Clinton Township (part 3 of 18)

On the southwest part of the wall is a feature indicating the commencement of parallel walls, which, after reaching a length of 100 feet 4 were abandoned and the opening closed by the erection of a mound 170 feet long and fourteen feet high. This mouud overlooks the whole of the works, and has been named the "Observatory." At the northeast part, directly opposite this "observatory," is a gateway leading into an avenue 300 feet long and sixty feet wide, with walls not exceeding four feet in height. This terminates in one of the eight gateways of an octagon inclosing about fifty acres. These gateways are at the angles of the wall, and are each covered by a mound five feet high, eighty to 100 feet base, and standing sixty feet interior to the wall. From the octagon extend three lines of parallel walls, the one towards the south having been traced a distance of two miles. The others, extending easterly, are about a mile in length, and the walls composing all lines are about twenty feet apart. The middle line terminates in a square inclosing twenty aores, with mounds symmetrically disposed within. On the southwest of this wall is a gateway leading into a broad avenue . of dissimilar parts, and constructed without any common relations. Along this avenue, a distance of 1950 feet, is the gateway of an elliptical work whose diameters are 1250 and 1150 feet. The embankment is twelve feet in perpendicular height, fifty feet in base, and has an interior ditch seven feet deep by thirty feet in width. At the gateway the embankment is sixteen feet high, with a ditch thirteen feet deep, giving a height from the interior of twenty-nine feet. The gateway is eighty feet wide between the ditches, with a length of 100 feet. In the centre of the inclosure is a remarkable structure in the form of a bird with expanded wings. The length of the body is 155 feet, width 68 feet, and a height of seven feet. Length of each wing 110 feet, width at centre 45 feet, at the body 40 feet, while the heiglit is five feet. From tip to tip of wing on a straight line 200 feet. The head points toward the gateway of the inclosure. On opening this effigy it was found to contain an altar. In the rear of the effigy and 100 feet distant is a semicircular embankment 200 feet in length. Returning to the square, we find it connected with an elliptical work, larger than the others, and situated at the northeast corner. Other parallel walls occur, and not less than twenty small circles of eighty feet diameter, accompanied by the ditch and the gateway, which almost invariably opens to the east. There are eleven circles without gateways, five of large dimensions, three of which are 200 feet in diameter, and interior to the ditch have still another embankment. The material for the construction of the walls was taken from the immediate vicinity, where the excavations still remain and are usually called "wells." A trench was cut through the "observatory," which reveajed the fact of its being constructed entirely of clay. From this it has been concluded it was constructed of adobe, which has crumbled during the lapse of ages. The large pond has been drained, the land reclaimed, and the Licking Fair grounds are located within the circle containing the eagle effigy. Every feature of material, size, and structure disproves the hypothesis of a military purpose being ascribed to the works. Other works of a similar character occur, particularly in Ross, Pike, Athens, Washington, Scioto, Franklin, Fairfield, Greene, Montgomery, Butler, and Clermont Counties.

As already indicated, another class of works are found, called " Graded Ways" or "Avenues" accompanying the inclosures to some number. Their purpose does not clearly appear.

They sometimes ascend from one terrace to another, and again from the river banks to ,the terrace. One occurs at Marietta, one at Piqua, and another at Richmondale; but the most remarkable is that near Piketon, Pike County, Ohio. It consists of a graded ascent from the second to the third terrace, the level of the latter being seventeen feet above that of the former. The avenue is 1080 feet long, 215 feet wide at the lower, and 203 feet at the upper extremity. The earth is thrown outward on either hand into embankments varying from five to eleven feet in height. At the lower extremity the walls upon the interior are twenty-two feet in perpendicular height. On the third terrace the eastern line of embankment extends 2580 feet, and terminates near a group of mounds, one of which is thirty feet high. Fifteen hundred feet from the grade another wall starts off from the main line at right angles to a distance of 212 feet, when it assumes a parallel course to the principal line and continues for 420 feet, when it curves inwardly 240 feet, and terminates near a group of mounds. The whole class of sacred works were probably the council houses and amusement grounds, as well as the places of sacred and devotional exeroises. The altars are still found to attest their use for the observance of religious rites.

The temple mounds are regularly formed, generally truncated, and having spiral pathways to the summit. In form they are round, square, oblong, or oval, generally high, although some occur not exceeding a few feet in altitude, while embracing several acres in area. It is probable that temples of wood occupied the summits, although no evidences of such structures remain.

The sacrificial mounds bear several distinguishing features, being constructed by alternate, uniform layers of gravel, earth, and sand. These were surmounted by symmetrical altars of burnt clay or stone, containing relics and deposits which exhibit traces of the action of fire. While the altars are generally of burnt clay, yet a few of stone occur, varying greatly in size, ranging from five to eight feet in width with a height of twenty feet, while in form they were generally round or square. Upon the altars have been found calcined human bones, carvings in stone, ornaments in mica, instruments of copper, tubes, and beads of pearl and shell, spear heads of flint, and various articles of pottery.

Sepulchral mounds are numerous, and usually take the form of the cone, although various other forms are discovered. Rising in altitude from fifteen to twenty-five feet, they invariably inclose a human skeleton, often quite a number, which are found near the ground surface, although the depth varies to some extent. These remains are generally of the Indian type, and had been enveloped in bark or heavy matting, and placed upon slabs or other material forming the bottom of the tomb. The covering was sometimes a vault of timber or flagstones, the latter often appearing in careless heaps. With the skeletons have been found personal ornaments, including bracelets, perforated plates of copper, and beads of bone, ivory, shell, and metal. While stone implements are quite common, but few weapons are found. Vases of copper have been discovered, although rare in these remains.

Symbolical mounds consist of bass-reliefs formed on the surface of the ground in representation of beasts, birds, reptiles, men, and numerous implements and ornaments. Such works generally occur in groups or ranges.

Anomalous mounds embrace all those which do not admit of classification, some having features common to all classes, while others have no features of resemblance. In some an altar and sepulchre have been found on the same level, which does not occur with any of the regular classes. Under this class is also placed those structures which were probably used as signal stations. These occupy elevated positions, and have been variously designated as "observatories," "alarm posts," "signal stations," "watch towers," and "out-looks."

The implements and ornaments found in connection with the earthworks or structures are usually of minerals, clay, bones, fossils, and shells.

Spear heads, including lance heads and fishing and hunting spears of various shapes and sizes, are fiscally of flint, although sometimes of hornstone. Their names indicate their use.

Runners, knives, axes, hammers, chisels, and pestles are found of exquisite workmanship and superior finish, while kettles, jugs, cups, vases, and urns have been unearthed in such forms and of such delicate finish as to indicate something of perfection in the art of pottery. Fine clay was chiefly used in this art, although some of the coarser specimens exhibit an admixture of pulverized quartz, and again of colored mica, which gave a ruddy and somewhat brilliant appearance. These articles were generally ornamented by curved lines or images of birds, beasts, and the human form. The greatest skill was displayed in portraiture upon the stone pipes, some of which, weighing from three to six pounds, exhibit elaborate delineations of various beasts and birds, while a few occur bearing the representation of the human head.

Fig. 5 represents a red stone pipe, the general appearance of which is excellent and even graceful, being formed of the red pipe stone so highly prized by the Indians. It is beautifully polished, and the whole workmanship displays great skill.

Fig. 6 represents a pipe of the same variety of stone as of Fig. 5, and exhibits the same excellence of workmanship. On one side it bears the rude sketch of a fish.

Fig. 1 represents a combined tomahawk and pipe, but this is probably a French production as it is of steel, and the bowl shows evidence of being turned by a lathe. ,

Figs. 8 and 9 represent different forms of a stone ornament known as a pendant or gorgon, which was probably suspended from the breast or the terminal lobe of the ear. Ur. Abbott says of this ornament: "At any rate, it was designed for ornament, and not for any other purpose, as has been suggested, such as a fishing-line weight or sinker." The holes in these pendants and other Indian implements have always puzzled archaeologists. One of the authors of the "Ohio Centennial Report on Archaeology" says: "I think we must give up the theory that the various forms of polished slate, perforated at right angles to the face, were used as sizers and twisters of twine or strips of skin. They are all bored with a taper, which leaves a sharp edge either at one end or in the middle of the piece. Those that are more or less worn present the appearance of having been suspended. Thread twisters and sizers were probably made of wood and bone, like the Iroquois shuttles figured by Mr. Schoolcraft. Some of their perforated stone implements somewhat resemble ours in general form. Most of the striped slate relics I am inclined to place among the ornaments, badges, and armor of ancient tribes. Some of them would answer all these purposes. The tapering holes are good contrivances for fastening by thongs of rawhide to a belt, string, or piece of wood. Supposing the head or knot of the thong was let into the bored hole, these plates might be firmly bound to each other, or to the body of the wearer, and the holes not much worn by the process." dark bands. It would be difficult to tell the use of this instrument. It is too large for a bead, and can scarcely be considered a badge of authority. Being flattened on one side suggests the possibility of its being used as a whistle. It is classed under the general head of tubes.

