Atlantic Ice & Coal Company, 135 Prince Street, Montgomery

Source document Quoted word for word from HAER AL-188. Not written, edited or summarised by this site.

The plant, which replaced the city's first manufactured ice factory is significant in that it was erected during a period of substantial change in refrigeration technology. The new ice plant utilized the increasingly prevalent raw water, ammonia compression, can process to produce ice, and operated from electrically-driven machinery. The substantially enlarged cold storage facility and the ice tanks were an integrated system, the cold storage facility utilizing brine from the ice tanks to cool its rooms. But refrigeration was a rapidly advancing industry, fed as it was by university, government, and private industry research. Technological and market influences combined to catalyze change at the plant level.

Ice and cold storage facilities and the refrigeration processes within were added to or modified periodically so that Atlantic could maintain competitiveness. As such, the present structure, and the changes it represents, is a typical example of the process many refrigeration plants underwent through the century in their attempt to maintain their market share.

Source document Quoted word for word from HAER AL-188. Not written, edited or summarised by this site.

The Historic American Engineering Record spent twelve weeks, beginning in June documenting the Atlantic Ice & Coal Company. Five architectural technicians measured the building and produced 14 sheets of drawings, and the team historian researched ice manufacturing, cold storage, and freezer processes that were utilized at the site since the original company's formation in ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 2 Chronology Montgomery Ice Manufacturing Company organizes with a capital stock of Montgomery Ice Manufacturing erects ice making facility on the north end of Perry Street. Cold storage added to facility. Company modifies ice making operation and adds a second level of cold storage. An ammonia compression system is introduced.

Plant begins operating as Atlantic Ice & Coal Corporation. 135 Prince Street facility erected. Utilizes Vilter high-pressure, raw water system with electric power. Floors added in ice tower, and building is converted to freezer storage. Prince Street Building No. 2 (cold storage) erected. Prince Street Building No. 3 (cold storage) erected. Munford, Inc., divides company functions, forming Munford Refrigerated Warehouses Atlantic's ice making companies are sold. Spencer Company (Mid-South Ice) purchases all the Atlantic ice plants in Georgia, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Alabama. Consolidation of Munford, Inc., United States Security Warehouses, Inc., and United Refrigerated Services into URS. AmeriCold merges with URS to form AmeriCold Logistics.

AmeriCold ceases operations at the Prince Street facility and puts the building and property up for sale. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 3 Introduction In the Alabama Ice Manufacturers' Association elected Moore, Treasurer of the Atlantic Ice and Coal Company in Montgomery as president of the Association. The nomination and victory recognized Moore and his brother Thomas as leaders in the state's ice industry. As active members in Alabama's new professional organization, the two were seen as working in the interest of the industry as a whole, willing to pass on their experience and knowledge to others in the field.

The pair operated Atlantic Ice and Coal, a Montgomery company that owned three plants that manufactured ice for household and railcar use, as well as supplied cold storage to industries in the state's capital. What's more, they had just finished erecting a state-of-the-art ice factory and cold storage plant, replacing a system that was rapidly becoming obsolete. Refrigeration science evolved with America's industrial revolution, in answer to the food demands of a rapidly urbanizing nation. The period from the to about was defined by empirical technological advances, a shared experiment by refrigeration practitioners throughout the U.S. who promoted industry advancement through professional exchange. Numerous processes were attempted, adopted and discarded.

Operating at a relatively small scale, ice manufacturers could change structures or rebuild buildings with relative frequency. But, by the turn of the century, a hand-full of major refrigeration and ice making processes dominated the field. The importance of refrigeration in feeding an expanding nation combined with the growth of engineering research as the impetus for change during the next forty years. Government agencies, machine manufacturers, and universities set up structured research labs that put science behind trial-and-error technology and refined the field. The inter-war years, then, were marked not by major changes in industrial refrigeration systems, but by enhancements to existing systems.

Engineers, scientists, and practitioners were driven to increase safety, reduce inefficiencies, and lower costs. At the plant level, this meant addition of machine components, gages, and automatic controls. Systems and buildings were modified rather than replaced. In contrast, the World War II and post-war years brought more conspicuous changes. Started by the government's need for larger quantities of domestic freezer space and continued by the "affluent society's" desire for convenience foods, the freezer storage market exploded. Plant operators expanded facilities, altered existing refrigerating systems, and changed over ice and cold storage to accommodate the more lucrative freezer storage.

At the same time, the adoption of automatic ice machines threatened the viability of can-ice production. An examination of the AmeriCold Logistics building at 135 Prince Street highlights the many changes in the industry since the Building and technological modifications evident in the extant structure, as well as traditional industry and trace sources, demonstrate how ice and cold storage practitioners altered production to continue running efficiently and at a profit in an industry marked by rapid technological change and, in later years, a quickly shifting market. Leaders adapted operations to new markets and to changes in refrigeration technology, at times ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No.

4 substituting new technologies, at times adopting them in tandem with older technologies. By the though, as in the and keeping up with refrigeration technology meant scrapping the existing plant altogether and rebuilding from scratch. While older structures could be modified to incorporate new technologies profitably throughout the late twentieth century, this was seldom the case by the end of the century. Background For centuries, inventors throughout the world pursued methods to refrigerate food and drink. Until the nineteenth century, salting, pickling, smoking and dehydration served to preserve foods. By however, Americans had begun utilizing ice for the temporary storage of meats and milk.

Originally harvested from frozen water bodies in the North, ice was used in homes and for industrial processes like brewing. Eager to preserve beef and mutton through warm seasons, and to transfer and preserve crops and meat over long distances, inventors developed ice making, cold storage, and refrigerated transport technology concurrently through the though these industries gained little significance until after the Civil War. 1 By the a flurry of inventions surrounded refrigeration and ice making. 2 While a number of inventors developed various types of machines that produced ice by what became known as the absorption process, most engineers credit the Frenchman Edmund Carre with the invention of the ammonia absorption machine.

The machine produced a sensation at the Paris exposition of and a few years later it was introduced in the U.S. at Philadelphia's Centennial Exposition in But early compression machines were being pursued as well. As opposed to absorption machines, which used heat or thermal energy instead of mechanical energy to compress vapor, compression machines utilized the rapid expansion of a mechanically- compressed gas to create the refrigeration effect. Jacob. Perkins first utilized the compression principle, but Wallace Twining is credited with the machine technology, obtaining a U.S. patent 1 The horse-drawn ice cutter, invented by Nathaniel J. Wyeth and patented by in was key to the expansion of the ice refrigeration industry. By mid-century, the northern U.S.

could obtain ice with relative ease. Oscar Edward Anderson, Refrigeration in America: A History ofa New Technology and Its Impact (Princeton: Princeton University Press, Ice refrigerators developed with the natural ice industry. Early ice boxes usually consisted of tin or zinc-lined wood, with the ice section on the bottom. Anderson, 23. 2 Refrigeration is a system by which external work is applied to remove heat from a region of lower temperature and discharge it into a region at a higher temperature. Systems are usually gaged by how many tons of refrigeration thet produced. In particular, compressors are rated by tons, horsepower, or diameter of the bore times the length of stroke. A "ton" ofrefrigeration is the amount of heat removed at a rate of200 Btu per minute.

Most plant operators are interested in the tons ofrefrigeration produced. Woolrich and Luis H. Bartlett, Handbook ofRefrigerating Engineering (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 10. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 5 for his machine in and completing a machine installed in Cleveland, Ohio in The key components of the ammonia compression system were the compressor, the condenser, the expansion valve, and the evaporator (Figure 1). The compressor drew the gas from the evaporator (or evaporating coils), compressed it, and forced it through pipes to the condenser. In the condenser, water cooled the ammonia enough for it to return to liquid form.

In this liquid state, the ammonia passed through pipes to an expansion valve, where it was allowed into the evaporator or evaporating coils to do its refrigerating work. The passing of the high pressure liquid into the low-pressure evaporator caused the ammonia to "flash" into its gaseous form, absorbing the heat of whatever secondary cooling agent surrounded it. 4 In the absorption system, aqua ammonia was heated in a generator and then driven off by high pressure to condensers, where it was condensed into liquid. In the evaporator, the ammonia vaporized, cooling the surrounding refrigerant. In the connected absorber, water and ammonia were united, and the cycle was completed. Through the late various compression and absorption machines competed for the market.

r / EVAPORATOR ammonia vapor COMPRESSOR ' '- / ( EXPANSION VALVE ) a.nmonia v:apor ~ r '\ ammoma llaUld CONDENSER '- Figure 1. Ammonia compression system 3 Cam~'s and others' machines were plagued with low production, poor quality product, and inefficient operation. Anderson, 80; A. J. Wallis-Taylor, Industrial Refrigeration, Cold Storage and Ice-Making (New York: Norman W. Henley, 38, Twining's machine included an expansion vessel, a pump, and a condenser. Water ran between thin metal pipes or plates, through which the refrigerant circulated. Modern systems are, essentially, a modification ofTwining's machine technology. Charles W. Biese, "Ice Making," Ice and Refrigeration 1 (July 4Anderson, Leo Drum, interview by author, 1 Aug.

