Chattahoochee Brick Company, Bounded by the Chattahoochee River to the north, CSX (formerly the Chattanooga, Rome & Columbus) railroad tracks to the east, I-285 and Proctor Creek to the west, and Parrott Avenue NW to the south, Atlanta

Source document Quoted word for word from HALS GA-7. Not written, edited or summarised by this site.

The resource is bounded by the Chattahoochee River to the north, CSX (formerly the Chattanooga, Rome & Columbus) Railroad tracks to the east, I-285 and Proctor Creek to the west, and Parrott Avenue NW to the south, Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia. The entrance is located at the intersection of Brick Plant Road NW and Parrott Avenue NW, directly to the west of the CSX Railroad tracks, which form the eastern boundary of the property. (Center of the Chattahoochee Brick Company site, Google Maps,

Source document Quoted word for word from HALS GA-7. Not written, edited or summarised by this site.

The site of the Chattahoochee Brick Company is significant as the only remaining historic landscape, which illustrates the long history of Black convict leasing in the State of Georgia and the City of Atlanta. The Chattahoochee Brick Company, under the leadership of James W. English, was, from to the largest exploiter of the Black convict leasing system in the State of Georgia. This practice allowed businessmen to profit off free labor provided by Black convicts, the majority of who were convicted of no more than petty crimes. This system sold them into slavery by another name and allowed Chattahoochee Brick to become the largest brick manufacturer in the United States, producing the building materials that would help make Atlanta the capital of the New South .

The architects of this system included the majority shareholder, James W. English, a bank president as well as former Atlanta mayor and police commissioner English, as the head of Chattahoochee Brick, controlled the majority of convict laborers in the state of Georgia. During the period beginning in when English took control of Chattahoochee Brick, thru when the last convicts were removed from Chattahoochee Brick, thousands of Black convicts lived, and died, in horrible conditions on the site. As a result of the exploitation of both Black convicts and the alluvial clay harvested from banks of the adjacent Chattahoochee River, the landscape was shaped in response to the harvesting of raw materials, the brickmaking processes, and advancements in technology and transportation.

The bricks manufactured by convicts at Chattahoochee Brick make up the overwhelming majority of the buildings and public infrastructure of the City of Atlanta. They CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 2 express genius loci, local character and tradition, as few other materials can.1 The site, with its few remaining landscape features, contains great significance due to its contributions to the broad patterns of American history in the areas of commerce, transportation, and Black history. The site also has the potential to reveal more significant history due to its archaeological potential, which has never been properly investigated in the post-convict leasing era.

Today, it is not the existence of architectural remnants or even archaeological evidence on the site that holds the most significance but rather fact that it is the only remaining landscapes where the conditions the rapidly disappearing history of convict leasing in the American South can be revealed, studied, and utilized to educate the public about this dark period of Black history in the American South. Description: The Chattahoochee Brick Company site is an approximately 80-acre parcel located in the northwestern portion of Atlanta, Georgia, just south of the border between Fulton and Cobb Counties. This site is all that remains of the most prolific brickmaking empire and largest utilizer of Black convict labor in Georgia.

This site was selected for its location on the banks of the Chattahoochee River, which provided an almost inexhaustible amount of rich alluvial clay, prized for its physical properties, which produced dense, high-quality bricks. These bricks were a key element in the creation of the New South , the concept of creating a technologically advanced southern United States in the wake of Reconstruction, popularized by the Cotton States Exhibition held in Atlanta in Though this site began as a small enterprise in the company would flourish after the Exhibition due to the influence of former Atlanta mayor, James W. English.

The company would grow over the next thirty years to encompass acres across Fulton, DeKalb, and Cobb Counties as their need for alluvial clay grew, eventually reaching a zenith of production in the of bricks per day. Though clay would be sourced elsewhere throughout the history of Chattahoochee Brick, on land that has subsequently been sold, this site on the banks of the Chattahoochee River would remain both the hub of production, distribution, and the key element to the company s success; Black convict labor. The site is bounded by two important natural features, the Chattahoochee River and Proctor Creek, on its northern and western sides, respectively.

Out of necessity, the majority of production was located along this portion of the property, in close proximity to the alluvial clay deposits on the riverbank. This historic portion of the property comprises approximately 40 acres, or half the site. All of the original buildings and features from the era were destroyed by fire in In the contributing portion of the property many ruins and 1 Hopper, Leonard J., Landscape Architectural Graphic Standards. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 435 CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 3 features constructed after the fire, primarily from do remain.

These historic features include; rail lines, strip footings, a double-tramway foundation, portions of a dryer/brick processing building, clay storage building, trenches filled with discarded bricks, and a series of underground tunnels and the partial remains of Morrison scove brick kilns. The sites of many of the era buildings, including the twelve convict dormitories, are now covered by the non- contributing concrete brick storage pads. While these structures are in poor condition, sufficient portions remain to reveal important engineering history about how the site was used, and likely important archaeological evidence as to the lives of those who lived and worked on the site.

