Pewaukee City (part 1 of 3)

The Public Ijomai-Nt

by congress then unsold, and applied the proceeds to the purposes expressed in the deed of trust. The proceeds were sufficient to pay in full the expenses of the trust, the then outstanding state indebtedness, and to provide a fund sufficient to complete the work according to the plan specified in the act approved October 3, 1856.

Under an act of the legislature of Wisconsin ; pproved April 13, 1861, and the acts amendatory thereof, the purchasers at said sale, on the isth day of August, 1866, filed their certificate in the office of the secretary of state, and thereby became incorporated as the Green Bay and Mississippi canal company, holding, as such company, the said works of improvement.

At a subsequent date, under instructions from the engineer department of the United States, the surveys of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers were placed in the charge of General G. K. Warren, and by act of congress approved July 7, 1870, the secretary of war was authorized to appoint a board of arbitrators to ascertain how much the government should pay to the successors of the Improvement company, the Green Bay and Mississippi canal company, for the transfer of all its property and rights; and by a subsequent act, approved June 10, 1872, an appropriation was made therefor.

The legislation on matters connected with the Fox and Wisconsin river improvement would make a chapter of itself. The work is now in charge of the government, and will be prosecuted to completion in a satisjfactory manner.

On the 29th of May, 1848, an act was approved by the president "to enable the people of Wisconsin territory to form a constitution and state government, and for the admission of such state into the Union," by which certain propositions were to be submitted to the convention which were to be acted upon, and subsequently submitted to the people for their approval. The first constitutional convention was held in October, 1846, and, having framed a constitution, it was submitted to a vote of the people at the election in 1847, and it was rejected. The second convention met December 15, 1847, and, having formed a constitution, it was adopted by the people at the election in 1848. The following are the propositions proposed by congress :

1. That section sixteen numbered in every township of the public lands of said state, and where such section has been sold or otherwise disposed of, other lands equivalent thereto, and as contiguous as may be, shall be granted to the said state for the use of schools.

2. That seventy-two sections, or two entire townships, of land set apart and reserved for the use and support of a university by act of congress approved June 12, 1838, are hereby granted and conveyed to the state, to be appropriated solely to the use and support of such university in such manner as the legislature may prescribe.

3. That ten entire sections of land to be selected and located under the direction of the legislature, in legal subdivisions of not less than one quarter of a section from any of the unappropriated lands belonging to the United States within the state are granted to the state for completing the public buildings, or for the erection of others at the seat of government, under the direction of the legislature.

4. That all salt-springs within the state, not exceeding twelve in number, shall be granted to the state, to be selected by the legislature, and when selected, to be used or disposed of on such terms, conditions, and regulations as the legislature shall direct.

The title to all lands and other property which accrued to the territory of Wisconsin by grant, gift, purchase, forfeiture, escheat, or otherwise, were, by the provisions of the constitution of the state, vested in the state ; and the people of the state, in their right of sovereignty, were declared to possess the ultimate property in and to all lands within its jurisdiction ; and all lands, the title of which shall fail from a defect of heirs, shall revert or escheat to the people.

grant relative to the Fox and Wisconsin river improvement, and the lands reserved to the United States by said grant, and also the grant to the territory of Wisconsin, for the purpose of aiding in opening a canal to connect the waters of Lake Michigan with those of Rock river, were to be offered for sale at the same minimum price, and subject to the same rights of pre-emption as Other public lands of the United States.

By the provisions of the state constitution, the secretary of state, the state treasurer and attorney-general, were constituted a board of commissioners for the sale of the school and university lands, and for the investment of the funds arising therefrom. In the year 1850 the commissioners put into market, for the first time, the school lands which had been donated to the state. The total quantity of lands offered was 148,021, 44-100 acres, which sold for the sum of $444,265.19.

By an act of congress, approved September 4, 1841, there were granted to the state 500,000 acres of land, which were, by act of the territorial legislature of 1849, appropriated to the school fund, and the unsold lands of the Milwaukee and Rock river canal company, amounting to about 140,000 acres, were to be included as a part of the above grant. These lands, and the sixteenth section of each township, make up the whole of the school lands of the state. The whole number of acres sold up to the year 1877 is 1,243,984 acres, and there remain unsold, subject' to entry, 216,016 acres.

The state university land grant was made in 1838, and seventy-two sections set apart and reserved. The lands were selected in 1845 and 1846. On the 15th of December, 1854, an act of congress was approved, relinquishing to' the state tjie lands reserved for the salt-springs, and seventy-two sections were granted in lieu thereof, in aid of the university of the state The number of acres amounts to 92,160, all of which have been sold excejit 4,407 acres, which are subject to entry. Under the re-organization and enlargement of the university, under provisions of chapter 114, of general laws of 1866, section thirteen provides, among other things, that the income of a fund to be derived from the sales of the two hundred and forty thousand acres, gra,nted by congress by act approved July z, 1862, entitled : "An act donating lands to the several states and territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts," be devoted to the state university, and the funds arising therefrom to be known as the " agricultural college fund." All of the grant of lands have been sold except 51,635 acres. The quantity of lands donated by act of congress August 6, 1846, for the purpose of completing or erecting public buildings at the seat of government, known as " Capitol Lands," amounted to ten entire sections, or six thousand four hundred acres. A grant of lands was made to the state by act of congress, approved September 28, 1850, of all the swamp and overflowed lands within its limits. The total number of acres of this grant, as certified to the state from the government, to the year 1877, is 1,869,677.

A grant of land was made by congress, approved March 3, 1863, for the construction of a military road from Fort Wilkins, Michigan, to Fort Howard, Wisconsin, of every alternate section of public lands, designated by even numbers for three sections in width on each side of said road, and subject to the disposal of the legislature. In 1865 sales of land were made to the number of 85,961.89 acres, which realized the sum of $114,856.54.

An act of congress was approved June 25, 1864, granting lands to the state to build a military road from Wausau, Wisconsin, to Ontonagon, on Lake Superior, of every alternate section of land designated as odd sections, for three sections in width on each side of the road. The grant was accepted by the state by law, approved April 10, 1865.

An act was also passed by congress, approved April 10, 1866, granting to the state of Wisconsin a donation of public lands to aid in the construction of a breakwater and harbor and ship canal at the head of Sturgeon bay, Wis., to connect the waters of Green bay with Lake Michigan. The grant was for 200,000 acres of land. The grant was accepted by the legislature of 1868. In 1874, thesamebody by resolution transferred to the Sturgeon bay and Lake Michigan ship canal and harbor company 32,342 acres, and the remaining portion was authorized to be sold for agricultural purposes by said company.

The first railroad grant in Wisconsin was by act of congress, approved June 3, 1856, by the first section of which there was granted to the state, for the purpose of aiding in the construction of a railroad from Madison or Columbus, by the way of Portage City, to the St. Croix river or lake, between townships twenty-five and thirty-one, and from thence to the west end of Lake Superior and to Bayfield ; and from Fond du Lac, on Lake Winnebago, northerly to the state line, every alternate section of land designated by odd numbers, for six sections in width on each side of said roads, respectively; the land to be applied exclusively in the construction of said roads, and to no other purpose whatever, and subject to the disposal of the legislature, and the same shall remain public highways for the use of the government, free from toll and other charges upon the transportation of property or troops of the United States, with other conditions as to the disposal of said lands.

The grant was accepted by the legislature by an act approved October 8, 1856, and on the nth of the same month an act was approved granting a portion of the lands to the La Crosse & Mississippi railroad company, who were to carry out all the requirements of the original grant. A supplementary act was approved the same session, October 13, incorporating the Wisconsin & Superior railroad, which company was required to commence the construction of their road on or before January i, 1857, and to complete the same to Oshkosh before August i, 1858. Of this land grant John W. Cary says : " That portion of the grant given to aid in the construction of a railroad northerly to the state line was conferred on the Wisconsin & Superior railroad company. This company was organized in the interest of the Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac railroad company, and that part of the grant was transferred to it. The road was, in 1859, extended to Oshkosh, and thence to Menasha, and finally to Green Bay. In the panic of 1857, the company failed to meet its obligations, but was afterward enabled to go on, and continued in possession until June 2, 1859, when its road was sold on the foreclosures of the mortgages given thereon ; and on the sixth of the same month the present Chicago & Northwestern railroad company was organized under the statute, by purchasers at said sale, and took possession."

A large portion of the original grant was given for the construction of a road from Madison or Columbus to the St. Croix river, as before stated. The La Crosse company, during the years 1857 and 1858, completed its main line to La Crosse; the Watertown line, from Watertown to Columbus, and partially graded the line from Madison to Portage City. Neither it nor its successors ever received any part of the lands of the land grant.

In 1856 and 1857, the La Crosse & Milwaukee railroad graded most of the line from Madison to Portage. After the failure of the company, this line was abandoned, and so remained until 1870, when a new company was organized, under the name of the Madison & Portage City railroad company. In 1873, an act was passed chartering the Tomah & Lake St. Croix railroad company, and repealing and annulling that portion of the land grant which bestowed the lands from Tomah to Lake St. Croix upon the La Crosse company, and bestowing the same upon the company chartered by this act. This road is known as the West Wisconsin railroad.