Fig. 11 is a representative stone axe, found in nearly every locality in the State. "They are not abundant in the mounds, but are found in large numbers in the vale's. They are fashioned with great skill, of rare and beautiful material, the predominant series being granite. They are found with and without grooves for the adjustment of handles. Those designed to be wielded by both hands have an average weight of ten pounds, although they vary from one to sixteen pounds. The smaller varieties, called hatchets, were used in war as well as for domestic uses. These weigh from one to two pounds, are destitute of grooves, and are of all sizes from two to twelve inches. They also vary greatly in design, some having holes for the reception of handles. They are all, for the most part, polished, and some have been ground and polished with elaborate care."

Fig. 12 is a beautiful specimen, which may be classed under the head of banner stones. In outline, finish, and perforation it is faultless. The hole passing through the centre is a very noticeable feature, and measures less than nine-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. It is circular, of

Fig. 14 represents a second example of tins perforated ornament or banner stone. It is shorter and thicker than Fig. 12, but is well made and drilled with the same smoothness and beaut}'.

Fig. 13 is a partial representation of a very interesting form of banner stone. The portion above the perforation is imaginary, and if the upper portion was made to resemble the lower it would probably be correct, as Dr. Abbott believes the parts to be alike.

"This form of badge, being the most elegant and expensive, was probably used to indicate the highest rank of office. The single crescent probably signified a rank next below the double."

Fig. 15 is a curiously wrought imitation of a bird. The knot-like protuberances, representing eyes, stand out from the head one-eighth of an .inch. The bottom of the specimen is flat, and contains three holes extending upward about half way through the body. Its use is not determined. In connection with these many others have been found in this part of the State, but being of the commoner character found almost everywhere, a description would be useless in this connection. Such are arrowheads, rimmers, and various minor instruments of flint, and pestles, and mortars of various kinds of stone, variously fashioned in finish, and representing differing degrees of skill.

In sculpture the highest grade of art was reached, for a leading characteristic of this class of work is the truthfulness displayed in all the outlines. These are of great value, as their various characters go far to establish an extensive communication over a vast extent of country. It is established that while this people used the skins of animals for clothing to some extent, yet the principal article used was a cloth, coarse but of uniform thread, and woven of a warp and woof. The fragments of remains found show it to have been manufactured of material resembling hemp, in which the spinning was regular, as shown by some charred folds taken from mounds near Middletown, Ohio.

Touching the condition of this people, it is pretty well ascertainea they were tillers of the soil, and the centre of their population, as shown by remains, invariably sought the fertile flats or valleys, as natural to an agricultural people.

by the magnitude of the works, which could only be constructed by a people whose condition was that of vassalage. Their religion was superstition, and it is maintained by some that they were idolaters, although the evidence is yet wanting to establish this claim. That they were superstitious is shown by the altars and offerings which belonged to their religious rites and ceremonies. Their fortifications and signal stations prove their military knowledge and character, although it is presumable these were all for purposes of defence against enemies from without. It must have been such an enemj', rushing from the north, that expelled them from the region north of the Ohio River. That expulsion must have been sudden and calamitous, as they deserted their works and mines, leaving their implements behind in their haste before the fury of the | invader. Fleeing to the south, we find them improving in the arts, as shown by the superior character of their southern works, until, finally, they emigrate to Mexico, when, whether they became the original N ahoas or Toltecs, it is at least evident that a gradual improvement and advancement was attained, which rose to the height and development of the superior architecture of Mexico at the advent of the whites. Here it is a less difficult matter to trace their history, as their records consist not in dumb works alone, but also in a hieroglyphic, and finally in a written language.

Osteology

Having referred to the high antiquity of man, man away back in the ages of savagerj', prior to the era of the mound builders, it appears fitting to refer to a few facts touching that antiquity and the development which has obtained. Prior to the study of the ancient implements of stone and the various human remains, the people, according to Dr. Buchner, " had so little notion of the nature and signification of the stone axes and weapons of earlier and later times, that they were regarded with superstitious fear and hope, and as productions of lightning and thunder. Hence for a long time they were called thunderbolts even by the learned. * * * As late as the year 1134, when Mahndel explained in the Academy of Paris that these stones were human implements, he was laughed at, because he had not proved that they could not have been formed in the clouds." It is needless to enumerate the discoveries on which the theory of man's antiquity is based. It is sufficient to say they were made all over the face of Europe, and to Aimd Bou6, a French geologist, belongs the honor of having first proclaimed the theory. Dr. Schmerling then became the founder of the new science of Osteology, while M. Boucher de Perthes became its great apostle. Still it was - reserved for Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock to give popularity to the new theory as advanced by the founders and expounded by the apostles. In this connection it may be apropos to observe that it was at the meeting of the British Association, in 1855, that Sir Charles Lyell gave his endorsement to this theory of high antiquity for man. Having first opposed it, he now became enthusiastic in his investigations, and published as the result of his researches, " Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man," in 1863. Without entering into a description, we will call attention to the far-famed Neanderthal skull, which was taken from a cave in the valley of Diissel, near Diisseldorf. As the bones were not regarded of any interest at the time of their discovery, only the larger ones were preserved. Prof. Huxley declares, "they indicate a very high antiquity," and Dr. Buchner, that "the loam deposit, which partly fills the cave of the Neanderthal and the clefts and fissures of its limestone mountains, and in which both the Neanderthal bones and the fossil bones and teeth of animals were imbedded, is exactly the same that, in the caverns of the Neanderthal, covers the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from ten to twelve feet in thickness, and the diluvian origin of which is unmistakable." Dr. Fuhlrott says, " The position and general arrangement of the locality in which they were found, place it, in my judgment, beyond doubt that the bones belong to the diluvium, and therefore to primitive times." After a very minute description of the cranium, Prof. Huxley observes, "in reply to the suggestion that the skull is that of an idiot, it may be urged that the onus probandi lies with those who adopt the hypothesis. Idiocy is compatible with very various forms and capacities of the cranium, but I know of none which present the least resemblance to the Neanderthal skull." He further refers to it as the most ape-like of all the human skulls he has ever seen, while Dr. Buchner declares the face must have presented a frightfully bestial and savage or ape-like expression. Prof. Sehaaffhausen and Mr. Busk declare, " This skull Is the most brutal of all known human skulls, resembling those of the apes not only in the prodigious development of the superciliary prominences and the forward extension of the orbits, but still more in the depressed form of the braincase, in the straightness of the squamosal suture, and in the complete retreat of the occiput forward and upward from the superior occipital ridges." Both Prof. Sehaaffhausen and Dr. Buchner regarded it as a race type, while Prof. Iluxley claimed " that it truly forms only the extreme number of a series leading by slow degrees to the highest and best developed forms of human skulls."

The fossil skull of the Engis Cave was deposited at a depth of five feet under an osseous breccia containing a tusk of the rhinoceros, the teeth of a horse, remains of many other animals, some of which are now extinct, and rude stone and flint instruments. The breccia was over three feet wide, and rose about five feet above the floor of the cavern. Speaking of this skull, Prof. Huxley observes, "there is no mark of degradation about any part of the structure. It is, in fact, a fair average human skull, which plight have belonged to a philosopher, or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage." Mr. Busk observed, " although the forehead was somewhat narrow, it might nevertheless be matched by the skulls of individuals of European race ;" while Dr. Sehaaffhausen declared, " I hold it to be demonstrated that this cranium has belonged to a person of limited intellectual faculties, and we conclude thence that it belonged to a man of a low degree of civilization." Sir Charles Lyell held, " From the narrowness of the frontal portion it belonged to an individual of small intellectual development ;" and Buchner declares, " In its length and narrowness, the slight elevation of its forehead, the form of the widely separated orbits, and the wide developed supraorbital arches, it resembles, especially when viewed from above, the celebrated Neanderthal skull, but in general Is far superior to this In its structure." Carl Vogt "regards it, with reference to the proportion of length to breadth, as one of the mpst ill-formed, animal-like, and simian of skulls."

We think it highly probable that if viewed simply as an ancient formation and low type, but little resemblance need bt discovered either to the cranium of the philosopher or to that of the ape. The difference of opinion rests upon differing comparisons with existing forms, while all of these, through a long period of development, are radically distinct. Asa race type, it was a low form in which bestiality predominated, for intelligence had not yet made an}' particular strides in development. It was one type of physical man before the development accompanying mental growth.

The cranium found in bone breccia at Gibraltar, according to Prof. Denton, " resembles in all essential particulars, including its great thickness, the far-famed Neanderthal skull. Its discovery adds immensely to the scientific value of the Neanderthal specimen, if only as showing that the latter does not represent, as many have hitherto supposed, a mere individual peculiarity, but that it may have been characteristic of a race extending from the Rhine to the Pillars of Hercules." Prof. Sehaaffhausen observes, " It is worthy of notice that a similar although smaller projection of the superciliary arches has generally been found in the skulls of savage races," so that different specimens " indicate a very distant period, when man stood on a very low grade of development."