Parrott Avenue NW marks the southern boundary and the primarily non- contributing portion of the site is located adjacent to Parrott Avenue NW. This portion of the property was modernized starting in the when Chattahoochee Brick began to ship products using automobiles, shifting storage and other facilities closer to Parrott Avenue NW. The CSX (formerly Chattanooga, Rome & Columbus Railroad) marks the eastern boundary of the site, and is an important feature in terms of understanding the history of Chattahoochee Brick s product distribution. After General Shale purchased Chattahoochee Brick in large portions of the remaining buildings, both historic and non-historic were demolished and paved over with concrete to make large outdoor storage areas for bricks awaiting shipment.

These concrete storage pads are all that remains, as the remaining era buildings were all demolished in when General Shale closed. The perceived expendable nature of convict laborers, the brutal working conditions present at Chattahoochee Brick, and numerous written accounts, favor the presence of an unmarked cemetery on the Chattahoochee Brick site where the remains of Black convict laborers were interred. Though the specific site is unknown, maps of the property from the show a portion of the property in the non-contributing area closer to Parrott Avenue NW, marked as a cemetery.

Given the important nature of the work area surrounding the alluvial clay deposits, locating the cemetery in this remote area of the property in the convict leasing era of the property would have been a logical choice as opposed to burying in the portions of the site closer to the Chattahoochee River. As a result, the possibility of a burial ground may include additional portions of the site as contributing to its historic significance. History: Site The land that would become the primary location of the Chattahoochee Brick Company was originally granted to Daniel H. Turner as part of the Gold Lottery of the 7th land lottery in the history of Georgia.2 2 Land Records, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, Atlanta History Center. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 4 James W.

English James Warren English was born October 28, just outside New Orleans, Louisiana.3 His parents, Andrew and Mary (Warren) English died in and left an orphan, James traveled north to Covington, Kentucky, just across the river from Cincinnati. 4 From he was apprenticed to a carriage maker. 5 Following his apprenticeship he moved back south to Griffin, Georgia, where he used to profits from his carriage-making business to finance his education and invest in real estate.6 On April 20, just a week after the first shots were fired at Fort Sumter, English enlisted in the Confederate Army7. He served under Colonel Herman H. Perry in the 2nd Georgia Infantry Battalion.

8 English would be wounded five times and rise to the rank of captain, but was best known for being the man to receive the written demand of surrender from Ulysses S. Grant to Robert E. Lee on the front lines at Appomattox. 9 Perry, his commanding officer described English as one of the bravest, coolest, most faithful and vigilant officers in the Confederate Army. 10 Following the war James W. English relocated to Atlanta, and married Emily Alexander of Griffin in The couple would build a grand brick home at 40 Cone Street in the Fairlie-Poplar neighborhood of Atlanta. The house was situated close to the financial center because English wanted her husband to be able to come home for all three meals.12 Together they would have three sons and two daughters13. His eldest son, English, Jr.

would serve as vice president of Chattahoochee Brick, then his next son, Harry Lee English and his grandson, by his oldest daughter Emily, Harry English Robinson would succeed him to serve as the head of Chattahoochee Brick. 3 James W. English Vertical File, Atlanta History Center. 4 Berry, David Charles. Free labor He Found Unsatisfactory: James W. English and Convict Lease Labor at the Chattahoochee Brick Company. Thesis, Georgia State University, Berry interviewed family members of James W. English as part of his thesis research, including his grandson H. English Robinson. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Georgia Confederate Pension Applications 8 Candler, Allen D. and Evans, Clement A., Cyclopedia of Georgia, Vol. 1. Atlanta: State Historical Association of Georgia, 9 Leonard, John William, ed.

Who s Who in Finance, Banking, and Insurance: A Biographical Dictionary of Contemporary Bankers, Capitalists, and Others Engaged in Financial Activities in the United States and Canada, Vol 1. 10 Candler, Allen D. and Evans, Clement A., Cyclopedia of Georgia, Vol. 1. Atlanta: State Historical Association of Georgia, 11 Leonard, John William, ed. Who s Who in Finance, Banking, and Insurance: A Biographical Dictionary of Contemporary Bankers, Capitalists, and Others Engaged in Financial Activities in the United States and Canada, Vol 1. 12 Garrett, Franklin M., Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 13 Ibid. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO.

GA-7 PAGE 5 English established a reputation in Atlanta on both his Confederate service record and his business acumen. By he had been elected to the City Council and in he was elected mayor. 14 English was a financial powerhouse and key in using the city council to rebuild the city coffers in order to put in place infrastructure that would make Atlanta the state capital. Following his two-year term as mayor English was elected Police Commissioner, a position he would hold until During this period of the English began to reshape industry in the state of Georgia using the combined forces of his business experience and his power as police commissioner.