The ice manufacturing listing in the edition of Appleton's Cyclopaedia ofApplied Mechanics, is, for all intents and purposes, merely a list and description of the varieties of absorption and compression machines available to manufacture cold and ice. Appleton's Cyclopaedia of Applied Mechanics (New York: D. Appleton & Company, On early absorption and compression systems, see Woolrich The Men Who Created Cold: A History ofRefrigeration (New York: Exposition Press, ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 6 In and James Harrison put the finishing touches on the first ice making machine that came into wide use in the United States, a system in which ice formed from water- filled copper molds suspended in refrigerated brine.

By the turn of the century two similar forms of ice making predominated: the can and the plate system. In the can system, water was fed into galvanized iron cans, which were then suspended in a tank containing brine cooled by a primary refrigerating substance that absorbed the brine's heat. In the plate system, the ice tank was divided by vertical partitions placed about seventeen to twenty-two inches apart. The partitions were either hollow plates through which the brine circulated or coils covered on the outside with a flat plate to serve as a smooth surface. The tank was filled with water and the cold brine circulated between the plates, with ice forming on each plate to about six to ten inches thick.

In both the plate and can systems, the ice was then slightly thawed (or "cured") to loosen it from the plates and harvested. Usually made of iron plate (which resists brine corrosion better than steel), the brine tank was similar for both processes.

5 Having familiarized themselves with the manufacture of ice, practitioners debated the efficacy of ice storage over the long term; many pundits deemed such storage impossible particularly in the South, but in the early1890s, the editor of Jee and Refrigeration was "of the firm conviction that manufactured ice may be stored and held for future consumption in midsummer." He added that he and his staff"were quite aware that ice men and editorial teachers hold that this cannot be done, and that many learned columns of theory have been printed in argument for the negative side of the question. In response to the unresolved debate, the editors of Jee and Refrigeration queried ice manufacturers as to their success and various practices used in storage.

6 Just as ice was used for home and industrial refrigeration, it seemed the logical method for refrigerating cold storage units, and the rail cars and steamships that transported perishables. 7 In 5Many primary refrigerants were experimented with as well, including sulphuric ether, methylic ether, carbonic acid, sulphurous acid, and ammonia. A Ritchie Leask, Refrigerating Machinery and its Management (London,: Simpkin, Marshall & Company, By however, writers at Jee and Refrigeration reported that most U.S. plants operated ammonia machines. J.E.

Siebe, "Material Problems,'' Ice and Refrigeration 10 (March, 6 "Storing Manufactured Ice,'' Ice and Refrigeration 4 (June One respondent, for example, offered that he began storing ice for summer consumption in March, placing 6 to 8 inches of sawdust on the floor. Ice cakes were then packed on top of one another until the house was full. A space of six inches between the ice and side wall was packed with saw dust. Twelve to fourteen inches of saw dust was then packed on top. Ice and Refrigeration (Aug. Debates on storage of manufactured ice surfaced often in Ice and Refrigeration in the early 7 These early experiments with food transport were well-publicized events and reflect the technological enthusiasm of the period.

Charles Tellier, the inventor of the absorption ice machine, purchased a 900-ton ship to test his cold storage ideas. Appleton's Journal reported that the first trip of the Frigorifique was scheduled from a French port to the Plate River. The cargo was to consist of wine, beer, butter, cheese, hops, vegetables, fresh meat, fruit, silk worms, ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 7 Michigan Central had one of the earliest lines of refrigerator cars in the U.S., carrying fresh meat from Chicago to New York and Boston. Three-foot wide platforms were put in each end of the car, from side to side, three feet off the floor. A metal catch basin held about to pounds of ice. Water from the melting ice drained from a pipe out the bottom of the car.

Michigan Central then experimented with the Davis system, in which the cars were lined throughout with V -shaped, galvanized iron tanks, that rested in catch basins. The tanks were charged from the top with fine ice and salt. While unpopular with shippers because of the large amount of space the tanks consumed, many cold storage operators adopted a similar system. 8 Although Industrial refrigeration took a backseat to domestic refrigeration concerns, by the inventors were investigating ways to cool larger storehouses. John C. Schooley experimented with curing pork during the summer with ice (cooling being necessary to prevent spoilage until preservatives could penetrate the meat), but it was Benjamin M.

Nyce who in built and first patented a cold storage unit design, incorporating ice cooling with circulating fans. Dr. Henry Peyton Howard built on these advances, developing the first refrigerated frozen meat processing and storage facility in Howard experimented with a twenty-five by fifty foot cold storage room in New Orleans, shipping frozen Texas beef to the new facility. 9 Empirical Methods In the first few decades of refrigeration development, the empirical methods of machine manufacturers and plant operators improved refrigeration processes and storage techniques.

While some inventors utilized scientific knowledge to advance methods of refrigeration, other techniques of ice making and cold storage, such as mechanical agitation, mold shape and size, insulation, and storage methods, were developed through more traditional trial-and-error methods. In fact, early practitioners had little scientific knowledge of the refrigeration process. Most did eggs, and the like. Befitting this period bridging the empirical era with that marked by formal research, Tellier, the technologist, promised to afford the members of the Academie de Sciences, "every opportunity to try any experiment which they may deem desirable." "Science, Invention, Discovery," Appleton's Journal 14 (11 Dec. 8D. B. Beemer, "Cold Storage Construction," Ice and Refrigeration 7 (Sept.

Wallis-Taylor, Meat packers, quick to exploit refrigeration, became the largest owners of refrigerator cars. In of "beef cars" were owned by the five largest meat packers. G.O. Virtue, "The Meat Packing Investigation," Quarterly Journal ofEconomics 34 (Aug. Also see Anderson, John H. White, The Great Yellow Fleet: A History ofAmerican Railroad Refrigerator Cars (San Marino, Calif.: Golden West Books, James L. McCorkle, "Moving Perishables to Market: Southern Railroads and the Nineteenth-Century Origins of Southern Truck Farming," Agricultural History 66 9 Woolrich and E.R. Hallowell, Cold and Freezer Storage Manual (Westport, Conn.: Avi Publishing Co., 46; Anderson, ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No.

8 not realize that ice produced refrigeration by melting, acted against the desired effect by attempting to preserve the ice mass because they took years for inventors to introduce air circulation into coolers, or to incorporate into facility design the fact that cold air falls and hot air rises. 10 The most successful conduit for empirical knowledge in refrigeration may well have been industrial societies, and ice and refrigeration journals. Indeed, ice and refrigeration professionals joined the late-nineteenth-century pattern of other engineers and industrialists in developing a vibrant professional community that held professional meetings, published journals, and shared information.

11 The American Ice Machine Builders Association formed in and the next year thirty to forty "refrigeration engineers" met to consider forming the new professional society that became the American Society of Refrigeration Engineers (ASRE). Other state and regional groups formed as well, including the New Orleans Ice Manufacturers' Association, the Alabama Ice Manufacturers' Association, and the like. Many profited from formal and informal exchanges at the meetings, and many more benefited as the industry journal Ice and Refrigeration reprinted the transcribed discussions and minutes of each meeting's proceedings. The Southern Ice Exchange boasted being the first of such organizations.

Their members gathered annually at a major southern city to discuss general trends and problems within refrigeration, as well as problems specific to producing refrigeration and ice within the region's subtropical climate. Members of the Alabama Ice Manufacturers Association firmly believed in the benefit of professional societies.

In their report they noted that "statistics from many industries show that failures are fewer among trade members than among non-members." They went on to explain their success, concluding that "among other things, the association members have the advantage of the educational data acquired through the association, and the opportunity of exchanging constructive ideas with his competitors in his own industry." 12 A review of the discussions held at such meetings reveals the experimental nature of ice making and storage technology as well as the nature of the industrial community at the turn of the century. William Worth, of Wilmington, North Carolina, for example, explained how he came to store ice.

He "conceived the idea in the fall of the year that it would be a good plan to fill that house with ice, and shut down and discharge all of my help that I can dispense with. I put it away in the house just [as it was dumped] from the cans, stored away rather snugly with a quarter of an inch space between the block." His method produced one mass of ice, unfortunately. Worth continued his pursuit though, erecting a house ninety feet long, thirty-five feet wide, and twenty- 10 Anderson, Eventually practitioners began to throw salt in ice bunkers, catalyzing the melting process. 11Bruce Sinclair, A Centennial History ofthe American Society ofMechanical Engineers, (Toronto: UTP, 12 "Report of the Alabama Ice Manufacturers Association," 18 Jce and Refrigeration (Mar.

ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 9 five feet high, with no internal floors, and with eight inches of packing, using rice chaff, and four levels of board with carbonized felt between the boards. He then installed feet of pipe for refrigeration. Worth concluded for his audience that "this is the method that I have employed for a number of years, and it has been uniformly satisfactory." 13 Audiences at such conferences enjoyed not just the trials and errors that Worth and others passed on, but the privilege of asking speakers questions. Listeners asked Worth, for example, how receptive customers were to stored ice and about the cost of adding refrigerating coils.

Another listener queried the audience at large to determine if wall-mounted coils gave better results than ceiling- mounted coils. Readers of Ice and Refrigeration, likewise, could send questions to the magazine, which were often published to the community at large for response. One reader requested, for example, "the scientific reason when starting to freeze a tank of ice with brine at normal temperature (first tank of the season) the ice will not be 1st class." 14 The transfer of knowledge within the industrial community combined with the small size and (relatively) small investment involved in ice and cold manufacture to allow for rebuilding or modification of plants. In contrast to later years, ice and cold storage plants in the late were quite often changed, or scrapped and rebuilt.