The Borreby skulls of the stone age of Denmark, according to Prof. Huxley, resemble the Neanderthal specimen, while the Arno skull is by Carl Vogt considered of the same antiquity as the Neanderthal and Engis types. These evidences all attest the geological theory of a primitive man with a powerful organization, well adapted to the conditions by which he was surrounded. He needed that organization, for his bones tell of powerful conflicts, while the effacement of sutures tells of the great age he must have attained. He was bestial, as he must needs be to combat the animals against which he must contend for food and life. Look at the Neanderthal specimen with its broken arm, telling perhaps of an encounter with the cave bear which was outlived to see that arm dwindle away to uselessness. Again he is attacked by some savage beast or equally savage fellow man, and in the struggle he receives a blow over the right eye, so powerful as to carry away a portion of the bone. It was a fearful fracture, but he outlives it and sees the wound healed, showing a strength, hardihood, and love of life which fitted him to war for existence throughout that long and savage period. Away down the scale of life, he was also low in the scale of intellect, and it required the combating circumstances and exigencies of a long and savage period to develop the power of intelligence. The colossal herbivora were hasrnless, but he must shrink away and find a hiding-place, or prepare for conflict when the fierce carnivora were enraged by hunger. It was then he found a retreat among the tree-tops or sought safety in the fastnesses of the rocks. But he slowly learned his own strength and the use of a club, when he began asserting his supremacy over some of the minor animals of ferocity, until the necessities of climate taught him the use of clothing, to be obtained only from the animals about him. Fear made him cautious, hunger made him active, cold made him inventive, and then the mental forces developed a feeble power which strengthened with his necessities until, by force of superior intellect, he became the lord of nature and began to add to the comfort, convenience, and sweetness of life. The development was tardy, prompted for ages by necessity alone. Just as he discovered the use of the club as a defence against savage beasts, he discovered the use of clothing as a protection against the cold, which settled in -severity upon the earth. Even clothing did not suffice for the long glacial day, and he at length found the use of fire or he must have succumbed to the cold. This period also rendered necessary different kinds of food, for the climate was no longer favorable to the luxuriant flora of his early existence, and he must resort to the fauna not only for skins for clothing, but also flesh for food. Each single step was a great advance, and only resulted as necessity prompted until by extraneous forces the intellect was aroused and began asserting its equality with the blind forces about it, until by strengthening stages it recognized its powers and capacities, and bounded from equality to supremacy. The struggle lost its doubtful character, and he had next to look about him for safety from his fellows. He had warred successfully with the elements and wild beasts, and now the battle opened with his own race and type. With him "might was right," and the strong recognized no rights to which the weak were entitled. Dangers of this kind induced the weak to unite for common defence against the strong, and so communities or bands or tribes, bound together for mutual protection, laid the foundation of society. Society founded agriculture, agriculture founded property, and property founded rights, and rights protected and developed the race. Society, with its long train of developments in arts, kept advancing with the years until to the arts was added science, which during the historic period has added such lustre to the human race.

It was and is a question of intellectual development, for if the human skulls of different periods be placed in a row parallel to the instruments, implements, and weapons of different ages, the same parallelism will appear between the development of those skulls and the improvement of those productions. The dug-out for a home, a tom-tom for a musical instrument, a crooked stick for a plow, and a club or fiint-head spear for a weapon, are as truly on a level with the Neanderthal brain, as the dwelling, the piano, the sulky-plow, and the needle-gun rise to the level of the brain of to-day. No matter how low the type, he has advanced, and by steady, yet sometimes retarded improvement, given evidence of a progressiveness throughout the whole period of his existence. Old as he is, he recognizes no limits to progress, and knows no limit to his existence.

Paleontology

The discovery of the remains of the mastodon dates back to the year 1613, when in Dauphine, France, bones were found in a sand pit, and being secured by the surgeon Mazuya, he at once set up the claim that they were discovered in a brick tomb thirty feet in length, fifteen in width, and bearing the inscription Teutobocchus Rex, who had been a chief in northern Germany and was defeated by the Romans under Cains Marius, B. C. 102. He further claimed to have found some fifty medals in the same tomb, bearing the effigy of this leader. The skeleton, after being exhibited as that of a giant in France and Germany, was finally examined by the anatomist Riolan, who pronounced it the remains of an elephant. A controversy then arose, lasting for some time, and it was not until 1832 that the remains were removed to the Paris Museum of Natural History and recognized as belonging to the mastodon by the naturalist, De Blainville. .

Some gigantic bones being di&covereed near Albany, New York, in 1705, were considered additional proofs of a former race of giants. Gov. Dudley, of Mass., after examining one of these teeth, wrote to Cotton Mather, he was " perfectly of opinion that the tooth will agree only to the human body for whom the flood only could prepare a funeral ; and without doubt he waded as long as he could keep his head above the clouds, but must at length be confounded with all other creatures." So the bones found near Santa Fd de Bogota, in the " Field of Giants," were believed to be human remains. -

The attention of the scientific men of Europe was first attracted to the subject about the middle of the last century. M. de Longucil discovered some bones in Kentucky in 1739 and became so interested on account of their size that he presented them, on his return to France, to D'Aubenton and Buffon. The former ascribed the thigh bone and tusks to the elephant and the tooth to the hippopotamus ; while Buffon attributed the whole remains to a primitive elephant. From this time forward of its tooth, Mastodon, being derived from the Greek words, mastos. nipple, and odons, tooth, or nipple-tooth. Dr. Wm. Hunter, being misled by the tooth, believed it to belong to the carnivora, and so called it the "Carnivorous Elephant." The North American mastodon having received the first attention, Cuvier gave it the specific term " giganteus," or gigantic mastodon, which term has been generally adopted. Buffon called it " Mastodon Ohioticus," or Ohio mastodon ; Pennant, the " Elephas Americanus," or American elephant; Blumenbach, " Mammut Ohioticum," or Ohio mammoth ; and Adrian Camper, " Elephas microcephalus," or long-headed elephant. It has also been designated the " Mastodon magnum," or great mastodon.

Within later years bones have been found scattered throughout New York, Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Missouri, California, and Oregon. Herewith is inserted a cut of a skeleton discovered in 1870 near the village of St. Johns, Auglaize County, Ohio. The tusks and most of the vertebrae, ribs, and pelvis, were so much decayed that they crumbled on exposure to the air. The following enumeration comprises the portion of the skeleton found : - great interest attached to the subject, and remains were eagerly sought by scientific men of all nations. Still the animal was believed to be carnivorous. The first elaborate account is given by Cuvier, although he did not have the advantage of a complete skeleton. In 1801 Charles W. Peale secured an almost complete skeleton in Orange County, N. Y., and his son Rembrandt in 1803 published a pamphlet of ninety-one pages descriptive of the remains. This was entitled "An Historical Disquisition on the Mammoth or Great American Incognitum, an Extinct, Immense, Carnivorous Animal, whose Fossil Remains have been found in North America." In 1840 a skeleton was found in Benton County, Mo. It was imbedded in a sandy deposit full of vegetable matter, among which cypress, swamp moss, tropical cane, and stems of palmetto were recognized. This deposit was beneatli fifteen feet of blue clay and gravel. In 1845 another was discovered near Newburgh, N. Y., which is minutely described by Dr. J. C. Warren in his work on the Mastodon giganteus. Through misapprehensions and other causes these remains have by different authors been called by different names. Believed at first to belong to the fossil elephant of Siberia, it was called the "mammoth." Wo have already referred to it as the "Great American Incognita." Cuvier gave it its popularly accepted name, having designated it from the form an excellent state of preservation. The two anterior teeth (Fig. 1) each weigh four and one-half pounds, and are seven and one-half inches long by three and one-half inches in width. They each have three transverse furrows dividing them into four nipples or eminences, each eminence being one and one-half inches in height. The two posterior teeth (Fig. 2) are each four and one-half inches long by three and one-half inches in width. Each of these teeth has three transverse ridges, measuring one and one-fourth inches in height. The enamel is of a dark brown color, one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and not much worn. The roots are four and one-half inches long, and of a form that exhibits great strength.

Humerus (e). - This is the upper bone of the foreleg. Its length is thirty-seven inches, its greatest circumference thirty-five inches, and its smallest seventeen inches.

foreleg. Its length from the summit of the olecranon process to the lowest point of the inferior extremity is thirty-four inches, circumference at lower extremity thirty-one inches.

Badiua (g). - The smallest bone of the foreleg. Its length is twentynine inches, the breadth of its carpal extremity six inches, and the entire circumference of the eibow-joint is forty-five inches.

Femur , or Thigh-bone (a). - This bone in its form resembles the femur of the human skeleton. It is thirty-nine inches long and seventeen and one-half inches in circumference at the middle of the shaft.