An act of congress was approved May 5, 1864, granting lands to aid in the construction of certain roads in the state. This was a re-enactment of the law of 1856, and divided the grant in three sections, one of which was for a road from a point on the St. Croix river or lake, between townships twenty-five and thirty-one, to the west end,of Lake Superior, and from some point on the line of said road, to be selected by the state, to Bayfield - every alternate section designated by odd numbers, for ten sections in width on each side of said road, with an indemnity extending twenty miles on each side, was granted, under certain regulations ; another, for aiding in building a road from Tomah to the St. Croix river, between townships twenty-five and thirty-one - every alternate section by odd riumbers, for ten sections in width on each side of the road ; another for aiding and constructing a railroad from Portage City, Berlin, Doty's Island, or Fond du Lac, as the legislature may determine, in a northwestern direction, to Bayfield, on Lake Superior, and a grant of every alternate section designated by odd numbers, for ten sections in width on each side of said road, was donated.

The legislature of 1865 failed to agree upon a disposition of the grant. The succeeding legislature conferred the grant partly upon the " Winnebago & Lake Superior Railroad Company," and partly upon the " Portage & Superior Railroad Company," the former April 6, 1866, and the latter April 9, 1866. The two companies were consoHdated, under the name of the "Portage, Winnebago & Superior Railroad," by act of the legislature, March 6, 1869, and by act of legislature approved February 4, 1871, the name was changed to the "Wisconsin Central Railroad."

Health Of Wisconsin

An article on state health, necessarily embracing the etiology, or causes of disease, involves the discussion of the geographical position of the state ; its area, physical features ; its elevations, depressions ; water supply ; drainage ; its mean level above the sea ; its geology ; climatology ; the nationality of its people ; their occupations, habits, food, education ; and, indeed, of all the physical, moral and mental influences which affect the public health.

The geographical position of Wisconsin, considered in relation to health, conveys an immediate and favorable impression, which is at once confirmed by a reference to the statistical atlas of the United States. On its north it is bounded by Lake Superior, Minnesota, and the northern peninsula of Michigan; on the south by Illinois; on the east by Lake Michigan, and on the west by the Mississippi. It lies between 42° 30' and 46° 55' N.' latitude, and between 87° and 92° 50' W. long.; is 285 miles long from north to south, and 255 ,in breadth from east to west, giving it an area of some 53,924 square miles, or 34,511,360 acres. Its natural surface divisions, or proportions, are 16 per cent, of prairie, 50 of timber, 19 of openings, 15 of marsh, mineral undefined. North of 45° the surface is nearly covered with vast forests of pine. The proportion of the state cultivated is nearly one-sixth.

Among these, its lacustrine character is most conspicuous, so much so that it may not inaptly be called the state of a thousand lakes, its smaller ones being almost universal and innumerable.

It has an almost artificially perfect arrangement of its larger rivers, both for supply and drainage, is rolling in its surface, having several dividing ridges or water sheds, and varies from 600 to 1,600 feet above the level of the sea. Blue Mounds being 1,729 feet above sea level. Its pine and thickly wooded lands are being rapidly denuded, and to some extent converted to agricultural purposes ; its marshes in the north are being reclaimed for cranberry cultivation, and in the more thickly settled parts of the state for hay purposes. The surface of the state is beautifully diversified with stream, waterfall and rapids ; richly wooded bluffs several hundred feet in height, assuming the most romantic and pleasing forms, and composed of sandstone, magnesian limestone, granite, trap, etc. The health and summer resorts of Wisconsin are illustrative of its beauty, and its numerous mineral springs have long since formed an important feature of its character for salubrity.

The geology of Wisconsin does not require from us but a very general notice, as it is only from its relation to disease that we have to consider it. This relation is in a measure apparent in the fact that everywhere the topographical features are governed by the strata below them. The relationship will be seen still further in the chemical or sanitary influence of the geological structures. Through the greater part of the south half of the state, limestone is found, the cliff prevailing in the mineral region, and the blue in the other parts ; while in the north part of the state the primitive rocks, granite, slate, and sandstone prevail. South of the Wisconsin river sandstone in layers of limestone, forming the most picturesque bluffs, abounds. While west of Lake Michigan extends up to these rocks the limestone formation, being rich in timber or prairie land. Sandstone is found underneath the blue limestone. The general dip of the stratified rocks of the state is toward the south, about 8 feet to the mile.

Medical geology treats of geology so far only as it affects health. Thus, some diluvial soils and sands are known to be productive of malarial fevers ; others, of a clayey character, retaining water, are productive of cold damp, and give rise to pulmonary and inflammatory diseases - while others still, being very porous, are promotive of a dry and equable atmosphere. In the Potsdam rocks arise our purest waters and best supply, while our magnesian limestone rocks (a good quality of this kind of rock being composed of nearly equal parts of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia) affect the water to the extent of producing simple diarrhoea in those unaccustomed to drinking it, as is observed in southern visitors, and was especially noticeable in the rebel prisoners at Camp Randall, though singularly enough do not seem to produce stone and gravel, as is alleged of the same kind of water in the north of England. Why this is so - if so - is a question of some interest. Goitre and cretinism are both attributed to the use of the same magnesian limestone water. Goitre is by no means an uncommon affection here, but not common enough, perhaps, to warrant us in thinking its special cause is in the water. Boiling the water is a preventive of all injurious effects. There is still another objection - particularly applicable to cities - to this kind of water, the carbonates of lime and magnesia which it contains, not simply making it hard, but giving it the power to promote the decomposition of organic matters, and thus where the soil is sandy or porous, endangering the purity of our wellwater. Geology in general affects all our soils and their products ; all our drainage ; even our architecture, the material with which we build. Our building stone for half of the state is a magnesian limestone, a rather soft or poor quality of which will absorb one-third of its bulk of water, or two and a half gallons to the cubic foot, while most kinds of sandstone are nearly as porous as loose sand, and in some of them the penetrability for air and water is the same. (A single brick of poor quality will absorb a pint of water). Such materials used in the construction of our dwellings, without precautionary measures, give rise to rheumatism, other grave diseases, and loss of strength. Besides, this character of stone absorbs readily all kinds of liquid and gaseous impurities, and though hardening in dry air, decays soon when exposed to underground moisture. The material of which our roads are made, as well as the kind of fuel we use inour homes, have the same unquestionable relationship to geology and disease.

The natural drainage of the state, bearing in mind that the mean elevation of its hydrographical axis is about i,ooo feet above the sea level, is as excellent as it is obvious. (A line running from Lake Michigan across the state to the Mississippi, shows an elevation of about 500 feet). North its drainage is by a few rapid but insignificant streams into Lake Superior, while east it increases greatly and enters Lake Michigan by way of Green bay. The principal part of the supply and drainage, however, is from the extreme north to the southwest through the center of the state, by five large rivers, which empty themselves into the Mississippi at almost equal distances from each other.

The climatology of Wisconsin will be exhibited in the observations taken at different times, for longer or shorter periods, and at different points of the state. But it must be borne in mind that climate depends quite as much and very frequently more upon the physical surroundings, upon the presence of large bodies of water, like our lakes, upon large forests, like our pineries, like our heavy hard-woods, and of land elevations and depressions, upon isothermal lines, etc., as it does upon latitude. Our historic period is of a character too brief for us to assume to speak of our climate, or of all the changing causes which influence it - in a positive manner, our horticultural writers, to make the difficulty still greater, affirming that it has several climates within itself J still, sufficient data have been gathered from sufficiently reliable sources to enable us to form a tolerably accurate idea of the subject.

The great modifiers of our climate are our lakes. These, bounding as they do, the one, Lake Superior (600 feet above the level of the sea, 420 miles long and 160 broad), on the north side of the state, and the other. Lake Michigan (578 feet above the sea level, 320 miles long and 84 broad), on the east side of the state, serve to govern the range of the thermometer and the mean temperature of the seasons, as much as they are governed in New England by the ocean. Our climate is consequently very much like that of the New England sea-board. They both exhibit the same extremes and great extremes, have the same broadly marked continental features at some seasons, and decided tropical features at others. It is of special interest in this connection to know that the climate between the eastern coast and the lakps increases in rigor as one advances west until the lakes are reached, and again becomes still more rigorous as one advances into the interior west of the lakes, thus affording proof, if proof were wanting, of the modifying and agreeable influences of large bodies of water

During the winter the mean temperature of the east on the New England coast is 8.38 higher than the west (bfiyond the lakes) ; during the spring 3.53 lower ; during the summer 6.99 lower; and during the autumn 1.54 higher. In the mean temperature for the year there is but a fractional difference. That the winters are less rigorous and the summers more temperate on the Great Lakes is demonstrated to be owing not to elevation, but, as on the ocean, to the equalizing agency of an expanse of water.

cloudy days are as 127 to 73; the rainy as 63 to 46 , and the snowy as 45 to 29 In the former the prevailing weather is cloudy, and in the latter it is fair. The immense forests on the upper lake shores of course exercise a considerable influence in the modification of our temperature, as well as in the adding to our rain-fall and cloudy days. A climate of this character, with its attendant rains, gives us that with which we are so abundantly supplied, great variety of food, both for man and beast, the choicest kinds of fruits and vegetables in the greatest profusion, and of the best quality, streams alive with fish, woods and prairies with game, the noblest trees, the most exquisite flowers, and the best breeds of domestic animals the world can boast of.