William Worth (mentioned above) rebuilt his entire facility when his ice storage experiment failed. Montgomery Ice, too, altered facilities and systems to incorporate new ideas or new markets. Indeed, many plants built and re-built during these years. One Ice and Refrigeration writer noted that while Atlanta Ice had started in with twenty-ton daily capacity, "demand .. . has long since outrun capacity," and in and the plant was entirely rebuilt to support higher production. 15 Likewise, the Southern Ice Company confronted the onslaught of more efficient ice machines after it had invested in more Carre machines, machines that resulted in the significant lowering of ice prices. Southern held out as long as it could, but "competition... 13 William E.

Worth, "Storage oflce,'' Ice and Refrigeration 8 (Mar. 14"Answers to Correspondents," Ice and Refrigeration 29 (July 37. Engineer Robinson noted that empirical designs created something of a technological momentum in one design direction, pointing out that wide departure from standard cooling tower plans was difficult as engineers had "designed cooling towers in the past on empirical information and in accordance with experience of previous successful designs." Representatives from major and minor machinery manufacturers attended meetings as well, so as to remain up to date on complaints, kudos, and needs of manufacturers. Machinery manufacturers and other related parties presented papers and analyses of the industry and changes as well. In the Southern Ice Exchange meeting, E.W.

Ashmead of Alabama Power Company presented a paper on "The Demand Charge in Electric Driven Ice Plants,'' and Sudderty of Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company presented a paper entitled "Synchronous Motors." "Reprint of Southern Ice Exchange Proceedings," Ice and Refrigeration 64 (Mar. "Report of the American Society of Refrigerating Engineers," Jee and Refrigeration 64 (Feb. Worth, 15 "A Southern Ice Making Plant,'' Ice and Refrigeration l (July 23. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No.

10 continued to invade the field," and the company found in the fall of that to keep pace "with the procession and still earn profits, a change in machinery and methods was necessary." Still, only two years later, Southern felt obliged to renovate and reconstruct, purchasing a Blymyer ice making system (Cincinnati). 16 The Montgomery Ice Manufacturing Company The Montgomery Ice Manufacturing Company joined the southern ice manufacturing industry in its earliest years. Indeed, only twenty nine plants had been established nationally by (Table 1).

At the same time, the company joined hundreds of other industrial and business concerns when it opened its new factory in Montgomery's manufacturing district to the northwest of downtown, circa 17 Located where the Alabama river, major railways, and various industries and factories converged, the site allowed easy access to coal as well as a shipment point for ice. Most importantly, the plant's location at the edge of the Western of Alabama Railway shops gave Montgomery Ice a burgeoning market, the icing of rail cars for shipping perishables. While not exclusively southern, the manufactured ice industry had considerable strength in the South. Lacking any local resource for harvested ice, southerners paid dearly for the commodity.

Until the first ice manufactory was erected in New Orleans in that city used ice shipped from Boston. Likewise, Tennessee and Georgia imported extensively from the Ohio river region by rail. Texas and Mississippi also imported by rail. 18 City ice dealers purchased ice shipped from Maine, and citizens celebrated when freed from the shackles of lake harvesters. The Montgomery Advertiser gloated, "It makes no difference to the people of Montgomery how many combinations are formed for the advance oflake ice.

We have an ice factory of our own, and do not depend on the frozen streams of the North any longer." 19 In though, census investigators still found the region struggling to free itself from the northern suppliers: "for fifteen years efforts have been made to reduce the cost of ice in the South and render her, in a measure, 16 "The Southern Ice Company," Ice and Refrigeration 4 (Jan. 17Montgomery Ice Manufacturing Company changed names periodically over its 130 years of operation. At various times, the Prince Street plant operated as Montgomery Ice & Coal, Pioneer Ice, Atlantic Ice & Coal, the Atlantic Company, Munford Refrigerated Warehouses Universal Refrigerated Services (URS), Mid-South Ice, and AmeriCold Logistics.

For convenience, when referring to the plant in the years prior to the plant will be referred to as Montgomery Ice Manufacturing Company, or as the Prince Street plant. For years after when the extant building operated, the plant is referred to as the Atlantic Company, or as the Prince Street plant. 18 Anderson, 41. 19 Montgomery Advertiser (10 Apr. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 11 independent of outside sources of supply."20 But only ten years later, ice manufacturing had become so developed that the industry standard, Ice and Refrigeration, could report that ''the Southern ice trade, based on the cut of Northern lakes and rivers, has become a thing of the past ...

the vast proportion of all the ice used in Southern cities, especially those not located on the great inland waterways, is of local manufacture."21 And the census described "a southern zone, where the expense of procuring natural ice gave manufactured ice a complete monopoly." In fact, 386 of the 787 ice manufacturing establishments surveyed that year were located in the South. 22 Table 1. Number of manufactured ice establishments in U.S. Ice factories in U.S. 4 29 165 386 Source: U.S. Census of Manufactures, 3 U.S.

Bureau of the Census, Cold storage facilities followed in the wake of ice manufactories, and by the mid-1890s Montgomery's Commercial and Industrial Association, like comparable organizations in other southern cities, was agitating for the building of a local cold storage facility. 23 Indeed, cities and citizens throughout the nation called for both ice factories and cold storage houses. But, so too did others who stood to profit financially, like transportation and power companies. Seaboard Air Line advertised to potential refrigeration industrialists that they desired "Ice & Cold Storage plants at several points on our line....

Openings for 10-ton, 25-ton, and 50-ton plants in the greatest fruit and trucking section in America."24 As Middle West Utilities expanded, they found that many of the power plants that they acquired operated ice plants as a side business, in order to balance their seasonal load (as well as to pad their profits). Middle West Utilities and others expanded on this idea and bought or established more plants. 25 Historian Oscar Anderson, 20 Quoted in Census of Manufactures, 3 U. S Bureau of the Census. 21 "New Ice Factories," Ice and Refrigeration 1 (July 19. 22 Census of Manufactures, 3: U.S.

Bureau of the Census, 23 Worth, 24 Seaboard Air Line advertisement, Ice and Refrigeration 9 (July 25 Middle West Utilities Company, Handbook ofIce Engineer Woolrich also noted the advantage of ice plants to utility companies, pointing out that refrigeration companies' power load peaks in the summer, at the same ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 12 reports that the cold storage industry grew rapidly between and By the U.S. boasted 620 cold storage warehouses. This blossomed to 898 by and by the number had reached Those organizing Montgomery Ice were seasoned businessmen who were acutely aware of ice and refrigeration potential. Charles T.

Pollard served as president of both the Mobile & Montgomery and the Montgomery & Westpoint railroads, and later as president of Tallassee Manufacturing Company. The company's secretary, Hubbard is also acted as secretary of Montgomery Insurance Company. Josiah Strong provided the board's banking expertise. By the early ice men Moore and Thomas Moore had taken control of the operation. Also possessing considerable foresight regarding the refrigeration industry, the Moores moved the company into cold storage when that part of the industry was at its birth, and continued the company's lucrative practice of icing rail cars by building two more plants at the city's Louisville & Nashville and Mobile & Ohio yards.

27 But while Montgomery Ice was part and parcel of a vibrant business era, it joined the refrigeration industry at its most volatile stage. Techniques advanced rapidly, forcing manufacturers to act quickly to remain competitive and profitable. Montgomery Ice, like other early ice manufacturers, was forced to undergo frequent change in order to maintain competitiveness. Just as William Worth scrapped his ice storage experiment to begin anew, Montgomery Ice tore down and added to aspects of its facilities in order to incorporate the latest technology or market trend. The company's facility opened on Carroll Street, about feet from the new Western of Alabama shops, with ice making machinery produced by Columbus Iron Works (Columbus, GA).

There the company operated two ice freezing tanks, producing about nine tons in twenty-four hours, with a steam engine operating from four boilers. An ice machine crushed ice. Engineer Ed Miles, reflecting on the plant's beginnings, recalled that the company used ether as a refrigerant. But in the company was modifying its site to add an extensive cold storage plant with an ammonia absorption process and a capacity of ten to fifteen car loads. Leaders removed one ice tank, modified the remaining ice tank to accommodate the time a central station's load is at its lowest. Woolrich and Bartlett, 26 Anderson The rapid growth of urban areas during the industrial era raised demand for perishable foodstuffs throughout the year, thus driving the cold storage industry.

Montgomery City Directories, advertisements and listings, through were used to trace locations and management of the various ice and cold storage plants in the city. This information was supplemented by Sanborn Fire Insurance maps from and 27With the building of the plant, it appears that the businessmen consolidated all the ice companies in town. Montgomery Advertiser ( 10 April, Montgomery City Directoris, In Capital City Ice, Montgomery Ice, and Pinoeer Ice were all listed as having an office at 26 Monroe. An advertisment in that same directory listed "Montgomery Ice Companies" as operating from that same office. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 13 storage rooms, and replaced two boilers with one. An ammonia room was added, and a shipping room built on.

28 In July Ice and Refrigeration confirmed that Pioneer had '1ust finished a cold storage addition, containing six rooms, which seems to be a success, as a temperature of 38 degrees to 40 degrees is very easily maintained."29 By company leaders were compelled to alter operations again, this time to incorporate the era's dominant refrigeration technology, the compression system, and to expand their cold storage facilities. If the Sanborn maps correctly depict the structure, there were substantial internal changes to the building. While freezing tanks had operated on the first floor of a single story structure in the company modified the process to operate freezing tanks on the second floor, with ice storage on the first, a common design of the twentieth century.