Tibia (b) - The larger of the two lower bones of the hind-leg is twenty-eight inches long. The circumference of the upper extremity is thirty and one-half inches, the middle of the shaft fourteen inches

Part of the bones of another mastodon was found in Clay Township, in December, 1874, by some men engaged in digging a ditch to drain Mnchinippi Swamp. The ravine in which the animal was found, and through which the ditch was dug, partakes somewhat of the character of the swamp. The depth of the superficial deposit at the point at which the remains were found is about six feet. The upper third is black muck, and the remainder shell marl.

The marl thrown out of this ditch, after a few months' exposure to the air, becomes so white as to form a strong contrast with the inky surface soil. The following are the portions of the skeleton found : -

The bones of this specimen are much larger than the corresponding ones of the specimen found in 1870, and are probably those of an old animal, as the teeth are very much worn. The remains were purchased by the writer, and deposited in the museum of the Heidelberg College of this State.

A third mastodon was discovered by Mr. Samuel Craig, in January, 1878, whilst engaged in surveying in Washington Township. No careful search for the skeleton has yet been made. The boggy character of the ground in which the animal is located leads us to believe that the remains will be found in a good state of preservation.

The first and second mastodons were found so near the surface that we are almost led to the belief that they have been buried within 500 or 1000 years. " There can be no question that they lived and died long after the deposition of the drift on which the marsh deposits rest."

Such discoveries exhibit different conditions, some being perfect, while others are in a crumbling state. In Europe, greater antiquity renders the remains fewer and more fragmentary than in America. Teetii are found in large quantities on bpth continents. These are composed of dentine, and enamel which is spread over the crown, while the transverse ridges are not filled with cement, as is the case with those of the elephant. They bear no relation to the carnivora, for although having an external covering of enamel, they are destitute of the longitudinal serrated cutting edge exhibited by the flesh-eating. By use the protuberances became truncated to a lozenge form, and the whole structure shows adaptation to the mastication of vegetable substances. The teeth in different species varied in number, and instead of all appearing at once, were developed in succession as the waste by wear demanded. The upper teeth are a little wider than the lower, the first three wider at the back than the front, the next square, while the last terminates in blunt points. Eight deciduous teeth, two on each side, are developed 60 on after birth, but these are soon shed and followed by a third deciduous tooth, somewhat larger and more complicated, constituting the first three-ridged, six-pointed molar. This in turn is followed by a fourth of the same form, but of greater size. Sometimes these four on each side of each jaw are found to have coexisted. The fifth is still larger, but before its development, and generally before that of the fourth, one or more of the earlier teeth have disappeared. The sixth and last, occupying the whole side of the jaw, is much larger and differs otherwise from all others. It is about ten inches long, four wide, twenty around the neck, and weighs -from ten to twelve pounds. The crown is divided into four or five ridges with eight or ten points or furrows. Such a succession of teeth was rendered necessary by the prodigious labor imposed in masticating the large quantities of food necessary to the maintenance of life. During the wear thus evolved by the molars in crushing branches and twigs, another tooth developed to take the place of the old decayed and displaced one. In addition to the testimony of the teeth, the contents of the stomach have been found, showing conclusively that the animal was of the herbivori. This was found with the Newburgh remains, in a description of which Dr. Prime observes: " In the midst of the ribs, imbedded in the marl and unmixed with shells or carbonate of lime, was a mass of matter composed principally of the twigs of trees, broken into pieces of about two inches in length, and varying in size from very small twigs to those of a half inch in diameter. There was mixed with these a large quantity of finer vegetable substances, like finely divided leaves, the whole amounting to from four to six bushels." All evidence is corroborative, and goes to show the mastodon was a vegetable feeder, and subsisted on the coarse as well as tender branches of trees, leaves, rushes, and other aquatic plants. That it was covered with hair is attested by the locks and tufts of a dun brown color found in the vicinity of the 'skeleton at Scotchtown, New York. These locks varied in length from two to seven inches. Again, both the skin and hair were found with the bones sixty feet below the ground surface near the mouth of the Wabash River. It is evident several different species existed, being ranged by different authors into from four to thirty different classes, although the latter number is probably unwarranted. Many of these classifications are based on a slight variation of a tooth, and not on a comparison of skeletons. That the mastodon appeared during the tertiary period - the age of mammals - is attested by geology, for its traces are found running across the miocene, pliocene, and glacial periods. Great changes of climate were thus withstood, and this monster stood a witness to the development and extinction of many other forms until, after untold ages, it succumbed to the fate of other monsters of the old world, while its bones are made a text-book by the student of the new world as he seeks the history of organized life, development, and extinction. In their case the cause of extinction is unrevealed, for it could not have been on account of rigorous climatic changes, because the tropics still furnish a pliocene climate; neither could it have been produced by a calamity, as the different species were dispersed too widely to be overwhelmed by any catastrophe of nature. It yielded at last, perhaps, a prey to some lingering hostile agency which, operating for untold ages, first weakened, then reduced, and finally destroyed.

This mammal, sometimes called the " hairy mammoth," and again the " Siberian elephant," was named from the Tartar term " mamma," signifying the earth, because the Tungooses and Yakoots believed it worked its way through the earth like a mole. They still believe the mammoth has taken refuge in subterranean caverns, and the moment it approaches the light it dies. So it is that remains are found, because the animal subjected itself to the fatality of the light, through mistake occasioned by the irregular conformations of the land. Its scientific name is Ealiphas primigenius or primitive elephant, which was applied by Blumenbach. The name, however, is a misnomer, as several elephantine groups had lived and died before the appearance of this species. With the mastodon, the elephant lived through two periods before the existence of the mammoth. Three distinct species have been recognized and designated as the " E. primigenius" of Europe and Siberia ; the " E. Americanus" and " E. imperator." The latter of Dr. Leidy is probably the same as the " E. Columbi" of Dr. Falconer.

The mammoth was from fifteen to eighteen feet high, thus surpassing in size the largest existing elephant. It was covered with long shaggy hair, with a copious mane extending along the back. The body was heavier and the legs shorter than those of the elephant. The tusks were from eleven to fifteen feet in length and curved abruptly outward and backward. The skull was elongated, with a concave forehead and an obtuse lower jaw. The grinding tooth forms a prominent characteristic, as it forms only as required for use, instead of appearing at once, as is usual with most animals. Adults have only four teeth, one on each side of each jaw. A single tooth weighs as much as seventeen pounds, is broad, with a crown of successive plates, and these subdivided so as to render successive formation not only possible, but favorable. The forepart of the tooth gives way first, but is not entirely unfitted for service, as it would still serve to crush coarse branches, while the more perfect part of the tooth would reduce this crushed mass to a pulp.

A tooth found near Zanesville, Ohio, weighed over seventeen pounds, and had a length of eighteen inches. It was a permanent molar, of a light color and quadrangular in form. Of the four faces the inferior is oval, being widest at the middle. There are sixteen surface plates of two layers of enamel, which reveal the remains of former plates. Both posterior and inferior faces show the termination of undeveloped plates. The superior border contains the fangs, and the fourth face, or anterior, is very short and irregular. The teeth resemble those of the Asiatic elephant, but are larger and heavier. In number and anatomical plan they are the same, but differ in plates, as those of the elephant tooth number twenty, while those of the mammoth number thirty. Like the mastodon, this animal was widely dispersed, having ranged over the greater part of the earth's surface. The remains are found in great numbers along the coasts of Siberia and Alaska. Ivory in a remarkable state of preservation is found washed out by the rivers of the north. It is collected by fishermen and sent to China and Europe, where it answers the purposes of the ivory of the living elephant. As high as 16,000 pounds have been sold in St. Petersburg in a single year. Tilesius estimated the bones in Russia to exceed those of all the elephants now in existence upon the globe. True, all the fossiliferotis remains cannot be attributed to the mammoth, as many different species of the elephant have existed through the countless ages of the past. Ivory of the same class was discovered in Greece 320 B. C. All those early bones belonging to the elephantine family were ascribed to human beings or demi-gods. Thus the patella of one found in Greece was called the knee-bone of Ajax : some remains thirteen feet long were by the Spartans ascribed to Orestes: some others eighteen feet in length, found in the Isle of Ladea were attributed to Asterius, son of Ajax, while others found in Sicily in the fourth century were believed to belong to Polyphemus. The literature of the middle ages was so voluminous upon this subject that it has very properly been called " Gigantology." From 1456 to 1564 bones were discovered throughout France, all of which were attributed to a a race of giants.

