ; town, countv and municip.il bonds, amounting to §6,910,652. The total cost of all the railroads in the state, as given by the railroad commissioner in his report for 1S76, Vis Ijeen $98,343,453.67. This vast sum is, no doubt, greatly in excess of what the cost should have been, but tlie roads have proved of immense benefit in the development of the material resources of the state.

Other lines are needed through sections not yet traversed by the iron steed, and present lines should be extended by branch roads. The questions upo.a which great issues were raised between the railway corporations and the people, are now happily settled by securing to the latter their rights ; and the former, under the wise and conciliatory policy pursued by their managers, are assured of the safety of their investments. An era of good feeling has succeeded one of distrust and antagonism. The people must use the railroads, and the railroads depend upon the people for sustenance. and protection. This mutuality of interest, when fully recognized on both sides, will result in giving to capital a fair return and to labor its just reward.

Lumber Manufacture

Foremost among the industries of Wisconsin is that of manufacturing lumber. Very much of the importance to whicli the state has attained is due to the develojHuent of its forest wealth. In America, agriculture always has been, and always will be, tliL- primary and most important interest; but no nation can subsist upon agriculture alone. While the broad prairies of Illinois and Iowa are rich with a fertile and productive soil, tlie hills and valle}-s of northern Wisconsin are clothed with a wealth of timber that has given birth to a great manufacturing interest, wiiich employs millions of capital and thousands of men, and has peopled the northern wilds \vitli energetic, prosperous communities, built up enterprising cities, and crossed the state with a network of railways which furnish outlets for its productions and inlets for the new populations which are ever seeking for homes and employment nearer to the setting sun.

If a line be drawn upon the state man, from Green liay westward through Stevens Point, to where it would naturally strike tlie Mississipiu river, it will he below the southern boundary of the pine timber regions, with the single exception of the district drained by the \'eIlow river, a tributary of the Wisconsin, drawing its timber chiefiy from \Vood and Juneau counties. Tlie territory north of this imaginary line covers an area a little greater than one half of the state. The pine timbered land is found in belts or ridge<, interspersed with prairie openings, patches of hardwood and hemlock, and drained by nimx-rous water-courses. No less than seven large rivers traverse this northern section, and, with their numerous tributaries, penetrate every county, affording facilities for iloating the logs to the mills, and, in many instances, the power to cut them into lumber. This does not include the St. Croi.x, which forms the greater portion of the boundary line between Wisconsin and Minnesota, and, by means of its tributaries, draws the most and best of its pine from the former state. These streams divide the territory, as far as lumbering is concerned, into six separate and distinct districts : The Green bay shore, which includes the Wisconsin side of the Menomonee, the Peshtigo and Oconto rivers, with a number of creeks which flow into the bay between the mouths of the Oconto and Vox rivers; the Wolf river district;' the ^Visconsin river, including the Yellow, as before mentioned ; the Black river; the Chippewa and Red Cedar; and the Wisconsin side of the St. Croi.x;.

Beginning with the oldest of those, the Green bay shore, a brief description of each will be attempted. The first saw-mill built in the state, of which there is now any knowledge, was put in operation in 1809, in Erown county, two or three miles east from Depere, on a little stream which was known as East river. It was built by Jacob Franks, but probably was a very small affair. Of its machinery or capacity for sawing, no history has been recorded, and it is not within the of any inhabitant of to-day. In 1S29, John P. Arndt, of Green Bay, built a waterpower mill on the Pensaukee river at a point where tlie town of Big Suamico now stands. In 1834, a mill was built on the Wisconsin side of the Menomonee, and, two years later, one at Peshtigo. Lumber was first shipped to market from tliis district in iSj.^, which must be termed the beginning of lumbering operations on the bay shore. The lands drained by the streams which flow into Green bay are located iri Sliawano and Oconto counties, the latter being the largest in the state.' In 1847. \V'illard Lamb, of Green Bay, made the first sawed pine shingles in. that district ; they were sold to the Galena railroad company for use on depot buildings, and were the first o( the kind sold in Chicago. Subsequently Green Bay became one of the greatest points for the manufacture of such shingles in the world. The shores of the bay are low, and gradually change from marsh to swam;i, tlien to level dry land, and finally become broken and mountainous to the northward. The pine is in dense groves t'nat crowd closely upon the swamps skirting the bay, and reach far back among the hills of the interior. The Peshtigo flows into the bay about ten miles south of the Menomonee, and takes its rise far back in Oconto county, near to the latter's southern tributaries. It is counted a good logging stream, its annual product being from 40,000.000 to 60,000,000 feet. The timber is of a rather coarse quality, running but a small percentage to what the kimbcrmen teria "uppers." About ten per cent, is what is known as Norway jiine. Of the whole amount of timber tributary to the Peshtigo, probably about one third has been cut off to this date. The remainder will not average of as good (juality, and only a limited portion of the land is of any value for agricultural purposes after being cleared of the pine. There are only two mills on this stream, both being owneii by one company. The Oconto is one of the most important streams in tlie district. The fir=t saw-mill was built on its banks about the year 1840, thoug'i the first lumbering operations of any account were begun in 1R45 by David Jones. The business was conducted quite moderately until 1S56, in which year several mills were built, and from that date Oconto has been known as quite an extensive lumber manntacturing jioint. The timber tributary to this stream has been of the best quality found in the state. Lumber cut from it has been known to yield the extraordinarily high average of tlfty and sixty per cent. up[)ers. The timber now being cut will not average more than half that. The proportion of Norway is about five per cent. It is estimated that t'roni three fourths to t'our fifths of th.e timber tributary tu the Oconto has been ctit away, but it will require a much longer time to convert the balance into lumber than was necessary to cut its equivalent in amount, owing to it-^ remote Icjcation. The annual production of pine lumber at Oconto is from 50,000,000 to 65,000,000 fcft. The whole production of the district, exclusive of the timber which is put into the Menomonee from Wisconsin, is about 140,000,000 feet annually.

The Wolf river and its tributaries constitute the next district, proceeding westward. The first saw logs cut on this stream for commercial purposes were floated to the government mill at Neenah in 1S35. In iS-p, Samuel Farusworth erected the first saw-mill on the upper Wolf near the location of the present village of Shawano, and in the following spring he sent the first raft of lumber down the \\'olf to Oshkosh. This river also rises in Oconto county, but flows in a southerly direction, and enters Winnebago lake at Oshkosh. Its pineries have been very extensive, but the drain upon them within the past decade has told with greater effect than upon any district in the state. The quality of the timber is very fine, and the land is considered good for agricultural purposes, and is being occupied upon the lines of the difi'erent railways which cross it. The upper waters of the Wolf are rapid, and have a comparatively steady flow, which renders it a very good stream for driving logs. Upon; the upper river, the land is quite rolling, and aboui'lhe head-waters is almost mountainous. The pine timber that remains in this district is high up on the main river and brandies, and will last but a few years longer. A few years ago the annual product amounted to upward of 250,000,000 Icli; in 1S76 it was 138,000,000. The principal manufacturing points are Oshkosh and Fond du Lac ; the former has ::i mills, and the latter 10.