The semi-tropical character of our summer, and its resemblance to that of New England, is shown by the mean temperature - 70" - for three months at Salem, Massachusetts, at Albany, New .York, at southern Wisconsin, Fort Snelling and Fort Benton on the Upper Missouri, being the same ; while at Baltimore, Cincinnati and St. Louis, it is 75", and around the gulf of Mexico it is 80°. Another feature of our climate is worthy the notice of invalids and of those who make the thermometer their guide for comfort. It is a well-ascertained fact that during the colder seasons the lake country is not only relatively, but positively, warmer than places far south of it. The thermometer, during the severe cold of January, 1856, did not fall so low at the coldest, by 10* to 15" at Lake Superior as at Chicago at the same time. This remark holds true of the changes of all periods of duration, even if continued over a month. The mean temperature at Fort Howard, Green Bay, Wisconsin, 600 feet above the level of the Atlantic, latitude 44° 40', longitude 87°, observations for nine years, is 44.93; and at Fort Crawford, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, 580 feet above the level of the Atlantic, latitude 43" 3', longitude 90" 53', observations for four years, is 45.65, giving a just idea of our mean temperature for the state. Under the head of distribution of heat in winter, it is found that the maximum winter range at Fort Winnebago, Wisconsin, for sixteen years, is 9.4.

Wisconsin is situated within what is termed the area of constant precipitation, neither affected by a rainy season, nor by a partial dry season. The annual quantity of rain on an average for three years at Fort Crawford, was 29.54 inches, and at Fort Howard the mean annual on an average of four years, was '38.83 inches. The annual quantity of rain, on an average of three years was 31.88 inches at Fort Winnebago, situate (opposite the portage between the Fox and Wisconsin rivers) 80 miles west of Lake Michigan and 112 miles southwest of Green Bay. The rain-fall is less in the lake district than in the valley of the Mississippi in the same latitudes. One of the peculiarities of our winters is the almost periodical rain-fall of a few days in the middle of the winter (usually in the middle of January), which extend3 to the Atlantic coast, while north and nbrthwest of us the dry cold continues without a break, winter being uniform and severe, characterized by aridity and steady low temperature. Another peculiarity of our climate is, the number of snowy and rainy days is increased disproportionately to the actual quantity - the large bodies of water on the boundaries of the state, contrary to the popular opinion, reducing the annual quantity of rain in their immediate vicinity instead of adding to it, the heavier precipitation being carried further away. One of the most pleasing features of our climate is its frequent succession of showers in summer, tempering as it does our semi-tropical heat, increasing the fertility of the soil, and carpeting our prairies with a green as grateful to the eye as that of England.

History Of Wisconsin

The average depth of snow for three years, at Beloit, Wisconsin, was twenty-five inches, while at Oxford county, Maine, the average for twelve years was ninety inches. The isohyetal lines of the mean precipitation of rain and melted snow, for the year 1872, show that of Wisconsin to be thirty-two.

The mean temperature of spring is represented by the isotherm of 45° F. which enters Wisconsin from the west about forty miles south of Hudson, passing in a nearly southeast direction, and crosses the south line of the state near the west line of Walworth county. It then passes nearly around the head of Lake Michigan, then northeast until it reaches the latitude of Milwaukee, whence it passes in a somewhat irregular course east through Ontario, New York, and Massachusetts, entering the ocean in the vicinity of Boston. The summer mean isotherm of 70° F. enters Wisconsin from the west but little farther north than the spring isotherm, and passes through the state nearly parallel with the course of that line, crossing the southern boundary Hear the east line of Walworth county ; passing through Chicago it goes in a direction a little South of east, and enters the Atlantic at New Haven. The mean isotherm of 47° F. for autumn, enters the state about twenty miles north of Prairie du Chien, passing in a direction a little north of east through Portage, and enters Lake Michigan near Manitowoc. The isotherm of 20° F. representing the mean temperature of winter, enters the state near Prairie du Chien, passes east and north and enters Lake Michigan at Sturgeon bay. The annual mean temperature, is repre- «ented by the isotherm of 45° F. which enters the state near Prairie du Chien, passes across the. State in a direction a little south of east, and enters Lake Michigan a little south of Milwaukee.

What influence these isotherms have upon our belts of disease there are no data to show. But from their influence upon vegetable life, one can not but infer a similar good influence on the animal economy. This is a question for the future.

Atmospheric pressure, as indicated by the barometer, is an important element in the causation Of disease, far more so than is generally thought. The barometer indicates not only the qoming of the storm, but that state of the atmosphere which gives rise to health at one time, and to disease at another. When the barometer is high, both the body and mind have a feeling of elasticity, of vigor and activity, and when the barometer ranges low, the feelings of both are just the reverse ; and both of these states, commonly attributed to temperature, are mostly the result of change in the barometric pressure. Many inflammations, as of the lungs, etc., commonly

Generally speaking, the atmospheric movement is from the west. It is of little purpose what the surface wind may be, as this does not affect the fact of the constancy oi the westerly winds in the middle latitudes. The showers and cumulus clouds of the summer always have this movement. The beltof westerly winds is the belt of constant and equally distributed rains, the feature of our winds upon which so much of our health and comfort depends.

There are many theories afloat concerning the effects of reclaiming the soil and the destruction of its forests. To us, a new people and a new state, the question is one of great moment, the more so that it is still in our power not only to watch the effects of such changes, but still more so to control them in a measure for our good. As to the effects upon animal and vegetable life, it would appear that so far as relates to the clearing away of forests, the whole change of conditions is limited to the surface, and dependent for the most part on the retention and slow evaporation in the forest, in contrast with the rapid drainage and evaporation in the open space. The springs, diminishing in number and volume in our more settled parts of the state, do not indicate a lessening rain-fall. It is a well ascertained fact that in other places so denuded, which have been allowed to cover themselves again with forests, the springs reappear, and the streams are as full as before such denudation. With us, happily, while the destruction of forests is going on in various parts of the state, their second growth \'=, also going on, both in the pineries, where new varieties of hard- wood take the place of the pine, and in the more cultivated parts of the state, cultivation forbidding, as it does, the practice so much in vogue some years ago, of running fires through the undergrowth. Thus, though the renewal of forests may not be keeping pace with their destruction, it would seem clear that as time advances, the springs and streams in the more cultivated sections of the state will fill and flow again, increasing in proportion as the second growth increases and expands.

The change, however, from denudation, though strictly limited to the surface, affects the surface in other ways than simply in the retention and evaporation of rain. When the winter winds are blowing, the want of the sheltering protection of belts of trees is bitterly felt, both by man and beast. And so, too, in the almost tropical heats of the summer ; both languish and suffer from the want of shade. Nor is the effect of denudation less sensibly felt by vegetable life. The growing of our more delicate fruits, like the peach, the plum, the pear, the better varieties of the cherry and gooseberry, with the beautiful half-hardy flowering shrubs, all of which flourished so well in a number of our older counties some twenty years ago, areas a rule no longer to be found in those localities, having died out, as is believed, from exposure to the cold winds, to the south west winds in particular, and for want of the protecting influence of the woods. In fruits, how ever, we have this compensation, that, while the more tender varieties have been disappearing, the hardier and equally good varieties, especially of apples, have been increasing, while the grape (than which nothing speaks better for climatology), of which we grow some 150 varieties, the strawberry, the raspberry, blackberry and currant, etc., hold their ground. Nor are the cattle suffering as much as formerly, or as much as is perhaps popularly believed, from this want of forests or tree shelter. With the better breeds which our farmers have been able of late years to purchase, with better blood and better food, and better care, our stock instead of dwindling in condition, or in number, from the effect of cold, has progressed in quality and quantity, and competes with the best in the Chicago and the New York markets.

There can, however, be no doubt that the planting of groves and belts of trees in exposed localities, would be serviceable in many ways ; in tempering the air and imparting to it an agreeable moisture in the summer ; in modifying the severity of the cold in winter ; in moderating the extreme changes to which our climate is subject; and thus in a measure preventing those discomforts and diseases which occur from sudden changes of temperature. Besides, these plantings, when made between our homes or villages and malarial marshes southwest of us, serve (by the aid of our prevailing southwest winds) to break up, to send over and above and beyond us the malarial substratum of air to which we are otherwise injuriously exposed.

The effects of reclaiming the soil, or "breaking " as it is called in the west, have, years ago, when the state first began to be settled, been disastrous to health and to life. The moist sod being turned over in hot weather, and left to undergo through the summer a putrifying fomentative process, gave rise to the worst kind of malarial, typhoid (bilious) and dysenteric disease. Not, however, that the virulence or mortality altogether depended upon the soil emanations. These were undoubtedly aggravated by the absolute poverty of the early settlers, who were wanting in everything, in propter homes, proper food and proper medical attendance, medicines and nursing. These fevers have swept the state years ago, particularly in the autumns of 1844 and 1845, but are now only observed from time to time in limited localities, following in the autumn the summer's " breaking." But it is pleasing to be able to add that through the advancing prosperity of the state, the greater abundance of the necessaries and comforts of life, and the facilities for obtaining medical care, the diseases incident to " settling " are much less common and much less fatal than formerly.