Convict Labor in Georgia Prior to the Civil War, convict labor was used on a limited basis in Georgia, occurring only in the vicinity of the penitentiary at Milledgeville (then the state capital). The profits earned from this convict labor was funneled directly back into the prison, to pay for its maintenance and upkeep.16 These laborers were primarily white convicts, as enslaved persons (who constituted the majority of the Black population of Georgia at the time) were traditionally disciplined by those who enslaved them.17 The penitentiary at Milledgeville was burned by Sherman in and after the war the State of Georgia was without funds to rebuild it.

18 The convict population was growing rapidly, as newly passed Black Codes led to widespread arrest of newly emancipated Black citizens for petty crimes, like vagrancy. The General Assembly, without the means to incarcerate convicts, turned to individual counties to imprison those convicted of crimes.19 Within a year, this threatened to bankrupt the already impoverished state, and a new solution was conceived. 20 In May of it was decided that the state would enter into contracts with individuals who would lease convicts for use as a workforce.21 In return, these individuals and companies would house the convicts and pay for their upkeep, taking the burden off the state.

The first convict leasing was used for the construction of railroads, with several individuals controlling small groups of convict laborers. 22 By it was 14 James W. English Vertical File, Atlanta History Center. 15 Ibid. 16 Berry, David Charles. Free labor He Found Unsatisfactory: James W. English and Convict Lease Labor at the Chattahoochee Brick Company. Thesis, Georgia State University, 17 Ibid. 18 Candler, Allen D. and Evans, Clement A., Cyclopedia of Georgia, Vol. 1. Atlanta: State Historical Association of Georgia, 19 Acts of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, 20 Ibid. 21 Taylor, A. Elizabeth, The Origin and Development of the Convict Lease System in Georgia. Georgia Historical Quarterly, March1942. 22 Ibid. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO.

GA-7 PAGE 6 decided to establish a 20-year bidding system to control all of the states convicts. 23 These bids totaling (approximately in dollars) would be awarded to three groups of investors, which became known as Penitentiary Companies 1, 2, and James W. English, newly elected police commissioner of the City of Atlanta, was not only one of the architects of the convict leasing system, but also a major investor in both Penitentiary Companies 2 and 3. These Penitentiary Companies were under the control of Benjamin G. Lockett, A.B. Steele, Parrott, and William B. Lowe.25 Lockett, Steele, and Lowe owned adjoining brick plants on the Chattahoochee River. These plants, Lowe, Steele & Co. and Lockett & Co.

were both founded in and began as modest operations, producing roughly bricks per day.26 They chose this location to exploit the rich alluvial soil deposits along the banks of the Chattahoochee River, despite its remote location, more than seven miles from the city center. Part of the solution to this distance was the construction of a railroad spur to connect the plants to the Chattanooga, Rome & Columbus Railroad, so their products could be shipped. Chattahoochee Brick also maintained offices in downtown Atlanta at 33 North Broad Street to handle sales separately from production.27 The investors already controlled a vast network of useful enterprises across the state as wealthy real estate tycoons.

Lockett and Parrott had made their fortunes in cotton and textiles, which were brought to Atlanta, along with coal, to power their brick factory by railroads, in which English was a major investor.28 Lowe and Steele were both presidents of lumber and turpentine companies, which provided raw materials needed to expand the rail network. What all of these inter-connected industries needed; however, was a large, cheap, easily accessible workforce. Thus, the other part of the solution to grow the brickmaking industry was to import a ready-made workforce to the site, in the form of an infusion of leased convicted labor. Two years later, James W. English would buy out Benjamin G.

Lockett, and he and Lowe merged the two companies, which on May 7, became known as the Chattahoochee Brick Company.29 This group saw the new South as ripe for business opportunities of any kind. Their industries, which provided the raw materials that the entire region was hungry for, after the destruction of the city and much of Georgia by Sherman s March to the Sea, were booming. In order for cities to rebuild they needed to focus on infrastructure, projects like sewers and paved roads. These types of civic projects were one of the reasons that Chattahoochee Brick grew as quickly 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 At Short Notice. The Atlanta Constitution, May 13, 26 Financial Ledgers, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, Atlanta History Center. 27 At Short Notice.

The Atlanta Constitution, May 13, 28 Lowe s Life Brought to End. The Atlanta Constitution, April 5, 29 At Short Notice. The Atlanta Constitution, May 13, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 7 as it did. English, through his role as a financial leader and business powerhouse made bricks the most desirable building material in town. His philanthropic contributions placed him on the board of multiple institutions, from Grady Hospital to the YMCA, and when it came time for construction projects, Chattahoochee Brick received the contract.30 Likewise the use of convict labor meant that they could significantly underbid virtually every competitor. Life at Chattahoochee Brick On average 175 convict laborers worked at Chattahoochee Brick monthly.

They were involved in every aspect of production, particularly the more physically intense and dangerous aspects of brickmaking. First, the rich alluvial clay had to be harvested from pits dug along the river with shovels and picks, and allowed to cure to prepare it for molding. Eventually demand for clay would outstrip the primary site and additional work crews were placed at Chattahoochee Brick properties along Nickajack Creek in Cobb County and the South River in Dekalb County to supply sufficient quantities of clay. Thousands of brick molds were filled and left to dry in the sun, forming a constant assembly line to transport brick to the kilns once they were ready for firing.