A second story of cold storage was also indicated. Four new boilers appear to have replaced the three previous boilers, and the new ones were situated in a more substantial structure within the building instead of a shed (for safety reasons, no doubt). A new separate machine room housed a new seventy-five ton ice machine and a twenty-five ton ice machine. At the same time, the Western of Alabama added a spur line through the Pioneer property, and Montgomery Ice built an incline with which to ice the rail cars. 30 Montgomery Ice embraced the market and technological changes that swept through the refrigeration industry at the tum of the century. Leaders modified the facility to increase capacity, change refrigeration systems, and incorporate cold storage facilities.

Having adopted compression refrigeration and cold storage by the company was firmly established in the technologies and market that came to dominate in the 191 Os. 28 "New Ice Factories," Ice and Refrigeration 9 (July 41. 29Sanborn Fire Insurance Company maps Sept. Notes of engineer Ed Miles to plant manager Johnson private collection of William S. Johnson, Montgomery; "New Ice Factories," Ice and Refrigeration 8 (May "New Ice Factories," Jee and Refrigeration 9 (July 41. 30 Sanborn Fire Insurance Company maps Miles to Johnson. Engineer and industry historian Woolrich explains that lighter weight equipment prompted the change from absorption to compression systems. Costs of compression versus capacity also declined with the development of increased piston speeds.

By for example, a 20-ton absorption machine cost about but a compression unit priced out at Woolrich, Men Who Created Cold, York literature indicates that Montgomery plants purchased a Vertical Single-Acting Simple Ice Making and Refrigerating Machine for ice making, and a 65 ton machine of the same type used for cold storage -- both compression machines -- though it is not clear if this equipment was used in the Prince Street plant or at the company's other Montgomery plants. York Manufacturing Company, "Our References," Bulletin No. 29 (Jan. full discussion of the operation and parts of the Vertical Single-Acting Ice Making and Refrigerating Machine are given in Bulletin No. IO (Feb.

York claims that "the vertical single-acting, false or safety head type of ammonia compressor is recognized by engineers who have made this line of machinery a specialty, to be the most efficient, practical compressor for ammonia gas that has been devised up to this date." See latter reference. The 65-ton machine is shown and discussed in Bulletin No. 17 (Aug. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 14 The Fall out among Systems and Processes Through the turn of the century, the fall out of poorly operating or inefficient designs combined with manufacturers' and users' preferences to produce only a few variations among ice making systems.

The operation of the can ice plant evolved to consist of six principal steps: filling of cans with water, lowering of the cans into the brine, lifting of the cans out of the brine when frozen, loosening (thawing or "curing") of the ice in the cans, dumping of the ice, and storing the ice (short term or long term). Engineers and practitioners refined parts of this system over time.

Electrically-driven brine agitators were widely used by and engineer Doremus noted that the agitator's "inherent advantages are attested by the fact that not only are new plants using this type of equipment but old plants are installing it to insure their harvesting of ice without loss through shutdown."31 Formerly pulling only two or three cans at a time, by the early dredges and related equipment including the dump, lift, dip can, and can refilling equipment were developed that hoisted three to ten cans. Engineers also replaced the hoses filling the cans with a multiple-can-filling tank that sat atop the ice-dumping system. Compartments within the tank held the accurate amount of water used to fill the ice cans, allowing production of a consistent, standard-sized block.

By the opening of the twentieth century, then, most ice manufacturing establishments operated a similar system, though some components (such as method of refrigeration) varied. Similarly, engineers chose between three methods of cooling storage: direct expansion coils, brine circulation, or cold air blast. Direct expansion coils consisted of the installation of pipes on the ceiling or walls of cold rooms. The refrigerant gas expanded in the coils, absorbed the heat, and produced the refrigerating effect. In the brine circulation system, brine (usually from the ice tank system) was cooled by ammonia or C02 , and then circulated through pipes hung from the ceilings or walls of storage rooms.

The air blast (or forced air circulation) system consisted of air blown over a battery of ammonia evaporator coils. Storage unit construction became standardized as well. Engineers generally built cold rooms about to 8' high, with about 6' between the cooling pipes (if used) and the :floor.32 Within the refrigeration system, shell and tube condensers increasingly replaced 31 R. C. Doremus, "Improvements in Ice Plants," Ice and Refrigeration 66 (Jan. Hal Williams, Mechanical Refrigeration (New York: Whittaker & Company, 32Williams, Refrigerated rail cars became standardized as well. In the post-World War I years, the government created standards of design through the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Railroad Administration.

Changes included increasing railcar insulation from 1 to 2 to in. with a minimum capacity of 5 tons of ice. These standards were increased by the Association of American Railroads in and new designs included 3 in. of side wall insulation and in. of floor and roof insulation. Woolrich, Handbook of Refrigerating Engineering (Westport, Conn.: Avi Publishing, ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 15 atmospheric, air-cooled and submerged pipe condensers. The horizontal shell and tube condenser consisted of a horizontal steel shell in which water passed through tubes, cooling the ammonia flowing in the shell.

Still highly regarded by engineers as late as mid-twentieth century, the double pipe condenser that was the shell and tube's predecessor was comprised of two concentric tubes in which water in the smaller inside tube cooled ammonia circulating in the larger outer tube. 33 While steam engines were still widely used, particularly with absorption refrigeration systems, most new plants utilized electric drives by the early Doremus, again, noted the advantages of all-electric drives, explaining that "this has not only improved the appearance of the engine room, but allows a decrease in floor space required of some fifty per cent. This is quite advantageous, especially in the case of a plant in the heart of a city where real estate values are high and floor space is at a premium.

" 34 By World War I, the frenzied pace of early refrigeration and ice development had produced the major processes and systems that would stand through the rest of the century. Ice and cold storage operators chose between two types of ice-making processes, two types of refrigeration systems, and a hand-full of primary refrigerants. 35 The number of companies manufacturing the major components had dwindled to a few. York, Vilter, Frick, and De La Vergne rose to become the major refrigeration machinery manufacturers. Other metal workers built their versions of plate or can ice systems. Some manufacturers had started manufacturing other major refrigeration components, like condensers and evaporating coils, but some system components still had to be designed to order.

Other interests now refined and improved design and engineering, and the years between the wars were dominated by incremental developments that increased efficiencies of the system already in place. Individual components of the system were replaced or new components were added that reduced energy loss and increased profit.

Improving the System and Process In this era of refrigeration maturation, from about to about universities, research laboratories, and government agencies followed in the wake of professional societies as 33 Engineer Frank Zumbro, writing the chapter on industrial class condensers and brine coolers for ASRE's first handbook in noted that "the atmospheric type of condenser is today practically obsolete" due to the large space required for placement and its higher first cost. ASRE Hand Book On condensers, see William H. Motz, Principles ofRefrigeration, 3ded., (Chicago: Nickerson & Collins, Arthur M. Greene, Elements ofRefrigeration (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Anderson Woolrich and Bartlett, 34 Doremus, 37.

35 In actuality, absorption was on its way by when compression systems operated 72% of ice factories. Part 3 ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 16 the purveyors and supporters of technological development. With this, refrigeration research became more formalized, more scientific, and more removed from the shop floor. In particular, refrigeration industrialists joined scientists and engineers from various specialties in calling for government funding of research. At the first annual meeting of the American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, for example, members passed a resolution recommending that Congress grant the Department of Agriculture funding such that they could equip and maintain a cold storage plant for the purpose of research.

36 The Department of Agriculture began their investigations into cold storage and refrigerated transportation in and catalyzed the industry.37 In the American Association of Ice and Refrigeration petitioned Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace to re-establish research on the handling and storage of dressed poultry and eggs that apparently had been halted when the government allocated all resources toward the war effort." 38 By mid-century, numerous research arms had been established, including the U.S; Department of Agriculture's Cold Storage Research Advisory Committee, and the Refrigeration Research Foundation. But private corporations also created their own development branches, like Armstrong Cork Company's Research and Development Center in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.

Concerned the lab-based scientific developments weren't reaching the market quickly enough, the Refrigeration Research Foundation started their "Memos to Salesmen" in the prepared especially to show applications of research results. 39 Engineering and scientific knowledge of refrigeration processes and studies of practical applications of this knowledge increased. Early refrigeration designers had kept to principal components: compressors, condensers, expansions valves, and evaporators. Now, numerous points of energy waste, product loss, and such were investigated. New findings were shared and discussed by way of journal articles, professional organization newsletters, conferences, and, of course, by machine and components sales staffs. Some findings were widely argued.

Refrigeration engineer Milton Garland recalled that the ASRE meetings in the often turned "brutal" as engineers and practitioners debated test results and the like. 40 36American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Proclaiming the Truth (ASHRAE, 21. 37 The industry came to depend heavily on government support of research. 38 "Report on Committee on Broadening Cold Storage Service." Ice and Refrigeration 64 (January, 11. 39"Advisory Group Cites Need for Expanded Research on Food Storage," Industrial Refrigeration 130 (Mar. Anderson 40He continued with an example that "the first of the shell and tube condensers was 18 feet tall.