One of the principal reasons for gathering climatological observations, is to obtain sanitary information, which serves to show us where man may live with the greatest safety to his health. Every country, we might perhaps correctly say every state, has, if not its peculiar diseases, at least its peculiar type of diseases. And by nothing is either this type or variety of disease so much influenced as by climate. Hence the great importance of the study Of climatology to health and disease, nay, even to the kind of medicine and to the regulating of the dose to be given. It is, however, best to caution the reader that these meteorological observations are not always made at points where they would most accurately show the salubrity of a geographical district, by reason of the fact that the positions were chosen not for this special purpose, biit for purely military purposes. We allude to the forts of Wisconsin, from which our statistics for the most part come. Another caution it is also well to bear in mind in looking over the class of diseases reported at these stations in connection with their observations., The diseases are those of the military of the period, a class from which no very favorable health reports could be expected, considering theif habits, exposure, and the influences incidental to frontier life.

The geography of disease and climate is of special interest to the public, and a knowledge especially necessary to the state authorities, as it is only by such a knowledge that state legislation can possibly restrain or root out the endemic diseases of the state. In connection with the gathering of vital statistics must go the collection of meteorological and topographical statistics, as without these two latter the former is comparatively useless for sanitary purposes. More particularly does this apply to the malarial diseases of the state.

Acclimation is very rarely discussed or even alluded to by our people in relation to Wisconsin, for the reason that, come from whatever part of Europe men may, or from the eastern states, acclimation is acquired for the most part unconsciously, rarely attended by any malarial affection, unless by exposure in such low, moist localities, where even the natives of the state could not live with impunity. It seems to be well enough established that where malaria exists, whether in London, New York, or Wisconsin ; where the causes of malarial disease are permanent, the effects are permanent, and that there is no positive acclimation to malaria. Hence it should follow that since life and malaria are irreconcilable, we should root out the enemy, as we readily can by drainage and cultivation, or, where drainage is impossible, by the planting of those shrubs or trees which are found to thrive best, and thereby prove the best evaporators in such localities. Our climate, approximating as it does the 45th degree (being equi-distant from the equator and pole), would a priori be a common ground of compromise and safety, and from this geographical p.osition is not liable to objections existing either north or south of us.

Our population is of such a confessedly heterogeneous character that naturally enough it suggests the question : Has this intermingling of different nationalities sensibly affected our health conditions .' Certainly not, so far as intermarriages between the nations of the Caucasian race are concerned. This opinion is given first upon the fact that our classes of diseases have neither changed nor increased in their intensity by reason of such admixture, so far as can be learned by the statistics or the history of disease in the northwest. Imported cases of disease are of course excepted. Second, because all that we can gather from statistics and history concerning such intermingling of blood goes to prove that it is beneficial in every respect, physically, mentally and morally.

England, of all nations, is said to be the best illustration of the good attending an intermingling of the blood of different nations, for the reason that the English character is supposed to be, comparatively speaking, good, and that of all countries she has been perhaps more frequently invaded, and to a greater or less part settled by foreign peoples than any other.

From a residence of nearly a quarter of a century in the center of Wisconsin, and from an adequate knowledge of its* people, whose nationalities are so various and whose intermarriages are sq common, it is at least presumable that we should have heard of or noted any peculiar or injurious results, had any such occurred. None such, however, have been observed. Some fears have been expressed concerning the influence of Celtic blood upon! the American temperament, already too nervous, as is alleged. It is scarcely necessary to say that these fears are unsupported by figures or facts. Reasoning from analogy, it would seem safe to affirm that the general intermingling by intermarriage now going on in our population, confined to the Caucasian nationalities, will tend to preserve the good old Anglo-Saxon character, rather than to create any new character for our people. If this view needed support or confirmation, it is to be found in some very interesting truths in relation to it. Mr. Edwin Seguin, in his work on Idiocy, lays special stress on the influences of races in regard to idiocy and other infirmities, like deafness. He says that the crossing of races, which contributed to the elimination of some vices of the blood (as may be the case in the United States, where there are proportionally less deaf and dumb than in Europe), produces a favorable effect on the health of the population, and cites as an example, Belgium, which has fewer deaf and dumb than any country in Europe, owing to the influence of the crossing of races in past ages from the crowds of northern tribes passing, mingling and partly settling there on the way to England.

We are aware that it has been predicted that our future will give us a new type, distinct from all other peoples, and that with this type must come not only new diseases but modifications or aggravations of the present diseases, in particular, consumption and insanity. - But so long as we are in a formative state as a nation, and that this state seems likely to continue so long as the country has lands to be occupied and there are people in Europe to occupy them, such speculations can be but of little value.

The two chief factors of the social and sanitary well-being of a people are a proper education of the man and a proper cultivation of the soil. Our two principal occupations in Wisconsin are education and agriculture, the learners in the schools being in excess of the laborers on the soil. A happier combination could Scarcely be desired, to form an intelligent and a healthy people. How this will effect our habits in the future it is easy to conceive, but for the present it may be said (of so many different nationalities are we composed), that we have no habits which serve to distinguish us from the people of other northwestern states. A well-fed and a well-taught people, no matter how mixed its origin, must sooner or later become homogeneous and a maker of customs. In the mean time we can only speak of our habits as those of a people in general having an abundance of food, though it is to be wished the workers ate more beef aijd mutton, and less salt-pork, and that whisky was less plentiful in the land. The clothing is sufficient, fuel is cheap, and the dwellings comfortable. Upon the whole, the habits of the people are conducive to health. It is thought unnecessary to refer to the influence upon health in general of other occupations, for the reason that manufacturers, traders and transporters are for the most part localized, and perhaps not sufficiently numerous to exercise any marked influence on the state health.

In searching for historical data of disease in Wisconsin, we are able to go back to tne year 1766, commencing with the aborigines. The Indians, says Carver, in his chapter on their diseases, in general are healthy and subject to few diseases. Consumption from fatigue and exposure he notices, but adds that the disorder to which they are most subject is pleurisy. They are likewise afflicted with dropsy and paralytic complaints. It is to be presumed that while Carver is speaking generally, he means his remarks to apply, perhaps, more particularly to those -Indians with whom he lived so long, the Sioux of this state. That they were subject to fevers is gathered from the use of their remedies for fever, the " fever bush " being an ancient Indian remedy, and equally valued by the inhabitants of the interior parts of the colonies. Besides this, they had their remedies for complaints of the bowels, and for all inflammatory complaints. These notices sufficiently indicate the class of diseases which have certainly followed in the wake of the Indians, and are still occurring to his white brother, making it plain enough that lung diseases, bowel complaints, and fevers are in fact native to the state. The fact must not be ignored that the Indian is subject to the same diseases as the human race in general.

After Carver, we may quote Major Long's expedition in 1824. The principal disease of the Sacs appears to be a mortification of the intestinal canal, more common among men than women, the disease proving fatal in four days if not relieved. It is unaccompanied with pain, and is neither hernia, dysentery, nor hemorrhoids. Intermittents were prevalent, and the small-pox visited them at different periods. As the Chippewas have a common Algonquin origin with the Sacs, and as their home and customs were the same, it may be expected that their diseases were similar. The principal disease to which the Chippewas are liable is consumption of the lungs, generally affecting them between the ages of 30 and 40 ; they linger along for a year or two, but always fall victims to it. Many of them die of a bowel complaint which prevails every year. This disease does not partake, however, of the nature of dysentery. They are frequently affected with sore eyes. Blindness is not common. Many of them become deaf at an early age.

Referring to the report of the commissioner of Indian affairs for 1854, we find that the decrease in the number of the Menomonees is accounted for by the ravages of small-pox, in 1838, of the cholera, in 1847 (which latter was superinduced by misery and starvation), and by the fever, which from time to time, commonly in the winter, has been raging among them, being clearly the consequence of want of provisions and other necessaries. The report for 1850 says, there has been considerable sickness among the Winnebagoes for several months past ; dysentery has been the prevalent disease, confined mostly to children. For 1857 : the Winnebagoes have suffered considerably from chronic diseases, scrofula and consumption. For 1859 : the chief malady among the Winnebagoes is phthisis pulmonalis and its analogous diseases, having its source in hereditary origin. Some of the malignant diseases are occasionally met with among them, and intermittent and remittent fevers. In 1863: of the Menomonees, there is a large mortality list of the tribes under my charge. Measles and some of the more common eruptive diseases are the causes. But the most common and most fatal disease which affects the Indians at this agency is pneumonia, generally of an acute character. There is but little tubercular disease to be found in any of these tribes, Menomonees, Stockbridges, Oneidas, etc. In the report for 1865, one can not but notice with some regret' the absence of all allusion, except to sraall-pox, to the diseases of the Indians. Regret, because reliable information of such diseases serves a variety of valuable purposes, for comparison, confirmation, etc., of those of the white population. For these reasons, if for none other, it is to be hoped that the attention of the proper authorities will be called to this feature of such reports.