Two-dozen men were used for transport, carrying the molds to and from the coal-fired brick Morrison scove kilns. At the kilns, workers stood atop stacked barrels so they could pitch bricks into one of the twelve, ten-foot tall, Morrison scove kilns, which individually could hold roughly bricks for firing. 31 One of the attributes that made Chattahoochee bricks unique was that they were fired for an entire week, whereas most manufacturers only fired their bricks for 3-4 days.32 This produced a denser, more durable, brick, valued for its use in construction, particularly for civic projects like sewers and roads.

At any given time six of these kilns (which could hold bricks total) were actively firing, to keep production moving.33 These kilns were so hot that guards supervising the prisoners were not allowed to carry firearms; for fear that the heat would cause them to accidentally discharge.34 After a week, finished bricks, still hot from the oven were harvested and loaded onto wooden pallets strapped to the backs and necks of workers. 35 Carrying dozens of still burning-hot bricks on their backs, and more in their hands, these 30 The Chattahoochee Brick Company Gives One Thousand Dollars For the Hospital. The Atlanta Constitution, February 14, 31 Bricks: A Great Industry On The Chattahoochee The Atlanta Constitution, September 23, 32 Smith, Richard W., Shales and Brick Clays of Georgia.

Atlanta: Stein Publishing Company, 33 Bricks: A Great Industry On The Chattahoochee The Atlanta Constitution, September 23, 34 Of Conditions at Camps Former Guard Testifies. The Atlanta Constitution, July 25, 35 Bricks: A Great Industry On The Chattahoochee The Atlanta Constitution, September 23, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO.

GA-7 PAGE 8 workers would have to run to the waiting train cars, then up ramps, to stack the bricks for shipment.36 Though Georgia law regarding convict leasing stated the prisoners were allowed to labor from sun-up to sun-down workers were pushed to the breaking point, often working non-stop to keep up with the necessary level of production.37 Within a year of starting to use convict labor daily production had grown by from up to bricks per day, and by the this figure had doubled to bricks per day.38 The convict labor also ensured that no other company could out-compete Chattahoochee Brick, who sold their product at no more than $15 for a thousand bricks (often significantly less), while other companies, operating with paid laborers, charged between $30 and $60 for the same amount.39 Scrutiny Almost from its outset, the convict leasing system at Chattahoochee Brick was a subject of controversy and scrutiny.

In a Dr. Westmoreland, appointed by the state, visited various companies utilizing convict labor over a two-year period from thru and reported widespread instances of malnourishment and scurvy. 40 A month later he was called before the bar to testify in a special investigation called by Governor Hoke Smith into the system.41 The testimony showed violations of basic rules, including set working hours and prohibition from working on the Sabbath, and inadequate housing, as well as a lack of medical care and record-keeping, including about the death of convict workers.42 Most importantly, however, it showed that the Penitentiary Companies, conceptualized as groups of individuals banding together for business purposes, were little more than shells.

Instead the powerful investors essentially owned the convicts they leased, trading, buying, or selling them amongst themselves in violation of the structure established by the General Assembly.43 The debate as to whether Penitentiary Companies 2 and 3 were in violation of the law were fierce, with both Lowe and English emerging as champions, giving testimony to reverse the rumors that they were essentially modern-day slaveholders exploiting the system for their own profit.44 John C. Klein, reporter for the New York World, came to Georgia in under the disguise of Kendall, a representative of New York Electric Light Co. 36 Ibid. 37 He Went to Coal City. The Atlanta Constitution, September 10, 38 Financial Ledgers, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, Atlanta History Center.

39 Convicts Compete with Free Labor. The Atlanta Constitution, February 3, 40 He Went to Coal City. The Atlanta Constitution, September 10, 41 The Argument in the Convict Investigation Begins. The Atlanta Constitution, October 1, 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 9 supposedly researching a variety of mineral carbon.45 In reality, he had come to investigate the conditions at Chattahoochee Brick and the practice of convict leasing in general. He obtained permission from James W. English himself to enter the property. In his article, he called the penitentiary system Georgia s Shame, based on the lack and poor quality of food, buildings that were the cheapest and crudest to construct , and prisoners forced to work even when gravely ill.

He described brutal beatings, total lack of medical care, and scores of other poor conditions, which led to the death of numerous convict laborers. Lowe and English were quick to respond. When asked how much truth was in Klein s reports, English responded: Not one particle. The buildings he describes as poor and cheap, are strong, warm, and clean, and have been inspected by grand juries, legislative committees, and county commissioners for years. Those delegations have never found them anything but good.46 English went on to state that the Penitentiary Company had no control over the quality of medical care that convicts received, as the doctors were appointed by the state.