Frank Silmbro, chief engineer for Frick Company at the time, ran a series of tests and then wrote a paper delivered at an ASRE meeting. He showed that the same performance could be obtained from a high condenser as against an high condenser. Now, at the ASRE meeting there was just all kinds of discussion. In other words, people would ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 17 System improvements and process enhancements such as gages and controls consumed engineers' time. Automatic liquid controls, oil separators, and suction traps serve as particularly important examples of the types of changes made throughout the inter-war years.

Automatic liquid control was particularly valuable to refrigeration efficiency, and ASRE handbook writers termed such units "the most important improvement in evaporating systems."41 In the early years of refrigeration system development, engineers had neglected many practical considerations. Later investigators, for example, realized the necessity of removing vapor quickly in evaporators, allowing more heat exchange surface and therefore more liquid to evaporate. Additionally, the return of only partially evaporated ammonia to compressors caused "slugging," which in turn resulted in anything from minor wear to major damage to compressors.

To increase efficiency and safety and to save equipment, practitioners began introducing separators (also known as "accumulators") and liquid float controls to the refrigeration system. Utilizing accumulators and float controls, engineers devised what became known as the "flooded" evaporating system, a design that provided heavy liquid feed in order to cover all heat transfer surfaces. Liquid ammonia flowed from condensers to a float control device that regulated the amount of ammonia entering the separator. The separator received the liquid ammonia going into the evaporating system as well as the vaporized ammonia leaving the system, and separated the different phases. Liquid ammonia moved from the bottom of the separator to the bottom of the evaporating system.

In a shell and tube brine chiller, for example, the ammonia flowed into the unit from the bottom, "flooding" the vessel and surrounding the brine pipes. Evaporated ammonia moved from the top of the chiller where it was returned to the separator. In the separator, ammonia vapor left the top of the accumulator to return to the compressors. Machine manufacturers celebrated the advantages of separators and float controls. York Manufacturing explained that its version of the separator, the "Ammonia Drier, Cooler, & Purifier," "should be installed in every ice making and refrigerating plant, for it is a dividend payer."42 Oil separators (or ''traps") also served to elongate equipment life and increase system efficiencies.

Oil contained in ammonia coated the interior of tubes and pipes, hindering heat transfer and hampering condenser operation. Oil traps became a requisite component of refrigeration systems. Incoming ammonia vapor and oil were discharged via a cone against the stonn and say well, anybody would know that more surface is going to condense more gas, and things of that sort." Milton Garland, "Challenges in Industrial Refrigeration," ASHRAE Journal 30 (Apr. 46. On presumptive anomalies in research, see Edward W. Constant, The Origins ofthe Turbojet Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 41 ASRE Hand Book, 42 York Manufacturing Company, York Ammonia Fittings and Supplies 92.

ASHRAE Handbook: Refrigeration Systems and Processes Mcintire and Hutchinson, Refrigeration Engineering, 2d ed., (New York: John Wiley, Greene, Drum interview. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 18 sidewall of the separator, and oil clung to the wall while the vapor passed through the cylinder. To safeguard the condensers, the oil separator was placed as close to the condenser as possible, capturing the ammonia leaving the compressors. 43 Like separators, suction line liquid traps (or "suction traps") safeguarded ammonia compressors, reducing liquid pumped into the machines by separating liquid and vapor (much like the separator).

Initially believed to increase system efficiency by reducing superheated ammonia vapor, suction traps came to be designed as heat exchangers, with cold return vapor pre-cooling the warm high-pressure liquid ammonia before it went to the evaporator. 44 The Atlantic Company Atlantic's leaders contemplated rebuilding as the refrigeration industry commenced this new era of improvements. Major processes, machinery, and systems had been hammered out by the end of World War I. The Prince Street plant now would begin anew, with the most widely accepted technologies of the era, and some enhancements that were just gaining favor.

In Montgomery Ice had built "the finest ice plant of the South," according to plant engineer, Ed Miles, but by Atlantic Ice (the company's successor) found itself operating in a substantially changed field with an old space, of too little capacity, in a substantially changed field. 45 Only twenty-five feet in height, Atlantic's ice storage facility likely couldn't keep up with seasonal demand, particularly that from railways needing to ice cars. Newer companies, too, were operating from electricity, and reporting a significant cost savings. Additionally, the company had changed from the ammonia absorption to the compression process already, so steam power was no longer necessary for distilling water.

Most importantly, perhaps, company officials were also interested in substantially expanding the plant's capacity. In all of these considerations combined to prompt officers to raze the modified structure and rebuild a modem facility. 46 43Greene, Motz, Woolrich and Bartlett, Drum interview. Oil traps were also added to the accumulator and float control system. 44York Manufacturing, "Evaporator Details, Suction Line Liquid Traps," Associate Manual: Ammonia Equipment (I Apr. 45Ed Miles to W. S. Johnson. About the Prince Street plant began operating as Atlantic Ice & Coal Company, a larger organization with history back to the and headquartered in Atlanta. Woolrich, Men Who Created Cold,46.

46 Reflecting on this change, refrigeration engineer Milton Garland relayed that "starting about a lot of the older plants were becoming obsolete because of size, and costs of boilers and steam and labor were going up, so really it was economies that caused people to do away with boilers and go to motor drive." While some experimented with diesel engines, "there again, there were maintenance problems and so the simplicity of electricity just simply ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 19 With a investment, Atlantic Ice and Cold Storage erected a state-of-the-art facility that increased its yearly capacity from to about tons.

Built on the same site as the structure, though situated further away from the road, the facility included three bays for can ice production, a five-story ice storage section, and four floors of cold storage (Figure 2). Atlantic installed the most up-to-date system equipment available, incorporating the system refinements that corporate research staff and university professors deemed valuable. A 185-ton high pressure Vilter Manufacturing Company machine with an electric-powered motor was installed as Atlantic's new refrigeration system. The Vilter compressor operated from the engine room, located on the far-east side of the site.

From the compressor, ammonia moved through the oil separator (located outside the machine room) to vertical condensers, which stood outside and to the east of the structure. The ammonia moved from the condensers, back through the building, to a separator and float valve system that flooded the evaporators chilling the brine in the ice tanks. From the evaporators, the ammonia moved back through the separator. From the separator, ammonia vapor returned to the compressors, completing the cycle. 47 brought it into the field." Garland, 44.

Engineer Doremus, writing for "Ice and Refrigeration, also keyed on the significant changes wrought by concluding that "in the gradual transitions from the plate ice plant to the can plant and from the distilled water plant to the raw water plant have brought about the changes and improvements so marked that the modem raw water can ice plant with its electric drive stands quite alone in stark contrast." Doremus, 35. 47"New Plants and Improvements," Jee and Refrigeration 64 (January, 97.

The extant shell and tube brine chillers likely were not installed in In a speech to the Montgomery Exchange Club, plant engineer Johnson refers to the cooling design as "coils" and notes that freezing took fifty-five hours, indicating the less efficient ammonia circulating coil system was in place, the more common system of the and Notes of engineer Ed Miles to plant manager Johnson private collection of William S. Johnson, Montgomery. Additionally, indications of coil hangers remain on beams in the cooler. The circulating coils system consisted of to 2 in. ammonia coils arranged in vertical stands, 8 and 10 pipes high, along the tank sides and center partitions. ASHRAE Handbook: Applications (New York: ASHRAE, The condensers and compressors have since been removed.

The extant condensers were installed in James Beasley, interview by author, 6 June Frank Lyon, interview by author, 12 June ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 20 ADDITION COLD D

Ice Storage Ice Freezing Tanks Storage Prince Street

Figure 2. Atlantic Ice & Coal Company. Room functions in the structure are as of The three bays of ice cans, located on the second floor, operated twenty-four hours. An artesian well provided water to tanks located at the west end of the bays.48 Hoses fed water to a 48 Many ice plants took advantage of artesian wells, which were particularly valuable for their cool and comparatively clear supply. Atlantic designed the building with the ice tanks centered over the well. The plant eventually utilized city water for its ice, but well water was always used to cool the condensing towers. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No.

21 dredge of six iron cans, each can measuring 48" by 22" by After being filled with water, a hoist carried the cans to position and lowered them into a brine bath that had been cooled by the ammonia refrigeration system to between 28 and 29 F. The ice froze from the outside in, pushing impurities and air toward the center. To prevent cloudiness, air hoses (which replaced the earlier paddle-agitation design) were inserted in the block to agitate the water. Toward the end of the freezing process, the core of each ice block was pumped, or "pulled," and refilled with fresh water to further ensure clarity. It took about forty-eight hours for the dredge of cans to freeze.

Once frozen, the dredge was hoisted to a platform at the end of the bay, allowed to drain, and then dipped into a can of warmer water. The ice slightly melted, releasing from the cans. A rotating dump turned the ice over into a mechanical lift that lowered to the first floor with the weight of the ice. At the first floor, the ice was unloaded and either scored and crushed or stacked for storage. At the second floor, the cans were refilled and replaced into the bays. Cans were pulled by alternating rows so as to not cause temperature sinks in the brine tank. 49 The floor below the ice tanks was used for day (or short-term) storage and for scoring and crushing ice.

Ice blocks intended for long term storage were moved to the adjacent ice tower, a structure that measured fifty-two feet in storage height. Ice was moved up the storage facility by way of a lift, and probably was moved laterally by way of a crane. It is likely that saw dust was used to separate the layers of ice. 50 The labor process associated with can ice production was cumbersome and dangerous. 49 No machinery records are available for the early twentieth century, so it is unclear what equipment might be original. Bay 3, as will be discussed, no longer exists. Bay 2 has suffered substantial decay and stripping of equipment since the when it went out of service. Bay l, the bay to the far south, is the most preserved of the ice making system.