The first reliable report on the diseases of the people (as distinguished from the Indians) of Wisconsin to which we have had access, is Lawson's Army Report of Registered Diseases, for to years, commencing 1829, and ending 1838 (ten years before the admission of Wisconsin into the Union as a state).

Fort Howard, Green Bay

Under the class of diseases of the respiratory organs, are comprised 384 catarrh, 6 pneumonia, 60 pleuritis, and 28 phthisis pulmonalis; under the class of digestive organs, 376 diarrhoea and dysentery, 184 colic and cholera, and 10 hepatitis; under the class of diseases of the brain and nervous system, 15 epilepsy, etc. The deaths from all causes, according to the post returns, are 25, being i ^ per cent, per annum. The annual rate of intermittent cases is 6, and that of remittent is 3, per 100 of mean strength.

Every man has consequently, on an average, been reported sick about once in every six months, showing this region to be extraordinarily salubrious. The annual ratio of mortality, according to the medical reports, is ^ per cent. ; and of the adjutant-general's returns, i-j^jper cent.

Fort Winnebago

Under the class of diseases of the respiratory organs are comprised 448 catarrh, 1 1 pneumonia, 29 pleuritis and 10 phthisis pulmonalis; under the head of digestive organs, 193 diarrhoea and dysentery, 149 colic and cholera, and 17 hepatitis; under the class of brain and nervous system, i epilepsy. The total number of deaths, according to the post returns, is 20. Of these, 3 are from phthisis pulmonalis, i pleuritis, 2 chronic hepatitis, i gastric enteritis, i splenitis, etc

Fort Crawford

Under the class of diseases of the respiratory organs are included 1,048 of catarrh, 28 pneumonia, 75 pleuritis and 13 phthisis pulmonalis; under the head of digestive organs, 933 diarrhoea and dysentery, and 195 colic and cholera; under the head of brain and nervous diseases, 7 epilepsy, etc. The total of deaths, according to the post returns, is 94, the annual ratio being 2^ per cent. The causes of death are: 6 phthisis pulmonalis, 6 epidemic cholera, i common cholera, 4 remittent fever, 3 dysentery, etc. In the third quarter of 1830 there were 154 cases of fever, while the same quarter of 1836, with a greater strength, affords but one case, the difference seeming to depend upon the temperature.

Treated Quarterly

Consequently every man on an average has been reported sick once in nearly every four months. But high as this ratio of sickness is, at this fort, and, indeed, at the others, it is low considering the topographical surroundings of the posts. But besides these injurious topographical and other influences already alluded to, there were still other elements of mischief among the men at these stations, such as " bad bread and bad whisky," and salt meat, a dietary table giving rise, if not to " land-scurvy," as was the case at the posts lower down in the Mississippi valley (more fatal than either small-pox or cholera), at least to its concomitant diseases.

The reason for using these early data of the United States Army medical reports in preference to later ones is, that even though the later ones may be somewhat more correct in certain particulars, the former serve to establish, as it were, a connecting link (though a long one) between the historical sketch of the diseases of the Indian and those of the white settler ; and again - these posts being no longer occupied - no further data are obtainable.

The first charitable institution established by the state was formally opened in 1850, at Janesville. The census of 1875 showed that there were 493 blind persons in the state, those of school age - that is - under 20 years of age, probably amounting to 125. The number of pupils in the institution that year, 82 ; the average for the past ten years being 68. If the health report of the institution is any indication of the salubrity of its location, then, indeed, is Janesville in this respect an enviable city. Its report for 1876 gives one death from consumption, and a number of cases of whooping-cough, all recovered. In 1875, ten cases of mild scarlet fever, recovered. One severe and two mild cases of typhoid fever, recovered. For 1873, no sick list. For 1872, the mumps went through the school. For 1871, health of the school reasonably good ; few cases of severe illness have occurred.

This was organized in June, 1852, at Delavan. The whole number of deaf and dumb persons in the state, as shown by the census of 1875, was 720. The report for 1866 gives the number of pupils as 156.

Little sickness, a few cases of sore throat, and slight bowel affections coijiprise nearly all the ailments ; and the physician's report adds : " The sanitary reports of the institution from its earliest history to the present date has been a guarantee of the healthiness of the location. Having gone carefully over the most reliable tabulated statements of deaf-mutism, its parent- age, its home, its causes, and its origin, we would most earnestly call the attention of the public to the fact that the chief cause comes under the head of congenital, 75 of the 150 pupils in this institution having this origin. Such a fearful proportion as this must of necessity have its origin in a cause or causes proportionately fearful. Nor, fortunately, is the causation a mystery, since most careful examination leaves not a shadow of doubt that consanguineous marriages are the sources of this great evil. Without occupying further space by illustrative tables and arguments, we would simply direct the attention of our legislators and thoughtful men to ike law of this disease which is, that the number of deaf and dumb, imbeciles, and idiots is in direct keeping with the degree of consanguinity. With such a law and exhibit before us, would not a legislative inquirj' into the subject, with the view of adopting preventive means, be a wise step ? The evil is fearful ; the cause is plain ; so, too, is the remedy."

This institution is situated on the banks of the Fox river, at Waukesha, and was organized in i860. The whole number of the inmates since it was opened in July, i860, to October 10, 1876, was 1,291. The whole number of inmates for 1876 was 415. Of these, since the period of opening up to date, October, 1 87 6, 25 have died : 8, of typhoid fever ; 1, of typhoid erysipelas ; I, of gastric fever: 3, of brain fever; i, nervous fever; 2, congestion of the lungs; 2, congestive chills; 5, of consumption ; i of dropsy; and i of inflammatory rheumarism.

This was located at Waupun in July, 1857. On September 30, 1876, there were 266 inmates. But one death from natural causes occurred during the year. The health of the prisoners has been unusually good, the prevalent affections attendai\t upon the seasons, of a mild and manageable character.

This institution, located near Madison, was opened for patients in July, i860. The total number of admissions down to the year 1877, was 1,227 males, 1,122 females, total 2,349. Over one half of these have been improved ; nearly one third recovered ; while less than one quarter have been discharged unimproved. Total number of deaths, 288. At the commencement of the year, October i, 1875, there were in the hospital 376 patients. In the report for the year ending September 30, 1876, we find the past year has been one of unusual health in the hospital. No serious epidemic has prevailed, although 20 deaths have been reported, 7 fatally ill before admission, 4 worn-out cases, etc. Insanity, coming as it does, under this head of an article 'on State Health, is of the higliest interest from a state point of view, not only because so much may be done to remedy it, but that still more can and ought to be done by the state to prevent it. Our insane amount to i in 700 of the whole population, the total number in hospitals, poor-houses and prisons being in round numbers 1,400. It is a striking fact, calling for our earnest consideration, that the Germans, Irish and Scandinavians import and transiJiit more insanity - three to one - than the American-born population produce. The causes assigned for this disparity, are, as affecting importation, that those in whom there is an hereditary tendency to disease constitute the migratory class, for the reason that those who are sound and in the full possession of their powers are most apt to contend successfully in the struggle to live and maintain their position at home; while those who are most unsound and unequal to life's contests are unable to migrate. In other words, the strongest' will not leave, the weakest can not leave. By this, the character of the migratory is defined. As affects transmission, poverty is a most fruitful parent of insanity, so too is poor land. Says Dr. Boughton, superintendent of the Wisconsin State Hospital for the Insane :

M U K W A N Ago Health Of Avisconsin 243

Wisconsin is characterized by a large poor class, especially in the northern part of the state, where people without means have settled on new and poorly paying farms, where their life is made up of hard work, exposure to a severe climate, bad and insufficient diet, cheerless homes, etc., etc. These causes are prolific in the production of insanity. It is easy, therefore, to trace the causes that give us so large a per cent, of insane in many of the counties of the state. Nor is it of less interest to know, as Dr. B. adds : We draw our patients from those families where phthisis pulmonalis, rheumatism and insanity prevail. Insanity and rheumatism are interchangeable in hereditary cases, so too are insanity and phithisis. What may be accomplished by intelligent efforts to stem the increase of insanity in our state ? Much. Early treatment is one means, this is of course curative in its character. And its necessity and advantage are well illustrated in table No. lo of the annual report of Dr. Boughton, for 1876, where it is seen that 45.33 of males, and 44.59 of the females who had been sent to the State Hospital having been insane but three months before admission, were cured, the proportion of cures becoming less in proportion to the longer duration of insanity before admission. As a preventive means, the dissemination of the kind of knowledge that shows indisputably that insanity is largely hereditary, and consequently that intermarriage with families so tainted should on the one hand be avoided by the citizen, and on the other hand, perhaps, prevented by the state, (congress at the same time restraining or preventing as far as possible persons so tainted from settling in this country.) By the state, inasmuch as the great burthen of caring for the insane falls upon the state. Still other preventive means are found in the imprmtd cultivation of our lands and in our improved education ; in fact, in whatever lessens the trials of the poor and lifts them out of ignorance and pauperism. It is only by culture, says Hufeland, that man acquires perfection, morally, mentally and physically. His whole organization is so ordered that he may either become nothing or anything, hyperctiltiire and the want of cultivation being alike destructive.