But he assured the Constitution that If the doctor says so, that convict can rest in a hospital and drink champagne and eat the tenderest delicacies for a year. 47 Rust, another member of the trustees spoke to the allegations of abuse: He talks about convicts being whipped so bad, why there is no truth in that The whipping boss is appointed and he don t dare touch a man without a through cause. Why only twice in the history of the Georgia penitentiary, and the records show it, has the blood about which he talks been drawn.48 While Klein s article received much attention in the press, few changes were made and it was during this period that Chattahoochee Brick achieved its greatest production volumes.

In the trustees of Penitentiary Companies 2 and 3 again joined forces and the convict labor at Chattahoochee Brick was used to construct Whittier Mills, directly adjacent to Chattahoochee Brick, just over the railroad tracks.49 In a deal brokered by Parrott, Chattahoochee bricks were also used as the building material to construct the new square foot mill.50 On January 11, A.A. Gordon wrote to the Atlanta Constitution saying, 45 Georgia s Shame. The Atlanta Constitution, April 1, 46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Lieberman, Laura C. and Rooney, Don, A History of Whittier Mills. Georgia Department of Community Affairs Historic Preservation Division (SHPO) archives, Stockbridge, GA 50 Ibid. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO.

GA-7 PAGE 10 Editor Constitution- I saw in yesterday morning s issue of your paper a piece of news matter as to the sudden death of one Romulus Gordon, a Bibb County convict who was sent up last May to the Chattahoochee Brick yard camp. As generally this is no new thing I desire to inform the public of this one particular case, being under the now existing lease system. This boy was only fifteen years old. Unfortunate as it is, it is not commendable by any means to the lease system of Georgia. Then to be sent to the pen and worked to death, overexertion, terrible sanitary accommodations, half-fed, half-clothed and inhumanely treated, struggling between life, death, and starvation, at last succumbing unto death.

The lease system does not by far meet the approval of the good people of Georgia, and I shall endeavor to have this matter properly brought before the courts. Being his brother, it shall be done.51 Census records list Romulus Gordon as the son of a mulatto harness maker, from Macon, Georgia. Convicted of burglary, officials at Chattahoochee Brick claimed that Romulus had been in poor health since arriving and was put on light duties.52 Despite the supposed light duties, Romulus dropped dead in the yard , apparently of heart disease.53 Despite the impassioned words of his older brother Arthur, a porter in Macon, no changes would arise following Romulus Gordon s death and there are no further traces of the story in the papers.

Growth and Rebirth The year provided nothing but positive growth for James W. English. He founded the Fourth National Bank of Atlanta, which become the largest financial institution in the South54, following several mergers over the next decade. That same year, when Penitentiary Company 1 was shut down over issues of mismanagement, the convict laborers at the Dade Mines in Cole City were shipped to Chattahoochee Brick, as English had become the premiere utilizer of convict leasing in the state 55 .

In addition to the roughly 175 workers at Chattahoochee Brick, in English personally controlled 42 percent of the total convict laborers in the state of Georgia.56 He employed them at the other clay harvesting sites that supplied Chattahoochee Brick on Nickajack Creek and South River, the Durham mines in Walker County, the Iron Belt Railroad and Mining Company, his sawmill in Richwood, as well as many other companies with whom he traded and sold convict laborers. As the Atlanta police commissioner, English was also able to negotiate to receive a steady flow of new 51 From the Convict s Brother. The Atlanta Constitution, January 11, 52 Convict Drops Dead. The Atlanta Constitution, January 10, 53 Ibid. 54 Leonard, John William, ed.

Who s Who in Finance, Banking, and Insurance: A Biographical Dictionary of Contemporary Bankers, Capitalists, and Others Engaged in Financial Activities in the United States and Canada, Vol 1. 55 Convicts in Cars. The Atlanta Constitution, July 28, 56 James W. English Vertical File, Atlanta History Center. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO.

GA-7 PAGE 11 convicts, often directly from the city stockade on Bryan Street.57 In Chattahoochee Brick s profits from convict labor came under attack from competing brick manufacturers.58 They put forth the so-called Culberson Resolution (named after the city councilman who proposed it), which stated that no city contractor should be allowed to use any materials produced by convicts.59 Despite widespread support from labor unions and the public, the resolution died because it would be illegal to show favoritism or prejudice towards manufacturers based on their workforce, and because the state granted the lease of the convicts that provide labor.60 On December 2, disaster struck Chattahoochee Brick as the majority of standing structures on the property were destroyed by fire.61 The massive profits and wealth of the investors, coupled with convict labor meant that the plant was rebuilt within a year and production continued on the same level as before the fire.

Unfortunately, many of the documents from the first 15 years of Chattahoochee Brick s existence were also destroyed in the fire; however, a wealth of documentation exists from the period of The number of convicts employed by Chattahoochee Brick and the average brick production stayed steady throughout the decade. This suggests that the production remained slightly lower (on average bricks per day) than it had been in the when they were producing per day.62 Year Convicts Bricks Produced 175 190 178 172 167 176 171 171 *Reporting for the fiscal year at Chattahoochee Brick ends in May, so these numbers reflect prior to the fire, and there are no statistics for the fiscal year because this is when the site was being rebuilt.