The extant ice and cold storage system is a mixture of newer equipment (system additions and modifications) and equipment installed when the building was first erected. With regard to the equipment in Bay l, it is likely that the brine tank itself is original. Cans were periodically replaced because of leaking, etc., and it is likely that none of the cans left in the plant are original. The can hoist, the dump, and the elevator are thought to be original equipment. Other extant refrigerating equipment will be discussed later in the report, as this equipment was added at later dates. Beasley, interview by author, 9 June Robert Shiver, interview by author, 20 July 50Around the plant could support tons in ice storage.

Ed Miles to Johnson Ice was stored in much the same manner at the tum of the century, though the storage structures tended to be smaller. Some companies installed cooling coils in their facilities, but blowers tended to cause the ice to melt. No extant lateral hoisting exists, as the building was later modified for freezer storage. Engineer Doremus commented in that gig elevators that had been the standard for ice storage towers were, by then, "old and tried." He reported that newer plants were installing double gig elevators or combination elevator and lowerators. Doremus, 38. Changes in the tower structure and use are discussed later in the report.

In Atlantic Ice reported selling ice to homes for 50 per cwt with minimum delivery of 10 Cash sales from the company's platform priced at 40 for 50 lbs or less, 35 for 100 and 200 and 30 for 300 The company iced rail cars at its platform for $5/ton, or by wagon at the rail yard for $6/ton. "Annual Report of Ice Prices," Ice and Refrigeration 66 (May ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 22 One person per bay operated the crane and lift, and pulled air agitators and ice cores. Brine and water splashed floors, ice, and people as cans were dipped, hoisted to the lift, and later refilled. One person worked each lift downstairs, using hooks to drag the 300-pound ice blocks into short- term or long-term storage, or into the crushing room.

Men working these jobs remained aware of the progress of can-pulling by workers upstairs, as the dumped ice slid about fifteen feet, uncontrolled, after coming off the lift; if not moved off the floor before the next set released from the lift, blocks slammed into blocks, breaking ice and endangering workers. Floors remained wet throughout the process, assisting in ice movement but creating hazards for workers. Four floors of cold storage units (which maintained a temperature of 35 to 40 F) made up the far west side of the building, and refrigeration was provided by the cooled brine from the ice tanks. A pump, located at the west end of the ice tanks, moved brine through pipes that ran over the top floor of the ice storage tower and down to each cold storage floor.

While the original system has been modified, it is likely that brine chilled the room by way of pipe coils attached to the ceiling. The brine returned to the ice tanks by way of piping that ran through the bottom of the building. 51 Atlantic made a substantial financial investment in its structure, a contrast to its smaller, less-capitalized nineteenth-century facilities. Until the Atlantic would merely alter this new operation. Like many other practitioners, Atlantic added additional components piecemeal, refining their existing processes through the mid-twentieth century rather than creating whole new systems. In the for example, Atlantic introduced a suction trap (or "suction- line heat exchanger") into its ammonia refrigeration system.

52 The ammonia vapor from each 51 Evidence of coil hangers remain on the ceiling of the rooms, suggesting that the brine cooling units replaced a brine-circulating coil system. Brine chillers, such as those remaining in the building, did not come into wide use until the The extant Frick air cooling units were installed in the Blueprints suggest that two Frick 10002-BU units were purchased in An attached parts order suggests that a 15003-BU was purchased at the same time. A parts order indicates that the company was operating 10002-BU and 15003-AU units prior to the purchase. Frick Co., Inc., "Assem. Of 10002-BU Air Unit Front Discharge," DWG AmeriCold Logistics collection, Atlanta. Woolrich and Hallowell, 54; Anderson, John E.

Starr, Practical Refrigerating Engineers' Pocketbook (Chicago: Nickerson & Collins, Beasley, interviews by author, 9 June 13 June Lyon interview. Atlantic continued its lucrative practice of icing rail cars, though it hauled ice by truck to a loading facility near the rail yards. The loading dock consisted of an elevated wood platform, where ice was moved to a higher platform by a conveyor. On the top platform, men used picks and tons to move the ice into railcar bunkers. Not having enough labor to ice cars during the busiest seasons, managers were charged with picking up day labor from the Montgomery's street comers. Griffin Key, interview by author, 1Aug.2000; William Johnson, interview by author, 15 Aug.

Also see "Car Icing Station for the Belt Railway of Chicago," Engineering News-Record 89 (10 Aug. "Railway Car-Icing Plant to Serve Refrigerator Trains," Engineering News-Record 89 (19 Oct. 52 At the tum of the century, in contrast, most engineering descriptions of refrigerating systems explained that, from ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 23 evaporator or evaporating coils (which often consisted of a mixture of liquid and gas), flowed back to a cooling unit near the compressors. Here the low pressure ammonia entered the suction trap to further ensure that only gas entered the compressor. 53 ~ ' I '\ / I EVAPORATOR ammonia vapor COMPRESSOR I a. " ( SEPARATOR / ) <( a::: I- a nmonia v:apor z 0 ( FLOAT CONTROL f:= (.) ( OIL TRAP Cl) ...

ammoma /lqutd I CONDENSER '\ " "- Figure 3. By mid-twentieth century, the ammonia refrigeration system included more controls and refinements than its counterpart (compare with Figure 1). Atlantic had built a model plant in but it and other ice and cold manufacturers were still hampered by problems. While much of the larger process of ice manufacturing and cold storage had been standardized and even refined, lack of adequate controls still caused numerous inefficiencies. Even lack of major equipment plagued operators.

A major component of the present-day system, the float head device, that controlled ammonia flow into the separators and evaporators, was still undergoingdevelopment and faulty floats perturbed Atlantic's system even until the plant closed in Without adequate gages and controls, ice and cold manufacture was governed by the experience and knowledge of the shop superintendents and engineers. Workers learned to judge the operation of the plant by empirical observations such as the amount of frost on machines. Meanwhile, manufacturers like the Frick Company struggled with developing not just the devices themselves, but with devising tables and formulas so that the plant operator could properly gage the load into the system.

54 the condensers, the ammonia went directly to the evaporating mechanism. Engineer Hal Williams, for example, explained that "the expansion side of a refrigerating machine is quite the most simple portion of the apparatus the refrigerant is introduced into the expansion coils through a valve which is capable of very fine adjustment." Williams, 53 Woolrich and Bartlett, Beasley, interview by author, 21June2000. 54 Garland, 44. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No.

24 The Post-War Economy and Industrial Refrigeration Owners and operators of the now-traditional combination can ice and cold storage facilities faced two challenges at mid-century: the dramatic expansion of the frozen food industry with the U.S.'s entry into World War II, and the maturation of automatically-manufactured ice technology. Can ice production took over the market by and a generation of combination can ice/cold storage plants grew up around this industry. But automatically manufactured ice slowly moved in to threaten the older plants' market. Can ice manufacturers looked for ways to diversify.

Atlantic, by the operating plants in Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, South Carolina, Florida, and Virginia as well as Alabama, moved in two different directions, freezer storage and brewing. Charlotte, Atlanta, Norfolk and a few others bought brewing operations to supplement (and later supplant) can ice. The Prince Street plant moved into cold storage. Demand for frozen food exploded after World War II, and cold storage operators, who previously cooled their facilities to only 32 F, increasingly changed over sections of their plants to accommodate freezer storage. Atlantic acted likewise, modifying its plants to give up the majority of its ice storage space to the lucrative frozen food market. The War Years With U.S.

entry into World War II, government and military demand for cooler and freezer space, particularly the latter, skyrocketed. The government opened new cold storage plants for military use, and more and more food was being frozen. As a direct result, companies throughout the U.S. began introducing more freezers into their operations. Many of those already operating cold storage space simply modified existing equipment to secure lower temperatures. Soni.e would increase insulation, but most did not. Modifications were haphazard at times, rooms were poorly sealed, and insulation later peeled from walls.

Merely a short-term response, as highly-esteemed refrigeration engineer Woolrich noted, this jerry-rigging of older facilities into new freezer space was "makeshift at best." But he acceded that the converted rooms "did serve the purpose of providing sorely needed freezer space. 55 As a result of these market changes, in Atlantic Company's leaders made a turning point decision: they opted to sacrifice their long-term ice storage space in order to expand into freezer storage. Extant structures and various other records give credible indications of how owners modified operations to compete in a new market.

In engineers redesigned the five- story ice tower to accommodate an ammonia direct-expansion coil system, turning almost the ss Woolrich explained that "quite often the insulation, not being properly sealed and of inadequate thickness for freezing temperatures, would pop off the walls with distressing results to the stored products." Woolrich and Hallowell, 53. Also see Rudy Volti, "How We Got Frozen Food," American Heritage ofInvention & Technology 9 ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 25 entire section into freezers. 56 The renovated space included four floors of freezers, totaling cubic feet of space. Outside walls consisted of six-inch cork for insulation, and a loft enhanced insulation.