This hospital was opened at Oshkosh, May, 1873. The total number under treatment September 30, 1876 was - males 246, females 257, total 503. No ailment of an epidemic character has affected the health of the household, which has been generally good. The report of Dr. Kempster is full of suggestive matter for the legislator and sociologist.

Still adhering to the plan, in writing the sanitary history of the state, of gathering up all the health statistics which properly belong to us, we now take up those of Milwaukee, the only city in Wisconsin, so far as we know, that has kept. up a system of statistics of its diseases. The city is built on each side of the mouth of Milwaukee river, on the west shore of Lake Michigan in lat. 43" 3' 45' N., long. 87° 57' W., and is considered remarkable for its healthy climate. The board of health has furnished us with its report for 1870 and downward. The character of its mortality from June 19. 1869, to March 31, 1870, is thus summarized: In children under five years of age, 758 out of 1,249 deaths, consumption, 93; convulsions, 128; cholera infantum, 59; diarrhoea, 12S; scarlet fever, 132; typhoid fever, 52; inflammation of the lungs, 41 ; stillbom, 79. This disproportionate number of still-born children is attributed in part to a laxity of morals. The deaths from consumption in Milwaukee are 71^ out of every 100, one third less out of a like number of deaths than in San Francisco, in which city, in 4,000 deaths, 441 died of consumption, being 11 out of every 100 deaths for the year ending July, 1869. The deaths for 1870 numbered 1,655, '^^ population being at the last census report, 71,636.

The Milwaukee population being about 72,000, the death rate per annum for every 1,000 inhabitants vifould be 21, after proper deductions of deaths from other causes than from disease, showing very favorably as compared with other

Glasgow has 39 to every 1,000; Liverpool, 36; London, 25 ; New Orleans, 54; New York, 32 ; San Francisco, 24; Milwaukee, 21. Among seventeen of the principal cities of the Union, Milwaukee ranks the ninth in rate of mortality. An impression has prevailed that Milwaukee is subject to a large and disproportionate amount of lung and allied diseases. Statistics disprove this, its deaths from consumption being only 6 per cent., while those of Chicago are 7.75 ; of St. Louis, 9.68; of Cincinnati, 11.95; ^^^ °^ Boston, 19.31. But few cases of malarial disease occur in Milwaukee, and fewer cases of intestinal fever than in the interior of the state. The mortality among children is explained by its occurring chiefly among the poor foreign-born population, where all that can incite and aggravate disease is always to be found.

This, (the historical part of the health article), will doubtless call forth from the profession much additional and desirable matter, but excepting what will further appear under the head of Madison it is proper to say that we have exhausted the sources of information on the subject within our reach.

Next in order would seem to come some notice of the summer and health resorts of Wisconsin, which, significant of the salubrity of the state, are not only becoming more numerous, but also more frequented from year to year.

Madison, the capital of the state, with apopuJation of 11,000, is built on an isthmus between two considerable lakes, from 70 to 125 feet above their level; 80 miles west of Milwaukee, in latitude 43*' 5' north, and longitude 89" 20' west, in the northern temperate region. The lake basins, and also the neck of land between them, have a linear arrangement, trending northeast and southwest. The same linear topography characterises the whole adjacent country and the boundary lines of its various geological formations, this striking feature being due to the former movement of glacier ice over the face of the country. At two points, one mile apart, the Capitol and University hills, respectively 348 and 370 feet above the level of Lake Michigan, rise prominently above the rest of the isthmus. Both of these hills are heaps of drift material from 100 to 126 feet thickness, according to the record of the artesian well. The neck of land on which Madison stands is of the same material. The same boring discloses to us the underlying rock structure, penetrating 614 feet of friable quartzose. sandstone belonging to the Potsdam series, 10% feet of red shale belonging to the same series, and 2091^ feet of crystalline rocks belonging to the Archaean. In the country immediately around Madison, the altitude is generally considerably greater, and the higher grounds are occupied by various strata, nearly horizontal, of sandstone and limestone. The Potsdam sandstone rises about 30 feet above the Ifevel of Lake Mendota, on its northern shore, where at McBride's Point it may be seen overlaid by the next and hitherto unrecognized layer, one of more or less impure, dark-colored, magnesian limestone, to which the name of Mendota is assigned, and which furnishes a good building stone. The descent of these strata is about

Health Of Wiscoxsix

9 feet to the mile in a due southerly direction. Overlying the Mendota beds are again sandstone layers, the uppermost portions of which are occasionally charged with lo to 20 per cent, of calcareous and dolomitic matter, and then furnish a cream-colored building stone of considerable value. Most of this stratum which has been designated as the Madison sandstone, is, however, quite non-calcareous, being either a ferruginous brown stone, or a quite pure, white, nearly loose sand. In the latter phase it is of value for the manufacture of glass. In a number of quarries, cuttings and exposed places around the city, the Madison beds are seen to be overlaid by a grayish, magnesian limestone, the lower magnesian, varying very considerably in its character, but largely composed of a flinty-textured, heavy-bedded, quite pure dolomite, which is burnt into a good quality of lime. Its thickness exceeds 80 feet. Madison, with the conveniences and comforts of a capital city, from its easy access by railroads, from not only in itself being beautiful, but from its beautiful surroundings, from its good society, charming climate, and artesian mineral water, is naturally a great summer resort.

Though there are no vital statistics of the city to refer to, a residence of nearly a quarter of a century has made us sufficiently acquainted with its sanitary history, which is more or less the sanitary history of this part of the state, and in a measure of the state itself. In 1844 and 1845, it was visited by an epidemic malarial fever of a bilious type, and not unfrequently fatal, which passed very generally through the state, and was attributed to the turning up of the soil. It was most virulent in the autumns. Again in r854 it was visited by a light choleraic epidemic, which also swept the state, assuming very generally a particularly mild type. Again in 1857 it suffered lightly from the epidemic dysentery, which passed through the state. In 1865, it suffered from a visitation of diptheria, the disease prevailing generally over the state at that time. It has also had two visitations of the epidemic grip {grippe), or influenza. The last invasion, some five years since, commencing in a manner perhaps worthy of noting, by first affecting the horses very generally, and again, by beginning on the east side of the city, while the other epidemics for the past twenty-five years (unless the choleraic visitation was an exception) came in on the southwest side of the city, as has been the case, so far as we have been able to observe with the light epidemics to which children are subject. But little typhoid fever is found here, and the aguish fevers when they occur are light and easy of control. There is but little diarrhoea or dysentery. Pneumonia and its allied affections are more common, so is rheumatism, and so neuralgia. Inflammatory croup, however, is very rare, sporadic diptheria seeming to be taking its place. All the ordinary eruptive fevers of children are and always have been of a peculiarly mild

Prairie du Chien, situated immediately at the junction of the Wisconsin with the Mississippi, is built about 70 feet above low water, and 642 feet above the level of the sea. The cliffs on both sides of the river present on their summits the lower strata of the blue Silurian limestone of Cincinnati, beneath which are found sandstone and magnesian limestone down to the water's edge. We give this notice of Prairie du Chien for the purpose of bringing to the knowledge of the public that it possesses one of the most superb artesian wells in the state, which is attracting many persons by its remedial mineral properties.

Green Bay sanitarily may be considered as sufficiently indicated under the head of Fort Howard. It is, however, proper to add that from its geographical position and beautiful situation at the head of the bay, its easy access both by railroad and steamboat, its pleasant days and cool summer nights, it has naturally become quite a popular summer resort, particularly for southern people.

Racine, some 25 miles south by east by rail from Milwaukee and 62 by rail from Chicago, is built upon the banks and some 40 feet above the level of the lake. Its soil is a sandy loam and.

Waukesha, i8 miles west of Milwaukee by railroad, is a healthy, pleasant place of resort at all times on account of its mineral water, so well known and so highly appreciated throughout the coutitry.

Oconomowoc, 32 miles by railroad west by north of Milwaukee, is a healthy and delightfully located resort for the summer. Its many lakes and drives form its chief attractions, and though its accommodations were considered ample, during the past summer they were found totally inadequate to meet the demands of its numerous visitors.

The Dalles, at Kilbourn City, by rail 16 miles from Portage, is unsurpassed in the northwest for the novelty, romantic character, and striking beauty of its rock and river scenery. It is high and dry ; has pure water and fine air, and every-day boat and drive views enough to fill up a month pleasantly.

Lake Geneva, 70 miles by rail from Chicago, is built on the north side of the lake, is justly celebrated for its beauty, and its reputation as a summer resort is growing.

Green Lake, six miles west of Ripon, and 89 northwest from Milwaukee, is some 15 miles long and three broad, surrounded by beautiful groves and prairies ; and is claimed to be one of the healthiest little places on the continent.

Devil's Lake is ^6 miles by rail north of Madison. Of all the romantic little spots in Wisconsin, and they are innumerable, there is none more romantic or worthy of a summer visitor's admiration than this. It is, though shut in from the rude world by bluffs 500 feet high, a very favorite resort, and should be especially so for those who seek quiet, and rest, and health.