An uprooted tree near the cloister of Reyden, in Lucerne, Switzerland, exposed some bones which, upon examination by Felix Platen, a celebrated physician and professor at Basle, were pronounced the remains of a giant nineteen feet in height. The inhabitants of the province then adopted the image of this imaginary giant as the supporter of the city arms. In 1106 only two fragments of the skeleton remained, and were recognized by Blumeubach as belonging to the elephant. With some remains found in Germany in 1663 Leibnitz constructed a strange monster with a horn in its forehead, and a dozen molar teeth in each jaw, which he then named the Fossil Unicorn. For more than thirty years this was accepted, until the discovery of an entire skeleton in the valley of the Unstrut. Numerous remains were found during the seventeenth century all over the face of Europe, but were little understood, as evidenced by the disposition often made of them. Let us instance that of the church at Valence, Spain, which attributed a molar tooth to St. Christopher, whose existence at any period was about as questionable as that of the unicorn of Leibnitz. Again, away down the descent of years, in 1789, an elephant femur was carried about the streets at the head of processions by the canons of St. Vincent, by whom it was declared the arm of a saint, for the purpose of producing rain. It was probably about as effective as the hurling of the Pope's bull at the comet to stay it in its wayward flight. The eighteenth century did, however, sweep aside many of the curtains and unravel many of the mysteries which hung like a pall over the long line of ages, weak tnrough ignorance, and apprehensive through superstition. Here, too, science was fought back and retarded in her onward march by a blind and jealous opposition which had fears to feed and beliefs ter support. That opposition easily' accounted for these remains after yielding their human or divine origin and character by ascribing them to elephants brought from Carthage by Hannibal in his expedition against Rome. If they were not the remains of giants, as claimed for years, they must at least be accounted for on some equally absurd hypothesis, and as they were found along the route of the Carthagcnian army, they must be correct in ascribing them to the animals of that army.

One weakness of this conclusion was its failure to conclude, for it did not embrace those numerous remains found where no Carthagenian army ever marched with African elephants in its train. In 1799 Ossip Schumachoff found a frozen mass at the mouth of the Lena River. A year later he was still unable to determine what it was, but in 1801 he found it sufficiently exposed by the action of the water and ice to disclose its nature. Returning to his family he related his experiences, when the narration of the discovery produced such dread and consternation that sickness ensued, for it was believed the discovery of an entire mammoth foreboded death to the whole household. Superstition proved almost fatal, but the chief recovered and revisited the spot in 1804, when he cut the tusks away, while the inhabitants of the vicinity cut away the flesh for their dogs until the skeleton was almost cleared. According to the description of the Tungusion, "the mammoth was a male, with a long mane on the neck; the tail was much mutilated, only eight out of the twenty -eight caudal vertebra remaining; the proboscis was gone, but the places of the insertion of the my soles were visible in the skull. The skin, of which about three-fourths was saved, was of a dark gray color, covered with reddish wool and coarse long black hair. The entire skeleton, from the forepart of the skull to the end of the mutilated tail, measured sixteen feet four inches. The tusks measured along the curve nine feet six inches, and in a straight line from the base to the point three feet seven inches." Another entire body was found on the bank of the Alaseia, near the frozen ocean, in 1800, by Gabriel Sarytchew, a Russian naturalist. In 1843 Middendorf, a distinguished naturalist, discovered a mammoth on the Fas between the Obi and Yenisei, in latitude 66° 30' north, which was in such a perfect state of preservation that the ball of the eye was preserved and is now in the museum at Moscow. The present habitat of the elephant being the tropics, it is classed as a tropical animal, and if we judged solely from a knowledge of living species, we would be compelled to believe that at the period of the mammoth, the climate of Siberia must have been tropical. Still, it is fallacious to conclude that because an animal flourished under a high temperature, all remains of a whole family must be assigned to the same climate. The tiger is tropical, but it has been seen on the borders of the perpetual snows of the Himalayas, among the snows of Mt. Ararat, and is common near Lake Aral, in latitude 45° north. In the summer of 1828 one was killed on the Lena in latitude 52|° north. So the zebra is tropical, while the horse withstands a rigorous climate. It does not follow, then, that Siberia must be provided with a tropical climate for the maintenance of one group, although other species of the same genus do require such a climate. The food of this group must have been largely of a coarse nature, such as the branches of fir, birch, poplar, willow, and alder. Forests of these types are found, according to travellers, as far north as latitude 69° 5'. Again, it may be supposed that whatever vegetation did flourish in this region, was of a very nutritious quality, and so did not require such prodigious quantities as would at first appear necessary to sustain large numbers of these animals. Such, at least, is the case in South Africa, where, with a limited vegetation, suitable for food, large numbers of the greatest living animals find subsistence. Still it might not be extravagance to suppose that at the period of the mammoth a vegetation flourished between latitude 40° and 65° north, which was capable of feeding this great mammal and its contemporaries. Evidence exists pointing to the latter part of the pliocene period as the birthday of the mammoth. In Europe it lived through the long glacial period; which it survived for many ages. In America it was contemporaneous with the M. giganteus. In Europe it became extinct about the dawn of the Reindeer epoch, and probably ceased to exist in the United States about the same period. Touching the causes leading to that extinction, the observations on the destruction of the mastodon are equally pertinent. Sir Charles Lyell remarks : " Between the period when the mammoth was most abundant and that when it died out, there must have elapsed a long interval of ages when it was growing more and more scarce, and we may expect to find occasional stragglers buried in deposits long subsequent in date to others, until at last we may succeed in tracing a passage from the post-Pliocene to the recent fauna, by geological monuments which fill up the gap." Man, the mastodon, and the mammoth fill the gap, and it remains to be seen how far anterior to its ingress those monuments may be discovered. Age, in numbered years and countless epochs, stamps its way upon the records of geology until its chronology is lost for a moment in the dim twilight of periods upon which the sunbeams of investigation have not yet fallen with sufficient power to reveal the antecedent history of the earth and its inhabitants. That many monuments have crumbled and perished and so are no longer discoverable cannot be doubted for a moment, when the long descent is traced by these until they become so aged and feeble that they crumble beneath the touch and fade away before the light.

Indian Wars

In 1789, after the Fort Harmar treaty, the Indians assumed a hostile attitude and annoyed the infant settlements near the mouth of the Muskingum and between the Miamis. N ine persons were killed within the bounds of the Symmes Purchase. The settlers became alarmed, and Major Stiles, of Pennsylvania, with twenty-five brave men, commenced the erection of block-houses in each of the settlements of this region. At the same time Major Doughty with one hundred and forty men from Fort Harmar commenced building Fort Washington, nine miles below the mouth of the Little Miamij and within the present cRy limits of Cincinnati. This spot was chosen because it commanded the mouth of the Licking River, which penetrated Kentucky and gave the Indians facilities for penetrating the heart of that country by crossing the Ohio at the Licking mouth and then pursuing their way up the latter. There was a road called "The Old War Path," extending from the British garrison at Detroit to the Maumee, thence up that river, and finally across to the "Miamis of the Ohio." All the Indian paths from Lake Erie led to this old " war path," and as it crossed into Kentucky at the mouth of the Licking, that point was commanded by the erection of Fort Washington. The spring of 1787 foreboded evil to the white settlements of the Northwest. Early in the summer a great meeting of Indian deputies from the Shawnces, Delawares, Cherokees, Wyandots, Tawas, Pottawatomies, and other tribes from the lake region, held a grand council of war at old Chillicothe. The council was largely influenced by the notorious and infamous Girty and McKee, who inflamed to frenzy and madness the too susceptible savage minds.

On the 15th August, 1781, the Indians had made an attack upon Bryant's Station, a post five miles from Lexington. About five hundred Indians and whites encompassed the place, but the post having received reinforcements from Lexington, they were compelled to retire and were pursued by Colonels Todd and Trigg, Daniel Boone and Major Harland, with one hundred and sixty men. The men were anxious for an engagement, but Boone endeavored to dissuade them until they could be reinforced. Contrary to his prudent advice they pursued the Indians, came up with them at a bend in Licking River beyond the Blue Licks, where the Americans were attacked by an overpowering force. . Sixty -seven of the Americans were killed, among the number being the three principal officers and a son of Daniel Boone.

The Indians soon afterwards were signally punished. General Clarke, at the head of a thousand men, rendezvousing at Fort Washington, where Cincinnati now stands, invaded the Indian territory. At the approach of so formidable an army the Indians fled, leaving their towns to be destroyed. Daniel Boone thus describes the march of their army: "We continued our pursuit through five towns on the Miami River - Old Chillicothe, Pecaway, New Chillicothe, Willis' towns, and Chillicothe - burnt them all to ashes, entirely destroyed their corn and other fruits, and everywhere spread a scene of desolation in the country."

The American Revolution having terminated, and England and America at peace, the Indians began and continued to molest the border inhabitants of the colonies, and the government having failed to produce peace by means of conferences with these Indian tribes, resolved to humble them by force of arms.

In September, 1790, General Josiah Harmar marched into the Indian territories at the head of nearly fifteen hundred men for the purpose of destroying the Indian settlements on the Scioto and Wabash rivers. To accomplish this, he crossed the Ohio River and following the old Indian war path visited the Indian villages on the head-waters of the Little Miami. From those towns he struck across the woods on to the Great Miami, where Piqua now is, and marching forward when he came to where Loramie's Station was since located, three Indians were discovered early in the morning viewing his encampment. These were followed by some mounted men, one Indian was taken prisoner, but the other two escaped.