**The last convict laborers were released on April 1, These numbers for the fiscal 57 Berry, David Charles. Free labor He Found Unsatisfactory: James W. English and Convict Lease Labor at the Chattahoochee Brick Company. Thesis, Georgia State University, 58 Convicts Compete with Free Labor. The Atlanta Constitution, February 3, 59 Committees are to Meet. The Atlanta Constitution, February 17, 60 Anti Convict Ordinance: Why It Was Not Made Law By the Council. The Atlanta Constitution, March 2, 61 Chattahoochee Camp Destroyed By Fire: Rebuilding Begins Today. The Atlanta Constitution, December 3, 62 These numbers are calculated from tables included in David Charles Berry s thesis.

These numbers are a compilation of data from the Shareholders Meeting Minutes in the Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 12 year ending in May reflect 11 months in which convicts still worked at Chattahoochee Brick. The Sanborn Fire Insurance Atlas of Atlanta shows approximately 40 buildings on the site (several of them an interconnected series of warehouses), though no convict housing is particularly noted, as well as four rail spurs.63 A accounting of the assets of the company lists 12 old convict dormitories among the remaining structures on the site. 64 When interviewed by David Charles Barry in H. English Robinson, grandson of James W.

English stated that he had these structures demolished shortly after taking over leadership of Chattahoochee Brick in Felder Investigating Committee In November inspections of convict leasing camps across the state began to raise concerns among officials, and the decision was made to send out another inspection committee in the spring of State Senator Thomas S. Felder who served Macon, Bibb County took charge of an official legislative committee to explore the implications of the findings of the teams that investigated the convict leasing camps starting on June 30, Over the next month, the shocking conditions found in the majority of convict leasing camps began to come to light.

Chattahoochee Brick was one of the worst offenders and immediately became the focus of testimony presented before the Felder Committee. The following excerpts, reported starting July 20, highlight the conditions found by the investigation of the Felder Committee: We found 178 men at this camp. The men were compelled to work on Sunday and at night. We also found that the convicts were compelled to go in a fast trot, heavily loaded with brick, in loading cars for shipment, even trotting over loose and broken brick. We also found that the convicts were compelled to go into hot dry kilns, which were likely to kill them. We found the food poor and badly cooked.

We found the bedding in a very dirty and unsanitary condition; the floors of the sleeping apartments were also very dirty, and the dining room was unusually filthy and unfit for use for any purpose.67 Much of the testimony, reported by both Chattahoochee Brick employees and state officials, surrounded James Casey, the warden of Chattahoochee Brick (also referred to as Captain Casey in the testimony of witnesses). Known as the 63 Sanborn Fire Insurance Company, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, (Atlanta History Center Map Collection). 64 Company Building and Equipment Inventory, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, Atlanta History Center.

65 Georgia House of Representatives, Special Committees, Joint Committee of the Senate and House to Investigate the Convict Lease System of Georgia, 20 July to 20 August Georgia State Archives. 66 Ibid. 67 That Report Senator Brock Lost Was an Indictment of the Conditions at Chattahoochee Brick Co. Camp The Atlanta Georgian, 25 July CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 13 whipping boss , former guard, Wortham, described an incident in where Casey had whipped a convict, Peter Harris to death: Dr. Green at the camp examined Peter Harris body and observed lashes by Captain Casey. He was whipped twice that day, once when he was put to work at 7 in the morning and again after he had given out at work about 4 o clock that afternoon.

I found the negro with flies in his mouth and his pulse nearly stopped. I told them he was dying and they didn t credit it. He was taken into the hospital and I had several men help revive him. The negro died in about ten minutes. Casey went off on his horse and stayed late that night68. Arthur W. Moore, another employee had warned after the incident, Whatever you do, don t let the papers get hold of it. 69 Wortham was supposedly dismissed afterwards, for attempting to report the incident to the state prison commission. The accounts of whippings, which the owners had vehemently denied as far back as the were legion. There was a fireman (coal and boiler stoker), Tim Goings, given thirty lashes once and two or three minutes later he was given about thirty more.

No, I don t know why he was whipped the second time. He did not have enough steam up in the boilers.70 How many whippings out there a week? I ve seen eight or ten a day, and there were a lot I didn t see. They d average five a day, easy. Is a report of twenty-five whippings a month correct? It s nearer 200 or 300 a month.71 The negroes rolling brick would be kept on the trot and were often whipped at work. The worst whipping I saw was 41 licks at a time for a negro who had run away.72 The testimony given the first week was sufficient for the committee to unanimously vote in favor of a full scale investigation into reforming and possibly abolishing the convict leasing system.

The Felder Committee would continue to meet for another month, revealing widespread cases of abuses in the leasing system by the owners of the penitentiary companies and the employees who enforced these policies. Though the commission took all of the testimony regarding the abuses at Chattahoochee Brick into account, on September 17, they decided to not pursue any charges against James Casey. 73 On 68 Hideous Tales of Torture are Told to the Investigating Committee. The Atlanta Georgian, 24 July 69 Ibid. 70 Of Conditions at Camps Former Guard Testifies. The Atlanta Constitution, July 25, 71 Ibid. 72 Hideous Tales of Torture are Told to the Investigating Committee. The Atlanta Georgian, 24 July 73 No Action on Captain Casey.