Sparta, 246 miles by rail from Chicago, is pleasantly and healthily situated, and its artesian mineral water strongly impregnated with carbonate of iron, having, it is said, over 14 grains in solution to the imperial gallon, an unusually large proportion, attracts its annual summer crowd.

Sheboygan, 62 miles by rail north of Milwaukee, from its handsome position on a bluff overlooking the lake, and from the beauty of its surroundings as well . as from the character of its mineral waters, is an attractive summer resort.

In order to ascertain whether the classes of diseases in the state at the date of Carver's travels are the same which prevail to-day, we have compared his description of them with those tabulated in the army medical reports of Forts Howard, Crawford and Winnebago, and again with those given in the U. S. Census for 1870, and with the medical statistics of the city of Milwaukee. The three distinct and prominent classes prevailing from Carver's to the present time, are, in the order of prevalence, diseases of the respiratory organs, consumption, pneumonia, bronchitis, etc.; diseases of the digestive organs, enteritis, dysentery, diarrhoea, etc.; and the malarial fevers. At Fort Howard alone do the diseases of the digestive organs seem to have outnumbered those of the respiratory organs. So far as it is possible to gather from the reports of the commissioners of Indian affairs, these features of the relative prevalence of the three classes of disease are not disturbed.

There are, however, some disturbing or qualifying agencies operating and affecting the amount or distribution of these classes in different areas or belts. For instance, there are two irregular areas in the state ; the one extending from the Mississippi east and north, and the other starting almost as low down as Madison, and running up as far as Green Bay, which are more subject to malarial diseases than are the other parts of the state. While it is found that those parts of the state least subject to diseases of the digestive org^s are, a belt along the western shore of Lake Michigan, and a belt running from near Prairie du Chien north into the pineries. Again, it is found that the part of the state most subjec'^ to enteric, cerebro-spinal and typhus fevers, is quite a narrow belt running north from the southern border line into the center of the state, or about two-thirds of the distance toward the pineries. All along the western shore of Lake Michigan, and stretching across the country by way of Fond du Lac to the Mississippi, is a belt much less subject to these disorders. It is equally beyond question that the western shore of Lake Michigan, and the southern shore of Lake Superior, as well as the western half of the southern boundary line of the pineries, are less affected with consumption than the interior parts of the state.

The tendency of these diseases is certainly to amelioration. The sanitary history of Wisconsin does not differ from that of any other state east of us, in this striking particular ; the farther you trace back the history of disease, the worse its type is found to be. It follows, then, that the improvement in public health must progress with the general improvement of the state, as has been the case with the eastern states, and that the consequent amelioration of our malarial diseases especially will tend to mitigate infectious diseases. The ameliorating influences, however, that sanitary science has brought to bear upon disease, of which England is so happy an illustration, has scarcely as yet begun to be known to us. But the time has come at last when this science is moving both the hearts and minds of thinking and humane men in the state, and its voice has been heard in our legislative halls, evoking a law by which we are, as a people, to be governed, as by any other enactment. The organization of a state board of health is a new era in our humanity. In this board is invested all legal power over the state health. To it is committed all the sanitary responsibility of the state, and the greatest good to the people at large must follow the efforts it is making.

There are many other points of sanitary interest to which it is desirable to call the attention of those interested in Wisconsin. It is a popular truth that a dry climate, all other things being equal, is a healthy climate. Our hygrometrical records show Wisconsin to have one of the driest climates in the United States. Choleraic diseases rarely prevail unless in a comparatively stagnant state of the atmosphere, where they are most fatal. Where high winds prevail such diseases are rare. The winds in Wisconsin, while proverbially high and frequent (carrying away and dissipating malarial emanations), are not destructive to life or property, as is the case, by their violence, in some of the adjoining states. A moist, warm atmosphere is always provocative of disease. Such a state of atmosphere is rare with us, and still more rarely continuous beyond a day or two. Moist air is the medium of malarial poisoning, holding as it does in solution gases and poisonous exhalations. Its character is readily illustrated by the peculiar smell of some m'arsh lands on autumnal evenings. Such a state of moisture is seen only in our lowest shut-in marshes (where there is but little or no air-current), and then only for a very limited period, in very hot weather.

But too much importance is attached by the public to a simply dry atmosphere for respiratory diseases. The same mistake is made with regard to the good effects in such disorders of simply high elevations. Dry air in itself or a high elevation in itself, or both combined, are not necessarily favorable to health, or curative of disease. In the light and rare atmosphere of Pike's Peak, an elevation of 6,000 feet, the pulse is accelerated, the amount of sleep is diminished, and the human machine is put under a high-pressure rate of living, conducive only to its injury. The average rate of the pulse in healthy visitors is from 1,15 to 120 per minute (the normal rate, in moderate elevations, being about 75). And where there is any organic affection of the heart, or tendency to bleeding from the lungs, it is just this very dry atmosphere and high elevation that make these remedifsi?) destructive. Hence it is -that Wisconsin, for the generality of lung diseases, especially when accompanied with hemorrhage, or with heart disease, is preferable to Colorado. It may be objected, that the diseases' of the respiratory organs are in excess of other diseases in Wisconsin. This feature, however, is not confined to the cold belt of our temperate latitudes - our proportion of respiratory diseases, be it noted, comparing most favorably with that of other states, as may be seen in the following table : l^ow, while the mortuary statistics of the United States census for 1850 are acknowledged 'to be imperfect, they are, nevertheless, undoubtedly correct as to the causes of mortality. But besides this statistical evidence of the climatological causes of disease, there are certain relative general, if not special, truths which serve to guide us in our estimate. Respiratory diseases of all kinds increase in proportion as the temperature decreases, the humidity of the air being the same. Another equally certain element in the production of this class of diseases is variableness of climate. Still, this feature of our climate is only an element in causation, and affects us, as we shall see in the table below, very little as compared with other states. Indeed, it is still disputed whether there is not more consumption in tropical climates than in temperate climates. This much is admitted, however, that consumption is rare in the arctic regions. Dr. Terry says the annual ratio of pulmonary diseases is lower in the northern than in the southern regions of the United States, and Dr. Drake, an equally eminent authority, recommends those suffering from or threatened with pulmonary affections, to retreat to the colder districts of the country, citing among others localities near Lake Superior - a recommendation which our experience of nearly half a century endorses.

When we compare the general death-rate of Wisconsin with that of the other states of the U^nion, we find that it compares most favorably with that of Vermont, the healthiest of the New England states. The United States census of 1850, i860 and 1870, gives Wisconsin 94 deaths to ro,ooo of the population, while it gives Vermont loi to every io,ooo of her inhabitants. The census of 1870 shows that the death-rate from consumption in Minnesota, Iowa, California and Wisconsin are alike. These four states show the lowest death-rate among the states from consumption, the mortality being 13 to 14 per cent, of the whole death-rate.

Climatologically considered, then, there is not a more healthy state in the Union than the state of Wisconsin. But for health purposes something more is requisite than climate. Climate and soil must be equally good. Men should shun the soil, no matter how rich it be, if the climate is inimical to health, and rather choose the climate that is salubrious, even if the soil is not so rich. In Wisconsin, generally speaking, the soil and climate are equally conducive to health, and alike good for agricultural purposes.

Summary From State And Federal Census

age, 23; total number of pupils who have attended public school, 6,749 ; private school, as reported, 202, and, if Carroll College were included, it would make over 7,000 pupils who have received instruction during the year in the county. During the coming year, it is expected the number will be increased, as the compulsionary law will be in force, and to which the attention of district boards, patrons and teachers is respectfully called. In relation to this law, I deem it not necessary to make any comment in this report.

" Number of private schools in the county, 11. Number which are denominational, 9. Number of teachers engaged, 17. Number of days school has been taught, 700. Number of pupils who have not attended a district school during the year, 187. Number of daily attend ance, 202.

" The following is the ofiScial report of Pewaukee High School : Number of teachers employed, 1 ; number of pupils not over twenty years of age, 88 ; number over twenty years, 1 ; whole number of pupils registered, 89 ; average daily attendance, 83 ; number of days of high school, 160 ; number of pupils in natural sciences, 21 ; amount actually expended for instruction, $600.

" The following are the graded schools and number of departments : Waukesha Union, 8 departments ; Oconomowoc City, 6 ; Pewaukee No. 1, 3 ; No. 3, 2 ; Menomonee Falls, 2 ; Merton, 2 ; Delafield, 2 ; Eagle, 2 ; Hartland, 2 ; Sussex, 2 ; Mukwonago, 2. Total nupaber of graded schools, 12. Number of departments, 35.

" My opinion on the text-book question has been given in previous reports, and here I will only state that experience and reflection have only added strength to the conviction that in our existing text-book laws is to be found all that is needed for uniformity of text-books, changes, etc. The following will show the increase or decrease in adoption, purchase, loans and selling text-books, by districts, from 1877 to 1879 : Number of districts which have a list of textbooks adopted - in 1877, 5 ; in 1878, 52 ; in 1879, 73. Number of districts which purchase texl-books - in 1877, 2 ; in 1878, 40 ; in 1879, 65. Number of districts which loan textbooks - in 1877, 2 ; in 1878, 1 ; in 1879, 2. Number of districts which sell text-books to pupils - in 1877, 0 ; in 1878, 40 ; in 1879, 40.