The next morning the army crossed St. Mary's River and Col. Hardin and Major Paul beat up for volunteers to go to the Indian town ahead, supposed to be about forty miles distant. Six hundred volunteers marched forward under these officers in advance of the main army, and arrived at the Indian village on the second day. The Indians had mostly fled on their approach, burnt their wigwams, and exchanged a few shots. This detachment remained in the Indian town four days before Gen. Harmar came up with his baggage, having had to cut a road along which his teams and wagons could travel. Gen. Harmar tarried one week after his arrival in the deserted town.

In the mean time the Indians were collecting from all quarters. Every party sent out from the army was waylaid and defeated. A party under Col. Hardin fell in an ambuscade, and twenty-three out of thirty men were killed in the skirmish. Gen. Harmar finally concluded to return to Fort Washington, and actually marched eight miles on his return when he received information that the enemy had taken possession of their town as soon as he had left it. He then ordered Col. Havdin to return and attack the enemy, who with his soldiers returned, attacked, and drove the Indians before him until they had crossed the Maumee in their front and St. Marys on their left. Col. Hardin had marched down the St. Marys on its northern bank to its junction with the St. Josephs. Here Capt. William Crawford, who commanded the Pennsylvania Volunteers, crossed the Maumee and attacked the Indians, who lay on the north bank of the St. Josephs, and drove them up that river several miles and returned triumphantly to where Fort Wayne now stands.

Col. Hardin with his men crossed the St. Marys and followed the Indians up the St. Josephs on the south side of that river, but, marching carelessly along on the low lands adjoining the river, he permitted the Indians to take possession of the high grounds south of him, by which means he -was defeated with great loss, considering his small command. In these different engagements Gen. Harmar lost one hundred and eighty men from the time of his leaving Covington until his return to Fort Washington. Historians all agree that although Harmar boasted of a victory, yet in common parlance it is called Harmar' s defeat.

- Thus, instead of humbling the savages by producing desolation over their fine land, Harmar, in two battles near the present site of Fort Wayne, Indiana, was defeated with disastrous loss, and abandoned the expedition. In May of the following year General Scott, of Kentucky, with eight hundred men penetrated the Wabash country almost to the site of the present town of La Fayette, Indiana, and destroyed many villages. At this time, and while the whole western border was in a ferment of anxiety, Congress again considered the matter, and devised new methods which would require the construction of fortifications at different points across the very heart of the Indian country. Such measures bore the stamp of boldness, but this quality recommended itself by its fruits wherever already tested in Indian warfare. It was, therefore, self-suggestive in the principle that "nothing succeeds like success," and so met with favor at the hands of Congress. It was already perceived by some that the Indians must be met by the exhibition of their own favorite methods, although military officers were loth to substitute Indian methods for European tactics. It was this failure on the part of so many generals to understand and live up to the true methods of Indian warfare, to which we may attribute many reverses, several desperate defeats, and a few horrible massacres. Men who had been trained in military tactics in Europe, and fought through the Revolutionary war, proved incompetent when pitted against the savages. Neither do we hold them altogether responsible; certainly to the earlier commanders we attach no responsibility. They fought a foe who recognized no rules of civilized warfare ; a foe often practically invisible while an army was destroying.

It was not cowardice nor disloyalty on the part of officers or privates, which allowed a savage enemy to glut its vengeance in horrid glee: it was simply ignorance of the Indian mode of warfare, and the failure to employ the same bold and strategic methods to which the many successes of the Indians must be attributed.

With something of experience, attended by some force of its proper lessons, Congress resolved upon the measures recited, and in September, 1791, two thousand troops were gathered at Fort Washington, and marched northward, under the immediate command of Gen. Butler, accompanied by Gen. St. Clair as chief in command. The}' proceeded about twenty miles from Fort Washington, where they halted and erected Fort Hamilton, on the Miami River.

Again advancing about forty-two miles, they built Fort Jefferson. Leaving here late in October, they were apprised of Indian scouts hovering upon their flank. At length the army halted, and encamped on a tributary of the Upper Wabash, near the Indiana line, and about a hundred miles north of Fort Washington. Thus far the plans of the expedition had been successfully carried out, and weary by reason of the toilsome march, the soldiers embraced an early hour of rest, unsuspicious of imminent danger. During the night the sentinels kept up an almost steady fire upon individual Indians; but these were believed to be mere prowlers, and their appearance seems to have given rise to no particular uneasiness. Before sunrise, however, of November 4, 1791, while breakfast was preparing in camp, the horrid yells of the savages fell like a death-knell upon the little army, as the savages fell upon the camp with terrible fury. The troops sprang to their feet, seizing their arms, and made a gallant defence, but the slaughter was too great to be withstood. When it was known Gen. Butler and most of his officers were slain, a panic ensued, and the smitten, bewildered army fled in wild confusion. Gen. St. Clair, tortured with gout, had three horses killed under him, but finally escaped on a pack horse. That evening Adjutant-General Winthrop Sargent wrote these words in his diary: " The troops have all been defeated, and though it is impossible at this time to ascertain our loss, yet there can be no manner of doubt that more than half the army are either killed or wounded." Among the fugitives were more than one hundred feminine camp followers - the wives of the soldiers. One of these was so fleet of foot that she outran the flying remnant of the army. With her long red hair streaming behind her, she became the oriflamme which the soldiers followed in their flight to Fort Washington. This defeat spread dismay over the frontier settlement, and that dismay found a counterpart in the indignation breathed against Gen. St. Clair by the whole nation. President Washington could not hide his wrath and indignation, for he remembered his last words to St. Clair were : "Beware of a surprise." A surprise, suicidal to an army, was too much to hear without revealing his deep emotion, and for a few minutes he was swayed by a tempest of anger, and paced the room in a rage.

" It was awful," wrote Mr. Lear, his private secretary, who was present ; " more than once he threw his hands up as he hurled imprecations upon St. Clair. God 1 0 God!' lie exclaimed, 'lie is worse than a murderer ! How can he answer for it to his country? The blood of the slain is upon him ; the curses of widows and orphans ; the curse of Heaven.'" When his wrath subsided, "This must not go beyond this room," he said, and in a low tone - as if speaking to himself alone - he continued, " St. Clair shall have justice; I will hear him without prejudice ; lie shall have full justice."

Afterward, when the veteran soldier, bowed with age, and carrying a burden of public obloquy - which was more wearing than his previous illustrious burden of military honors - approached his old commander, Washington took his hand and received him warmly. " Poor old St. Clair," said Curtis, who was present, " hobbled up to his chief, seized the offered hand in both of his, and gave vent to his feelings in copious sobs and tears." He lost a battle, but he kept a heart, and he who could fight as bravely for his country and weep as freely over her defeat, deserves better of his countrymen than their obloquy and contempt. Who was General St. Clair ? Perhaps an answer to this question will do him that justice which we demand for every man, remembering that many sterling virtues may make amends, not for a solitary vice, but for a solitary misfortune. We will see.

Let us look to the details attending this defeat. Further along we will find it not amiss to speak of the life of Gen. Arthur St. Clair, a man whose talents, courage, and sacrifices during the Revolutionary struggle and subsequent misfortunes are strangely blended. A strong prejudice has fenced him about since the disastrous defeat at Recovery. Other pages of this volume will show him, not without a military reputation to which clustered glory and renown. In this, his last campaign, he had been exhorted to levy troops, and be urgent. No money to pay troops was furnished. Everything went on slowly and badly; tents, pack-saddles, kettles, everything was deficient in quantity or number. For instance, of 1675 stand of arms designed for the use of the militia, scarcely any were in order, and with two travelling forges furnished - there were no anvils. No time for drill or practice, the troops were massed September 17, 1791, and the march began through the wilderness October 24th. St. Clair was sick, provisions scarce, road3 were heavy, and militia-men deserting as high as sixty in a day. When the army reached the Wabash (Recovery), it numbered only 1400 men. Such was the condition and number of the troops to be opposed to a superior force of Indians, flushed with success, and at home in the forest. In addition to these causes, it must be added that between St. Clair and Butler existed an alienation which was the growth of years. Again, St. Clair had no accurate information of either the country or the enemy. He really supposed he was on the head waters of the St. Mary's River. The men fought well, and were the victims of circumstances rather than cowardice. There was no cowardice; the only cowardice ever attending that exploit is that of the critic, who charges it home upon the brave men who suddenly found themselves in " the jaws of death ; in the mouth of hell !" True, the consternation became so complete that the men threw away their arms, and fled from the field, but this was only after fighting was useless; only after the flower of the army had fallen; only after bayonet charges, as gallant as ever made by man. This battle was so intimately connected with our local history, that we feel impelled to present a minute description after the foregoing explanation and general account. Let us follow St. Clair closely, step by step, and detail .the movements of that battle which, culminating in a crowning defeat, was attended by crowning valor. The Indians were emboldened by previous successes, and kept the whole frontier in a state of alarm. It was then the Congressional measures already alluded to were taken. Arthur St. Clair, under the authority of the act of Congress of 1791, and who had been appointed Major-General and Commander-in-chief, was empowered to treat with the Indian tribes, and to be a military as well as civil governor of the territory. He was appointed to the command of the next expedition against the Indians, to destroy their villages on the Miami, and expel them from that country. The army consisted of about two thousand men, who marched for Fort Washington, on September 17, 1791, and cut a road through the wilderness to where Hamilton, the county seat of Butler, now stands, on the southeast bank of the Great

Miami River, twenty miles within the limits of Ohio, and erected Fort Hamilton. Having completed this fort, and garrisoned it, he marched twenty miles northward, and erected Fort St. Clair; and marching twenty miles or more farther, due north, he established another military post, and called it Fort Jefferson. It is six miles south of the present town of Greenville, Darke County. Having garrisoned this post on October 24, 1791, his force was reduced to less than two thousand men, with whom he marched in the direction of the Indian villages, his object being to destroy those towns. His march was slow, over a wet country, covered with a dense forest, which had to be cleared for his baggage wagons and artillery trains. Besides this difficulty, the Indians hovered about his army, and skirmishes frequently took place; and, in addition thereto, desertions took place daily ; at one time sixty men deserted in a body, and returned on their way to Cincinnati. Major Hamtramck was despatched with a sufficient force to bring back these deserters. By this time the main army was only fourteen hundred strong, which pressed to where Fort Recovery was afterwards erected, within the limits of Mercer County.