The Atlanta Constitution, September 17, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 14 September 20, convict-leasing system was abolished in Georgia. 74 Agreements were made to transfer the convicts to the care of the individual counties from which they came, and the last convicts were released on April 1, bringing the convict-leasing era in Georgia to an end.75 Post-Convict Era Following the end of the use of convict leasing, Chattahoochee Brick switched to a free labor system, and almost immediately saw a sharp drop in profits. Free labor required Chattahoochee Brick to build worker cottages (similar to those in adjacent Whittier Mills) as the factory was too far from the city center to commute.

76 In May just a month after convict leasing had ended, the company took out employer s liability insurance with Fidelity and Casualty Company. 77 Liability had never been an issue with convict labor. James W. English acknowledges the downturn in the Chattahoochee Brick board meeting held in June Free labor is most unsatisfactory and quite different from convict labor. Convicts labored from sun-up to sun-down, while free labor only works from 6 [AM] to five o clock and only when they want to.78 The era of convict leasing had ended, but Chattahoochee Brick would continue to operate until the though on a smaller scale than previously.

The majority of the buildings were updated and overhauled in the and the plant moved closer to Parrott Avenue NW, as shipping via automobile became more common than rail. Documents salvaged from the offices prior to the demolition of the buildings show that a cemetery was marked on the plans for these mid-20th century renovations, though ground-penetrating radar has not been able to locate a cemetery near that location yet.79 The testimony from the investigation indicates that multiple convict deaths occurred on the property; however, no records were kept as to the location where the remains were buried. In Chattahoochee Brick was purchased by General Shale, which demolished portions of the site and rebuilt others in that era.

The early structures, from the era remained in the wooded area directly adjacent to the river. As production moved closer to the road, these features, though abandoned, remained somewhat undisturbed. General Shale continued to operate the 74 Progress Made Toward Lease Abolition. The Atlanta Constitution, September 20, 75 Joyously Georgia Convicts Leave Custody of Lessees. The Atlanta Constitution, April 2, 76 Berry, David Charles. Free labor He Found Unsatisfactory: James W. English and Convict Lease Labor at the Chattahoochee Brick Company. Thesis, Georgia State University, 77 Ibid. 78 Company Shareholder Minutes, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, Atlanta History Center. 79 Becherer, Richard, Bricks and Bones: Discovering Atlanta s Forgotten Spaces of Neo-Slavery.

Digital Aptitudes & Other Openings, and Fingerprints in the Clay: Chattahoochee Brick and the History of Convict Slavery in Atlanta. Presented at the Society of Architectural Historians conference, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 15 property until when the plant closed permanently. The majority of the remaining buildings were demolished the following year. Since that time, the former Chattahoochee Brick site has been purchased by Lincoln Terminal Energy Solutions. This bio-fuel manufacturer purchased the former Chattahoochee Brick site in with the intention of turning the site into a fuel transfer station, where ethanol and other fuels could be offloaded from the adjacent railroad. 80 The proposal was withdrawn after heavy community objections81.

Subsequently, Lincoln Terminal leased the former Chattahoochee Brick site to Norfolk Southern, the railroad, headquartered in Atlanta, who proposed a similar redevelopment plan for the site82.

Again the project faced widespread opposition over the dangerous nature of a fuel transfer station in such close proximity to neighborhoods, the possible ecological implications due to the site s location on both the Chattahoochee River and Proctor Creek, and the historic significance of the former site.83 On February 12, Atlanta mayor, Keisha Lance Bottoms issued a press release stating that the City of Atlanta had filed a petition for preliminary injunction with the Surface Transportation Board to stop development of the proposed fuel terminal on the former site of Chattahoochee Brick.84 Our Administration will do everything that it can to protect the sanctity and significance of this property.

A site of such historic and environmental importance needs careful consideration before even limited development occurs.85 The following week Norfolk Southern announced it was dropping its plans to redevelop the Chattahoochee Brick site, citing the mayor s injunction and a desire to avoid a prolonged legal battle. The future of the property remains uncertain following Norfolk Southern s withdrawal. 80 Capeluto, Norfolk Southern Halts Work on the Chattahoochee Brick Site after city raises objections. The Atlanta Journal Constitution, February 15, 81 Ibid. 82 Ibid. 83 Ibid. 84 Mayors Office of Communications, Statement on the Chattahoochee Brick Company Property, February 12, 85 Ibid. CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 16

Source document Quoted word for word from HALS GA-7. Not written, edited or summarised by this site.