" There has been $2,372.58 more expended this year in building and repairing than the previous year ; and a most commendable interest has been taken in re-seating and supplyii g the schools with dictionaries, globes, maps, charts, etc.

" Waukesha being an old county, comparatively speaking, the majority of the schoolhouses are in excellent condition and well furnished ; but there are a number of school buildings which should be replaced by new ones, and be well furnished. I would call upon the School Directors, parents, teachers and all concerned to look well to the danger which may easily arise from ill-ventilated schoolhouses and impure water. Do not have your children poisoned with foul water, impure air, etc., and charge their sickness and death to the mysterious dealings of an inscrutable Providence.

" The 118 schoolhouses will accommodate 8,008 pupils, being 2,061 less than the number of children of school age. Number of schoolhouses in good condition, as reported, 105 ; number properly ventilated, 77 ; with outhouses in good condition, 93 ; well inclosed, 45 ; number of sites containing less than one acre, 85 ; number of schoolhouses of stone or brick, 45.

" The number of public examinations held during the year are 9 ; number of applicants for certificates, 350. It has been our object to give the teachers fair, practical questions which would test their knowledge of the branches in which they are examined, as well as to ascertain their ability to govern and teach. It is our intention to steadily increase the standing of the teachers of the county. I have examined a large number of teachers from the adjoining counties, and I must say the teachers of Waukesha County, in relation to education, government, tact and ability to teach, stand pre-eminent.

" The whole number of first-grade certificates granted for the year, 4 ; second-grade, 11 ; third-grade, 188 ; total, 203. The whole number of teachers employed was 207."

The close proximity of the Milwaukee commercial colleges. State University and various normal schools, of which desirable institutions Waukesha County has none, calls many students ' away who would aid materially in raising the grade of the schools, but the annual reports of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction show that Waukesha County stands in the front rank in educational matters.

Eleazer Root, who was a prominent educator of Waukesha County, was a member of the second Constitutional Convention, in 1848, and was chosen to draft that portion of the State Constitution referring to educational matters. He performed the task - one of the most important assigned to any member of that body - so well that the parents and children of Wisconsin will have cause to remember him as long as education and schools are necessary. Perhaps no State in the Union has better school laws than Wisconsin, and very few have as good. For them Waukesha, is indebted largely to the old-time resident, Eleazer Root, now, if living, a citizen of California.

He who follows agricultural pursuits, breaks the tough prairie glebe, or fells trees and burns the fallows before he can put the plow into the soil, is the pioneer in all new countries, and prepares the way for lawyer, editor, miller, minister, blacksmith, and all others who depend upon anything but farming for a livelihood, and who never fail to come after him when the soil has been made sufiiciently productive. The first settlers of Waukesha County were no exception to this rule. The Cutler brothers, when they first pushed their way into the wildei'ness in May, 1834, did not find lawyers' " shingles " swinging from the oaks ; did not find a minister " holding forth " to the rocks and trees, and " passing the hat " to birds and beasts ; did not find a physician with his saddle-bags hunting for a site on which to start a cemetery ; did not find a musician teaching the birds and forest denizens to vocalize or play the piano ; in fact, they found no one ; and if they had, farming and tilling the soil would necessarily have been their occupation. The farmer has been the first man in every new country.

Not much was done in 1834, though a little "garden truck" was raised where the streets and blocks of Waukesha now are. This was the first planting by the hand of white men in

History. Of Waukesha Coujtty

Waukesha County. The following year, nearly all kinds of crops were raised ; none, however, more than one or two miles from the present site of Waukesha Village.

What spring wheat was at first sowed did not yield satisfactorily ; therefore, during ten or fifteen years, winter wheat largely took its place as a bread crop, and returned profitable yields, especially in the " openings." Spring wheat throve better on the prairies, where the soil was less adapted to winter grain, and the winter winds were more severe. Winter grain was abandoned almost entirely, and for twenty-five years, up to 1878, spring wheat has taken the lead. In the fall of that year, owing to the unprofitable returns from an overworked soil, and the disastrous effects of drought, chinch-bugs and weevil, large quantities of winter wheat were sown in some parts of the county, and, returning a tolerable yield, were largely increased in the fall of 1879. From necessarily small beginnings agriculture has grown to astonishing proportions in Waukesha County, and, although considerable attention is given to manufacturing and stock-raising, still represents the bulk of capital and population. Any other condition of things would be unnatural, as, with its rich soil and good markets, the county has always furnished a field for the most profitable returns of industry, skill and means applied to the labor of tilling the ground. The whole county is more than usually well watered, springs, lakes and streams being more numerous than in any other county in Wisconsin. Small portions of the county are better adapted to dairying and stock-raising, and the profit of adding these departments of farming to that of simple plowing and sowing has recently become apparent. Most of the farmers came from New England, New York and Pennsylvania, and adopted, generally, the mode of farming then practiced in the East. Since that time, experience (as to the capacity of the soil and as to the climate) has caused, of course, considerable change in the methods of farming in this region, as it has elsewhere. The quality of the butter and cheese made in this county is first-class. Wheat and hay produced here are second in quality to the products of no other county, and large quantities of pork, wool and beef, of excellent quality, are annually exported. Orchards may be found in all sections of the county. Grapes, cherries and all kinds of berries are grown with profit wherever the farmers are disposed to devote the necessary labor and skill to their culture.

The soil of the county is well diversified, from the heavy peat beds or glades, where grass grows in abundance in dry or wet seasons, to the light, quick, sandy soils, in which tobacco and sweet potatoes will, with a little care, thrive well. Thus the farmers are always insured against a total failure of crops, for seasons are never known in which all of the numerous farm products raised in Waukesha County do not make profitable returns.

In 1840, the county of Milwaukee (which included Waukesha) contained 541 horses, 5,100 cattle, 798 sheep and 8,114 swine. The agricultural products of 1839 were 34,236 bushels of wheat, 845 of, barley, 26,836 of oats, 147 of rye, 1,829 of buckwheat, 26,820 of corn, 64,242 of potatoes, 4,574 tons of hay, 48,886 pounds of maple sugar, 67 pounds of wool, and $15,000 worth of skins and furs. The wool product of that year, for what is now two counties, was, as compared with what Waukesha alone now produces, insignificant indeed. Much of the maple sugar was produced in what is now Milwaukee County, but the wheat and other grains were mostly produced in what is now Waukesha County. The following table, prepared in 1840, shows the various products and amount of farm stock in Waukesha County in 1839 :

Forty years later, the tables required to be prepared by the assessors of the various towns make a far different showing, and, by comparing the tables of population, it will be seen that the wealth and productiveness of the county have increased more rapidly than the numbers of her people, and the rate of valuation, qr permanent market price of each product, has also been largely increased.

The following is a certified statement of the principal farm products grown in the county of Waukesha, for the year 1878, as ascertained and compiled pursuant to the provisions of Chapter 48 of the Revised Statutes of 1878 :

Number Of Bushels

The following table, which shows the detail of personal property, is an abstract of the assessment rolls of the several towns, cities and villages in the county of Waukesha, as returned to the County Clerk for the year 1879, under the provisions of Chapter 106 of the Revised Statutes of 1878 :

Farming Lands

The following table, testified to under oath as correct by the Assessors, shows how the various crops were divided, as to acreage, in 1879, in the different towns :

Apple

In 1850, John Gilbraith was awarded a gold medal for some samples of ninety-six acres of flax raised by him about four miles from Mukwonago. In 1848, a squash was taken to Waukesha from Genesee to be weighed, which tipped the beam at eighty-six pounds.

In 1860, F. B. Ward, of Brookfield, became noted for producing a crop of potatoes, some of which weighed three and one-fourth pounds. J. Woodruff, of Lisbon, exhibited one that weighed three and one-eighth pounds, and Mr. Heath, of Pewaukee, exhibited a beet weighing sixteen and one-fourth pounds, and a radish weighing twelve pounds.

First Underground Railroad

By far the larger portion of the people of the present day have no correct idea of what meaning was intended to be conveyed by the term "underground railroad," as it was used in the early days of active Abolitionism. Very many think it was literally a railway for the passage of locomotives and cars beneath the surface of the earth, and have inquired where the ruins of one could be seen. For the purpose of properly explaining a term familiar to all

Waukesha from thirty-five to thirty-seven years ago, if for no other reason, an extended account of how passengers traveled by that famous line might properly be given in this work ; but there are still more weighty reasons for historically preserving such an account, as the first underground railroad established in Wisconsin had Waukesha for its northern terminus ; was established by Lyman Goodnow, its first conductor, a Waukesha man, with some help from his neighbors, and the first passenger was Caroline Quarlls, whom he safely conducted by this line from Waukesha to Canada. Mr. Goodnow, still a resident of Waukesha, and whose mind and body are strong and active, tells the story substantially as follows :

'-There probably was never more excitement in old Prairieville than during the search for, and escape of Caroline, a fugitive slave girl from St., Louis. In fact the whole county - then Milwaukee, was in a fermentation, and the leading citizens of the day, many of whom afterward became prominent in the State and nation, were the chief' actors in that long-to-be-remembered drama of reality.