Here, on the head waters of the Wabash River, among a number of small creeks, on November 3, 1791, Gen. St. Clair encamped with his remaining troops. The right wing of the array, under the command of Gen. Butler, lay in front of a creek twelve yards wide, and this force formed the first line. The second line, seventy yards behind the first, was commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel William Darke. There were two rows of fires between these lines, and the ground was covered with snow. The right flank was supposed to be protected by a small creek, with high steep banks, and a small body of troops. The left flank was covered by a body of cnvalry and by pickets. The militia crossed the creek and advanced about eighty rods in front of the main array, and encamped in two lines, and had two rows of logs on fire. When this crossing was effected, a few Indians appeared, who precipitately fled on the approach of the militia.

At this place Gen. St. Clair intended to have thrown up a breastwork as soon as Col. Hamtramck returned with the baggage, while the main body of the army pressed forward to the Indian towns on the Maumee, leaving the baggage here under his tare.

About half an hour after daylightof the morning of December 4, 1791, immediately after the militia were dismissed from parade and roll call, they were attacked by the enemy with the utmost fury. The militia fled in an instant, and came running into the regulars' camp, spreading terror and confusion about. They rushed quite through Gen. Butler's line, and were hardly stopped by the second line of regulars. The officers exerted themselves to the utmost to restore order. The Indians pressed close upon the very heels of the flying militia, and instantly engaged Gen. Butler's command with great intrepidity and fury. The action forthwith became warm, and the enemy passing round the first line within fifteen minutes after the first attack, the whole army was surrounded by the Indians.

The artillery was posted in the centre of each wing, which the enemy attacked with the greatest violence, mowing down the artillerists in great numbers. Firing from the ground, and from every tree, they were only seen when flying from covert to covert. At length they boldly marched up to the very mouth of the cannon, and fought with the daring courage of men whose trade is war, and who are impelled to vigorous exertions by all the motives which operate on the savage mind. It was soon perceived that, while our soldiers were falling every moment before the bullets of the enemy, yet hidden as that enemy was, the fire of the troops had little effect. It was then resolved that Lieutenant-Colonel Darke should charge the enemy with the bayonet, at the head of the second line, which he commanded. The charge was made by nearly all the line with the utmost fury, and with so much effect that the Indians were driven about thirty rods ; but no sooner had Col. Darke returned to his position than the Indians were there also ; this was owing to a want of riflemen to press the advantage which Col. Darke had obtained by driving off the enemy.

Instantly after this charge, Gen. Butler was severly wounded; the right wing was broken ; the artillerists were nearly all killed ; the guns were taken by the enemy, and the camp was seized by the savages. Gen. Butler, though his leg was broken by a ball, mounted his horse and bravely led his battalion to the charge. Col. Darke and Major

Clarke also charged the enemy, drove them out of the camp, and restored the guns. But while the Indians were pressed with the bayonet at one point, they kept up their continual fire from every other point, with fatal effect Every charge, when made, drove the enemy back at the point where it was made, but no general effect was produced. Instead of keeping their ranks and fighting, the troops huddled together in crowds about the fires, and were shot down without resistance. The officers did their duty bravely, and were shot down in great numbers by the enemy, who took too sure and fatal aim.

At this time Gen. St. Clair was so worn down by fatigue and disease, that he was not able to mount or dismount his horse without assistance.

All that now remained to be done was to save the army by retiring from the field. St. Clair ordered Col. Darke with the second regiment, to drive the enemy from the path by which the army had advanced, and Col. Clarke to cover the rear of the army. These orders were obeyed, and a most disorderly flight commenced, which continued for about four miles. It was now ten o'clock in the forenoon. All this time the carnage was dreadful. Our soldiers finally threw away their arms, and fled for their lives ; many were killed in the fight, tomahawked and scalped; many were made captives, and burnt at the stake.

After glutting their savage vengeance by killing many of our men in the pursuit, and having taken as many prisoners as they could well manage, the savages returned to the battle ground and glutted their vengeance on the living, the dying, and the dead.

The troops fled to Fort Jefferson, a distance of thirty miles or more. Thirty-eight commissioned officers were killed on the ground; six hundred non-commissioned officers and privates were killed or missing; twenty-one commissioned officers were wounded, many of whom died of their wounds; two hundred and forty-two non-commissioned officers and privates were wounded, many of whom also died. The Indians lost but few of their men, and, from the different accounts, not above fifty. We close the account of this disastrous defeat by stating that the first line of the second regiment, as encamped, was commanded by Gens. Richard Butler, Patterson, and Clarke. The second line by Cols. Garthor, Bedinger, and Darke. Of the first line, all the officers were either killed or wounded except three, and of the artillerists, all were killed except four privates.

To perpetuate the names of the officers who participated in the sad disaster of November 4, 1791, we give a list, many of whom had been in the dangers and glory of the war of the Revolution. They fell nobly doing their duty in their country's cause; they rest from their labors in honor, and deserve the gratitude of every American.

Of the regulars, the following officers were killed: Gen. Richard Butler, Ferguson, Bradford, Spear, Ford, Morgan, Bines, Butts, Hart, Kirkwood, McCrea, Thompson, Phelan, Warren, Balshe, Newman, Kelso, McMickle, Purdy, Anderson, Lukens, Burgess, Crawford, Moorehead, Cribbs, Smith, Piatt, V an Swearingen, Tipton , McMattb, Reeves, Doyle, Brooke, Greyton, Cummings, and Beatty; also, Drs. Chase and Beatty.

Wounded officers of the regulars: Col. George Gibson, Major Thos. Butler, and Cols. Sawyer and Darke ; also, Captains Price, Darke, Buchanan, Lysle, Coyd, Trueman, Malartie, Cobb, and Wilson, and Ensign Purdy. Of the militia killed, were Oldham, Lemon, Briggs, and Montgomery; wounded, Captains Madison and Thomas; Lieutenants Stagner, Owens, Walters, and Gano.

The fugitives arrived at Fort Jefferson about sunset, and continued their march that night at ten o'clock. The ground was covered with snow. They marched to Fort Washington by way of Fort Hamilton. A large number of the sentinels of Fort Jefferson, after hearing of the defeat, deserted and fled.

In the army, at the commencement of the action, were two hundred and fifty women, of whom fifty-six were killed in the battle, and the remainder were made prisoners, except a small number who reached Fort Washington.

Such was the fearfully disastrous result of St. Clair's expedition, which finds no parallel, perhaps, save the defeat of Braddock. It is enough to say the causes were adequate, and at the same time uncontrollable. Let us see if Gen. St. Clair, the first governor of our own proud State, was the man to lose a field through cowardice or weakness.

was born in Edinburgh in the autumn of 1734, and, after graduating at the University of his native city, studied medicine. The inactive and monotonous life of a physician did not suit his ardent temperament, and, obtaining a lieutenant's commission, he entered the army, and in 1755 arrived with Admiral Boscawen in Canada, where he served several years with distinguished credit, and was present with Gen. Wolfe in September, 1759, in the battle on the Plains of Abraham. It was there that this heroic commander, Wolfe, purchased victory and conquest with his life.

Lieut. St. Clair was then made a captain, and after the peace of 1763 was appointed to the command of Fort Ligonier. This fort was situated on the east side of Loyalhanna Creek, in Ligonier Township, Bedford, but now Westmoreland, County, Pa., and was erected in 1757 by Gen. Forbes. Capt. St. Clair purchased a tract of land of Gov. Penn, and entered upon the business of farming, and turned his mathematical knowledge to advantage as a surveyor before the close of 1773.

On March 12, 1771, Capt. Arthur St. Clair was commissioned Prothonatory, Clerk of the Courts, Register and Recorder of Deeds for Bedford County, which had been erected into a county March 11, 1771 ; but when Westmoreland County was formed, on Feb. 26, 1773, he was appointed to the same office in Westmoreland County.