Floors consisted of2" by 12" wood joists, 12" on center, supported by one foot square columns. Wood and cork insulated the column bases. No floor insulation was added except between the bottom-most freezer and the second floor. Engineers designed the cooling system to work from the existing ammonia system. Two- inch direct expansion ammonia coils hung from the ceiling of each freezer. The first floor freezer consisted of four coil bays, with twenty-four runs of coil in each. The two levels of pipe measured 40 feet long for a total of lineal feet. The other rooms were designed similarly. It is possible the company also invested in additional compressors, condensers, and the like.

This is unclear, however, because most extant machine-room equipment dates from the next period of substantial change, the Consistent with Woolrich's assessment of cooler-turned-freezer construction, the internal structure of the freezer began to fail in the well before the building was abandoned. Upper floors began to collapse, and engineers installed steel supports on the first floor to prolong use of the ice processing and storage area. The cork insulation had pealed away, even in areas not subject to the load of failing floors and damage from falling ceiling pipes. Freezer Foods and the Affluent Society The building modification gives clear indication that ice making was beginning to take a back seat to cold storage.

Rather than continue operating with unused ice storage space throughout the bulk of the year, Atlantic joined the many cold storage operators moving into the freezer market, a more lucrative use of the facility. But Atlantic, changing as it was in was expanding based on the real freezer demand increase caused by World War II and the continued market demands that professionals expected in the post-war years. But plant leaders did not expect the skyrocketing freezer and cold storage market that resulted from the largest post-war boom to date. After all, Atlantic had rebuilt its facility in the near wake of the war, when industry was recovering and retooling and the nation readjusting to manufacturing for domestic use.

In fact, The Atlantic Company and others through the next few decades continued modifying 56The manual cites the bottom floor's refrigerating coils as being purchased and installed in Munford Refrigerated Warehouse, Branch Operating Manual (Montgomery, The Sanborn indicates that the tower modification had not occurred by that year. Most likely, then, the ammonia coil system is extant through most of the structure. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 26 buildings and adding structures to increase storage space to satisfy a booming economy's demands. In the booming post-war years, the nation's population developed a taste for, and could afford to buy, convenience foods.

Experimented with two decades before by Birds Eye, frozen food sales soared with the post-war financial recovery. 57 Industrial Refrigeration trumpeted in that "frozen food sales now top one billion dollars a year," and the Grocery Manufacturers of America reported that 64% of all food retailers had installed frozen food cabinets. The market for frozen foods by that year counted 75 percent of the families in the U.S No longer satisfied with the converted tower space in the building, in Atlantic Company contracted for the erection of a new single-story building immediately abutting the older facility. 59 The platform on the north side of the building was demolished to accommodate the new reinforced concrete building, and the railroad spur track moved further north.

60 Two 63' by about 89' freezers with 15' 6" ceilings were constructed immediately adjacent to the structure (see Figure 4). Four rooms measuring approximately 44' by 60' with 15' 6" ceilings sat to the immediate north of the two freezers. These latter four rooms were convertible between cold storage and freezers~ A blast freezer measuring 26' 6" by 33' 6" consumed part of the space in freezer number one. 61 57Clarence Francis, A History ofFood and its Preservation (reprint of the 9 March Cyrus Fogg Brackett Lecture in Applied Engineering and Technology, Princeton University); Anderson, 58 "Frozen Food Sales Now Top 1 Billion Dollars a Year," Industrial Refrigeration 130 (Mar. 11.

59 Single-story facilities were much discussed in the and by no means had they yet replaced multi-story storage facilities. A writer summarizing the National Association of Refrigerated Warehouses meeting noted that "one of the first questions popped at the panel concerned the advantages of single-story construction over multi- story, <>r vice versa, ifthere were any." Stevens of Dallas responded that different locations demanded different structures. His firm operated both a single-story facility and a multi-story facility. "Warehouse Construction and Modernization," Industrial Refrigeration 130 (May 22. 60 The reinforced concrete walls measure 9 in. Columns are reinforced concrete on 20 ft by 20 ft l 0 in. centers.

61 Munford Refrigerated Warehouse, Branch Operations Manual (Montgomery, "Cold Storage Plant for the Atlantic Company," blueprints, William H. Armstrong, Structural Engineer (Atlanta, 27 March AmeriCold Logistics collections, Atlanta. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 27 ADDITION freezer#3 freezer#4 freezer#S freezer#6 freezer#1 freezer#2 blast freezer t ,, _D ~ COLD FREEZER l ::::::i STORAGE STORAGE ICE FREEZING TANKS (.) MACHINE <( ROOM LL C') ~

Prince Street

Figure 4. Site plan indicating cooler and freezer additions. The new facility operated off Atlantic's existing ammonia compression system. As before, Atlantic purchased the latest efficiency-enhancing equipment. In addition to a suction trap, a Frick interstage cooler and liquid subcooler (a single unit) measuring 20" in diameter by 8' high, were added to cool the discharge from an added Frick Eclipse compression booster. 62 62 Multi-stage compressors spread through the industry beginning in about Capable of providing lower temperatures than traditional compressors, 2-stage compressors had a high initial cost but also boasted high efficiencies (which increased with the introduction of ammonia intercoolers). The increased efficiencies and the ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No.

AL-188 Page No. 28 Atlantic also purchased new compressors at this time, installing a York lOxlO" and a Vilter Phillips dump traps were added to the system supporting the building to further refine ammonia overflow prevention. 63 Frick AU-155 refrigerating air units were installed in one freezer, the four convertible rooms and the blast freezer. Ammonia circulated through these units, evaporated in the coils, and blowers circulated the cooled air throughout the rooms. Units in rooms 1and3 though 6 produced tons refrigeration. A Frick AUF-155 cooled freezer room 2, producing tons refrigeration. Two Frick AU-155 units cooled the blast freezer, producing 20 tons refrigeration. Atlantic continued to modify its older structure to accommodate new markets even while it built additions.

In company leaders surrendered Bay 3 of the can ice tanks to freezers as demand for can ice decreased and freezer markets expanded. The bay, originally one- third of an open-air space comprising three separate freezing tanks, was enclosed and insulated with foam covered by a sprayed concrete coating. A Frick CAUF 103 air unit was installed for refrigeration, and ceiling ducts ran the length of the room.

64 While the addition included convertible freezer/cold storage space and cubic feet of dedicated freezer space, and a converted Bay 3 had another cubic feet of convertible freezer/cold storage space, a single-story concrete building addition supplied another cubic feet of dedicated freezer space.65 Built to the north of the other buildings, Atlantic's building #3 measured about 67' by with 18' ceilings (about higher than those in the building). In contrast to the building, the addition was erected with no interior partitions. Two Frick AU-155 ammonia units refrigerated the new space and fans circulated cold throughout the room.

Much of the ammonia system additions mimicked those installed in a 9-cylinder Eclipse Booster, suction trap, intercooler, and Phillips liquid return system were added to regulate the ammonia. 66 increased need for lower temperatures catalyzed the diffusion of this type compressor system. But despite their availability in the Atlantic did not introduced the 2-stage system until Phillips dumps enhanced the liquid ammonia controls already in place. Anderson, Motz, Woolrich and Bartlett, 63The machinery and process design is not included on the blueprints. However, plans for the addition indicate some previous equipment that is used for the building.

See "An Addition to the Atlantic Company," 10 June AmeriCold Logistics collections, Atlanta; Munford Refrigerated Warehouse, 64Horace Archer, interview by author, 17 August Munford Refrigerated Warehouse, Later, in the this room contained a Turbo ice rake for automatic ice production. 65 The building's concrete walls were cast on site, then hoisted (or "tilted up") into place. Key interview. 66 Munford Refrigerated Warehouse, Smith & Freeman, Structural Engineers "An Addition to the Atlantic Company," blueprints, (Atlanta, AmeriCold Logistics collection, Atlanta. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 29 New Challenges Atlantic's concerns with market changes were complicated by the growing threat of automatically manufactured ice to can ice manufacturing.

Produced on cylindrical drums, and originally in small quantities, automatic ice machines had the advantage of producing crushed or cubed ice in smaller spaces with virtually no labor costs. And, unlike block ice, which came in contact with rusty surfaces and dirty floors, machine ice was a clean product.67 Faced with the prospect of losing government business over dirty ice, Atlantic leaders purchased a Turbo Ice automatic ice machine and installed two 15-ton Turbo machines over Bay 2. In a third 20- ton Turbo machine was added over Bay 3, bringing the capacity to 50 tons. Ice emptied into two catchments installed in Bay 3, and continued by auger down to the floor receiving room. A Turbo rake bin, holding 100 tons of ice, eventually replaced the two original catchments.

68 On the first floor, the Turbo ice was bagged and stored. The turbo ice not intended for sale to the government was often combined with crushed can ice before bagging. 67 Woolrich and Bartlett, The Flaklce Corporation emphasized space savings, advertising that its machines were "very compact occupying one-tenth of the space required for a can freezing system of the same capacity" ASRE, "Refrigerating Catalog," in Refrigerating Data Book ASRE, 45. Some companies successfully bridged the transition from can ice to automatic ice production.Ready-Ice (formerly Anniston Ice Co.) opened in as an ammonia compression, can ice operation. The company later invested in Turbo technology, relying less and less on can production. The plant still produces both Turbo and can ice.