Acts of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, Anti Convict Ordinance: Why It Was Not Made Law By the Council. The Atlanta Constitution, March 2, At Short Notice. The Atlanta Constitution, May 13, Becherer, Richard, Bricks and Bones: Discovering Atlanta s Forgotten Spaces of Neo-Slavery. Digital Aptitudes & Other Openings, Becherer, Richard, Fingerprints in the Clay: Chattahoochee Brick and the History of Convict Slavery in Atlanta. Presented at the Society of Architectural Historians conference, Berry, David Charles. Free labor He Found Unsatisfactory: James W. English and Convict Lease Labor at the Chattahoochee Brick Company. Thesis, Georgia State University, Bricks: A Great Industry On The Chattahoochee The Atlanta Constitution, September 23, Candler, Allen D.

and Evans, Clement A., Cyclopedia of Georgia, Vol. 1. Atlanta: State Historical Association of Georgia, Chattahoochee Camp Destroyed By Fire: Rebuilding Begins Today. The Atlanta Constitution, December 3, Committees are to Meet. The Atlanta Constitution, February 17, Company Building and Equipment Inventory, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, Atlanta History Center. Company Shareholder Minutes, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, (Atlanta History Center). Convicts Compete with Free Labor. The Atlanta Constitution, February 3, Convict Drops Dead. The Atlanta Constitution, January 10, Convicts in Cars. The Atlanta Constitution, July 28, Financial Ledgers, Chattahoochee Brick Vertical File, (Atlanta History Center). From the Convict s Brother.

The Atlanta Constitution, January 11, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 17 Garrett, Franklin M., Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events. Athens: University of Georgia Press, Georgia House of Representatives, Special Committees, Joint Committee of the Senate and House to Investigate the Convict Lease System of Georgia, 20 July to 20 August (Georgia State Archives). Georgia s Shame. The Atlanta Constitution, April 1, He Went to Coal City. The Atlanta Constitution, September 10, Hideous Tales of Torture are Told to the Investigating Committee. The Atlanta Georgian, 24 July Hopper, Leonard J., Landscape Architectural Graphic Standards. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., James W. English Vertical File, (Atlanta History Center).

Joyously Georgia Convicts Leave Custody of Lessees. The Atlanta Constitution, April 2, Lieberman, Laura C. and Rooney, Don, A History of Whittier Mills. Georgia Department of Community Affairs Historic Preservation Division (SHPO) archives, Stockbridge, GA Leonard, John William, ed. Who s Who in Finance, Banking, and Insurance: A Biographical Dictionary of Contemporary Bankers, Capitalists, and Others Engaged in Financial Activities in the United States and Canada, Vol 1. No Action on Captain Casey. The Atlanta Constitution, September 17, Of Conditions at Camps Former Guard Testifies. The Atlanta Constitution, July 25, Progress Made Toward Lease Abolition.

The Atlanta Constitution, September 20, Sanborn Fire Insurance Company, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, Vol.1 (Atlanta History Center Map Collection). 96 Smith, Richard W., Shales and Brick Clays of Georgia. Atlanta: Stein Publishing Company, That Report Senator Brock Lost Was an Indictment of the Conditions at CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 18 Chattahoochee Brick Co. Camp The Atlanta Georgian, July 25, The Argument in the Convict Investigation Begins. The Atlanta Constitution, October 1, The Chattahoochee Brick Company Gives One Thousand Dollars For the Hospital. The Atlanta Constitution, February 14, Lowe s Life Brought to End. The Atlanta Constitution, April 5,

Source document Quoted word for word from HALS GA-7. Not written, edited or summarised by this site.

Elizabeth A. Clappin, MFA, Architectural Historian Sarah Kuehn Spencer, ASLA, PLA, Landscape Architect July 28, Entry HALS Challenge: Historic Black Landscapes CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 19 Figure 1: Chattahoochee Brick Photo Key and Vicinity Map (Sarah Kuehn Spencer, July CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 20 Figure 2: Detailed Site Plan of the Chattahoochee Brick Company site (Sarah Kuehn Spencer, July CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 21 Figure 3: General View, General Shale Sign, Parrott Avenue NW, facing west (Elizabeth A. Clappin, February, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 22 Figure 4: General View, Entrance Gates, Parrott Avenue NW, facing northeast (Elizabeth A. Clappin, May, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO.

GA-7 PAGE 23 Figure 5: Detail, entrance to partially collapsed underground vault (Caitlin Mee and Daniel Scott, November, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 24 Figure 6: Interior, partially collapsed underground vault (Caitlin Mee and Daniel Scott, November, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 25 Figure 7: Pier foundations of the tramway (Caitlin Mee and Daniel Scott, November, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 26 Figure 8: Concrete foundation of clay storage building (Caitlin Mee and Daniel Scott, November, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO. GA-7 PAGE 27 Figure 9: Concrete foundation and portions of railway (Caitlin Mee and Daniel Scott, November, CHATTAHOOCHEE BRICK COMPANY HALS NO.

GA-7 PAGE 28 Figure 10: General View of the landscape, facing west, from CSX Railroad (formerly the Chattanooga, Rome, & Columbus Railroad). The entire site is now secured by chain-link and barbed wire fence and security guard. (Elizabeth A. Clappin, June,