Anderson, 68 The Turbo equipment was sold once the ice factory ceased operation and the company was sold. MidSouth (Albany, GA) purchased the last two Turbos and rake bin. Beasley, interview by author, 12 July Shiver, interview by author, 27 July and 14 Aug. James Clifton, interview by author, 20 July Lyon, interview by author, 12 June ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 30 ADDITION ~ ::J freezer#3 freezer#4 freezer#S freezer#6 (3 LE. co IO O> ..- freezer#1 freezer#2 j~ blast freezer t ,. TURBO RAKE TANK D i COLD STORAGE FREEZER STORAGE ICE FREEZING TANKS

Machine Room Prince

SfREET ' Figure 5. Site plan indicating room uses as of While Atlantic wrestled with new markets and declining demand for can ice, the company continued enhancing its refrigeration system, as it had since the plant's erection in eventually adopting Freon refrigeration systems in the early Entering the market in Freon had taken over the domestic ice refrigeration market by In contrast, ammonia dominated the industrial refrigerant market for the first half of the twentieth century. 69 Freon is a registered trademark belonging to DuPont. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 31 While ammonia had ideal refrigeration characteristics, it was poisonous when inhaled in moderate concentration, and could form explosive mixtures with air.

Consequently, ammonia never enjoyed much use in home refrigerating systems. Instead the home refrigeration market, instead, had adopted the line of chloro- and fluoro- methanes and ethanes that were produced under the Dupont trade name Freon in the early In particular, dichlorodifluoromethane, known as Freon 12, was widely used in all types of refrigerating machines. The compound's biggest advantage, particularly in the home refrigeration market, was its lack of hazards to life and property in case of leakage. In contrast, Freon was only slowly adopted in the industrial refrigeration industry in the early twentieth century; it was more expensive and required a larger weight to charge a given system.

But perhaps most importantly, ammonia remained dominant because most cold storage owners had already invested substantial capital in ammonia-related equipment. This, coupled with ammonia's low cost, market accessibility, and strong odor (which assisted in detecting costly and dangerous leaks), kept the refrigerant at the top of the market until the But after World War II, Freon enjoyed wider use in industrial systems. While less efficient than ammonia, Freon-utilizing equipment operated more economically, meaning lower costs over time for those opting to make the change. By the early Prince Street's operators had grown concerned about aging ammonia pipes and potential accidents.

URS leadership opted to drop the ammonia system altogether; in the early the company installed Freon units on the roofs of the and buildings. Most ammonia air units remained in the coolers and freezers, not in operation, though some units were sold. 70 Conclusion By the ice manufacture and cold storage had experienced such significant change that many companies were again facing the question of whether or not to shut down old facilities. Ice manufacturing was increasingly automated, resulting in lower costs, and plate and can methods of ice making slowly became obsolete. New cold storage facilities operated more efficiently with the latest technologies and one-story operations.

Consequently, many of the combination ice and cold storage facilities that stood through the twentieth century were sold in the and Rising labor costs coupled with the advent of better materials-handling equipment to encourage those opening new plants to build one-story structures with large rooms designed for pallet-based storage utilizing fork-lifts. Increasingly utilizing trucks in lieu ofrail 70Beasley interviews, 21Aug.2000, and 12 Aug. Drum interview. More recently, the industry has swung back in favor of ammonia. Montgomery's AmeriCold Logistics plant, for example, recently replaced their Freon system with ammonia. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No.

32 cars, warehousers and manufacturers erected new cold storage and freezer operations on the outskirts of urban areas for easy interstate and highway access, and where industrialists could erect massive installations at low land-cost. Meanwhile, the smaller, multi-story facilities like the Prince Street plant continued to operate for many years. However, the industry has recently collapsed into a few large corporations that have determined that the multi-story plants are a financial drain. When AmeriCold merged with URS Logistics in to form the nation's largest warehouser, leaders of the newly formed AmeriCold Logistics moved likewise, and put its older, multi-story facilities up for sale.

71 71At the time of the merger, the newly formed AmeriCold Logistics operated 84 facilities and nearly 400 million cubic feet ofrefrigerated and frozen space. "AmeriCold, URS Merge to Form Nation's Largest Warehouser," Refrigerated and Frozen Foods 9 (Feb. 8. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 33 Sources Consulted In addition to the sources cited below, the author conducted several interviews with current and former employees. These individuals are cited in relevant footnotes. Papers Collection ofW.S. Johnson, Jr. (privately held) AmeriCold Logistics Collection, Atlanta, Georgia Maps and Directories Montgomery City Directories, - Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps, Journals and Newspapers The journals below were consulted extensively in the preparation of this report.

Some of the more important articles are listed individually below; others can be found in the footnotes. American Heritage ofInvention & Technology Appleton's Journal Engineering News-Record Jee and Refrigeration Industrial Refrigeration Montgomery Advertiser Refrigerated and Frozen Foods Quarterly Journal ofEconomics Trade Catalogs York Manufacturing Company. Bulletin. 17 (Aug. - - - -.Bulletin. 10 (Feb. - - - -.Bulletin. 29 (Jan. - - - -."Evaporator Details, Suction Line Liquid Traps." Associate Manual: Ammonia Equipment. (1Apr.1956): Books American Society of Refrigeration Engineers (ASRE). Hand Book ASRE, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). ASHRAE Handbook: Applications.

New York: ASHRAE, - - - -.Handbook New York: ASHRAE, ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 34 _ _ _ _ . Proclaiming the Truth. ASHRAE, Anderson, Oscar Edward, Jr. Refrigeration in America: A History ofa New Technology and Its Impact. Princeton: Princeton University Press, [Appleton] Appleton's Cyclopaedia ofApplied Mechanics. New York: D. Appleton & Co, Edward W. Constant. The Origins of the Turbojet Revolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, Francis, Clarence. A History ofFood and its Preservation. Reprint, Cyrus Fogg Brackett Lecture in Applied Engineering and Technology, Princeton University, 9 March Greene, Arthur M., Jr. Elements ofRefrigeration. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Leask, A. Ritchie. Refrigerating Machinery and its Management.

London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co, Mcintire, and Hutchinson. Refrigeration Engineering, 2d ed. New York: John Wiley, Motz, William H. Principles ofRefrigeration, 3d ed. Chicago: Nickerson & Collins, Munford Refrigerated Warehouse. Branch Operating Manual. Montgomery, Sinclair, Bruce. A Centennial History of the American Society ofMechanical Engineers, Toronto: UTP, Starr, John E. Practical Refrigerating Engineers' Pocketbook Chicago: Nickerson & Collins, Wallis-Taylor, A.J. Industrial Refrigeration, Cold Storage and Ice-Making. New York: Norman W. Henley, White, John H. The Great Yellow Fleet: A History ofAmerican Railroad Refrigerator Cars. San Marino, Calif.: Golden West Books, Williams, Hal. Mechanical Refrigeration. New York: Whittaker & Co, ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No.

AL-188 Page No. 35 Woolrich, Handbook ofRefrigerating Engineering. Vol. 2. Westport, Conn.: Avi Publishing, ~-- The Men Who Created Cold: A History ofRefrigeration. New York: Exposition Press, Woolrich, W. R. and Luis H. Bartlett. Handbook ofRefrigerating Engineering. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Woolrich, and E.R. Hallowell. Cold and Freezer Storage Manual. Westport, Conn.: Avi Publishing Co., Articles D. B. Beemer, "Cold Storage Construction." Ice and Refrigeration 7(Sept. Doremus, R. C. "Improvements in Ice Plants." Jee and Refrigeration 66(Jan. Garland, Milton. "Challenges in Industrial Refrigeration." ASHRAE Journal 30 (Apr. 43- 46. McCorkle, James L., Jr.

"Moving Perishables to Market: Southern Railroads and the Nineteenth-Century Origins of Southern Truck Farming." Agricultural History 66 Virtue, G.O. "The Meat Packing Investigation." Quarterly Journal ofEconomics 34 (Aug. Volti, Rudy. "How We Got Frozen Food." American Heritage ofInvention & Technology 9 Worth, William E. "Storage oflce." Ice and Refrigeration 8 (Mar. ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMP ANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No. 36 Appendix 1 Extant Machinery

Building Room Machine Year Notes Purchased

Ice Tanks Accumulators and float valves ("liquid no overfeed system" or documentation "separator") Shell and coil Ice Tanks evaporators no documentation Frick CAUF-103 Bay3 Ceiling Type Air Unit Assembly (not gas pan) Frick 10002-BU Air Cold storage Unit Front Discharge "brine chillers" (two units) Frick 15003-BU Air Cold storage Unit Front Horizontal "brine chillers" (one unit) Vilter Machine Room compressor York lOxlO Machine Room compressor York compressor Machine Room (larger unit) Frick Eclipse Booster, Machine room 9 cyl Frick Eclipse Booster, machine room 9 cyl Frick Eclipse Booster, machine room 9 cyl ATLANTIC ICE AND COAL COMPANY HAER No. AL-188 Page No.

37 Outside Condensers (2 purchased long vertical) re-tubed with 150 2" tubes Outside Receivers (2+ 1) no documentation Outside Water Filters no documentation Adjacent Interstage cooler and machine room liquid sub-cooler Adjacent Ice tank accumulator aka "suction machine room and liquid chiller no trap" and documentation "suction line heat exchanger" Adjacent Blast freezer suction machine room trap Adjacent machine room Freezer suction trap Adjacent Interstage cooler and #3 booster machine room liquid sub-cooler All rooms Frick AU-155 Air Unit one-room 2 FRICK AU-155 building