January 2, 1776, Arthur St. Clair was appointed Colonel of the 2d Battalion to be raised in Pennsylvania for the Continental service, as he - had so thoroughly espoused the American cause.

When Col. St. Clair resided in Westmoreland County the greatest distress prevailed among the inhabitants, arising from two causes: 1st. The claim of Virginia to the land. 2d. From a threatened Indian war. In process of time the first cause was removed, by Virginia and Pennsylvania appointing commissioners to settle the boundaries of these two States. With regard to the Indian troubles Col. St. Clair met with the Six Nations and the Delawares in May, 1774, and said to them, as the representative of the colony, "that Pennsylvania is determined to maintain tire friendship existing between them, and recommended to the Indians to do no hunting on this side of the Ohio River, and by so doing the Pennsylvanians will keep the path open and keep bright that chain of friendship to which each of their forefathers held fast." But, on June 7, he changed his mind, for he assured Gov. Penn that the Six Nations and Delawares have too many secret meetings with the chiefs of the Shawnees, which is a bad omen. And in confirmation of his views he added that, on the 6th of this month, the Indians had killed and scalped one man, his wife, and three children, and that three more of their children were missing, which happened at Muddy Creek, now in Greene County, Pa. And on June 14, near Ten Mile Creek, in Washington County, Pa., the captain of a company was killed by the Indians and a lieutenant wounded.

Col. St. Clair assures Gov. Penn that this state of affairs kept up until May, 1775, when the people of Westmoreland County resolved, in county meeting, to form an association, to arm and discipline themselves for every emergency, especially for the defence of American liberty.

On January 22, 1776, Col. St. Clair reported himself to Congress, in session in Philadelphia, and immediately received instructions to raise a regiment for service in Canada. In six weeks his ranks were filled, and on May 11, 1776, he was in the vicinity of Quebec to cover the retreat of the defeated forces under Gen. Arnold. He remained in the North acting and counselling with Gens. Sullivan, Wayne, and other officers.

On August 9, 1776, he was appointed a brigadier-general, and in the fall was ordered to join Gen. Washington, the Commander-in-Chief, in New Jersey, and participated in the events of Trenton and Princeton.

February 19, 1777, he was appointed a major-general, and ordered to report himself to Gen. Schuyler, then in charge of the northern department, and under whose direction, on June 12, he assumed the command of Ticonderoga. For good and sufficient reasons (as the sequel to the case shows) he evacuated Ticonderoga, and through jealousy he was suspended to await his trial before a court-martial. He, however, remained with the army, and was with Washington September 11, 1777, at Brandywine, and was employed With Gen. Hamilton to settle a general cartel with the British commissioner at Amboy, March 9, 1780.

In October, 1778, the court-martial investigated the charges made against Gen. St. Clair, and decided that " Maj.-Gen. Arthur St. Clair is .acquitted with the highest honor of the charges exhibited against him which was approved by Congress without a dissenting voice, thereby justly vindicating the character of a valiant and magnanimous officer and restoring him to his rightful position.

In 1781 he was ordered to take charge of West Point, and afterwards joined Washington at Yorktown before Lord Cornwallis's surrender. On December 27, 1781, he was sent with six regiments to reinforce the Southern army and report himself to Gen. Greene, and in 1782 he returned to his family.

His course as a military officer through the Revolution had been useful and honorable, and on October 20, 1783, he was elected censor with F. A. Muhlenberg, and was returned to Congress by the Legislature of Pennsylvania in 1786, and was elected speaker soon after he took his seat in that body.

On the 11th day of July, 1788, he was appointed by Congress the first Governor of the Northwestern Territory, and upon the organization of the Federal Government he was reappointed to the same office of Governor by Washington, and held it until within a few weeks of the territorial administration in the winter of 1802-03 when he was removed by Jefferson.

August 18, 1790, Gov. St Clair made a requisition for five hundred men agreeably to an act of Congress. September 29, 1791, Gov. St. Clair asked for troops from Pennsylvania to act with the United States troops against the Indians.

In 1791, and while he was Governor of the Northwestern Territory, he suffered his memorable defeat by the Westeru Indians. With fourteen hundred men he encamped near the Miami villages on November 3, 1791. The next morning, an hour before sunrise, the army was attacked, and in a few minutes surrounded by savages. The militia, who were in advance, received the first fire and fled precipitately through the main body, throwing them into confusion, from which they did not entirely recover during the action, and at length they broke and fled in disorder. The attack lasted about four hours. The loss in this battle and in the retreat was thirty-eight officers and five hundred and ninetythree men killed and twenty-one officers and two hundred and forty-two men wounded.

The House of Representatives inquired by a committee into the causes of this disastrous result, and after a patient investigation made a report, which was honorable to Gen. St. Clair's reputation as a veteran soldier and conciliatory to his feelings, as he was in feeble health, but behaved with singular coolness and bravery.

After his removal from the office of Governor in 1802 Gen. St. Clair returned once more to the Ligonier Valley. Fourteen years of fatigue, privation, and danger had left him bereft of his property which remained to him at the close of the Revolution. The State of Pennsylvania, from considerations of personal respect and gratitude for his past services, settled on him an annuity of three hundred dollars, and this was soon after raised to six hundred and fifty dollars, which secured to him a comfortable subsistence for the brief remainder of his life.

In the beautiful cemetery incorporated by the name of St. Clair Cemetery Association of Greensburg, Westmoreland County, Pa., at which place he died, as also his wife, the Brethren of Greensburg Lodge No. 64 of Free and Accepted Masons, erected a monument to the memory of Gen. St. Clair, which speaks in fraternal language of this great and good patriot.

Vicinity

The Congress of the United States apprehending that late failures to negotiate and misfortnnes in arms would be supplemented by hostilities against the settlements, a bill was introduced in the House of Representatives, providing for three additional regiments of infantry and a squadron of cavalry, to be raised for a term of three years unless sooner discharged. By this bill the military force was fixed at five thousand men. In April, 1192, General Anthony Wayne was appointed commander-in-chief, vice General St. Clair, resigned. While preparations were making for a vigorous campaign, measures of a pacific character were undertaken to end the war. Two envoys were sent into the Indian country with conciliatory offers, but the agents were murdered, and no alternative remained save a resort to arms. General Wayne was in command, a Revolutionary major-general, ranking high. He was u the right man in the right place." In June, 1792, he moved forward to Pittsburgh, and proceeded at once to organize his army. Washington's instructions were : " Train and discipline the men for the service they are meant for, and do not spare powder and lead, so the men be made marksmen." In December following the forces were put in camp twenty miles below Pittsburgh, on the west side of the Ohio, since called " Legionville," in honor of the army, which was called The Legion. Here some time was devoted to thorough drill. The army finally moved out: the commander determined to chastise the Indians in a summary manner. The march was directed into the heart of the Indian country of the Miami of the lakes, now the Maumee. He passed the winter of 1793-4 not far from the scene of St. Clair's defeat, where he Luilt a stockade which was named Fort Recovery. Passing the winter with head-quarters and general camp at Greenville, he in the spring pushed northward with vigor and dispatch. This march has been much discussed, and many opinions, differing widely, have been entertained. This, we think, has arisen largely from Wayne's own studied concealment of his route. In one of his dispatches he says, he cut one road toward the Miami Town (now Fort Wayne), and one toward the foot of the rapids near Maumee, in order to mislead and deceive the Indians, as he intended to follow neither road, but to push his way between them. When marching, he cut his road as he went, day by day - so that he fell into the Maumee country almost without warning to the Indians.

Before us lies the journal of that march from Greenville down to the Maumee, of the battle, the building of Forts Adams, Defiance, and Wayne, and of the return march to Greenville in November, 1794. This journal was kept by Lieutenant Boyer, and its accuracy vouched for by George Hill, who joined Wayne's army at Pittsburgh and continued therein until discharged at Detroit in April, 1798. We here insert so much of the journal as bears upon the subject in hand : -

Camp at Stillwater, July 28, 1794. - Agreeable to the general order of yesterday, the legion took up their line of march at eight o'clock, and encarhped at half past three on the banks of Stillwater, twelve miles from Greenville. The weather extremely warm - water veiy bad. Nothing occurred worth noticing.

Camp one mile in advance of Fort Recovery, July 29, 1794. - At five o'clock left the camp - arrived on this ground at one o'clock, being fifteen miles. Nothing took place worth reciting.

Camp Beaver Swamp, eleven miles in advance of Fort Recovery, July 30, 1794. - This morning the legion took up the line of march, and arrived here at three o'clock. The road was to cut, as will be the case on every new route we take in this country. The weather still warm - no water except in ponds, which nothing but excessive thirst would induce us to drink. The mosquitos are very troublesome, and larger than I ever saw. The most of this country is covered with beech, the land of a wet soil intermixed with rich tracts, but no running water to be found.

A bridge to be built over this swamp to-morrow, which prevents the march of the legion till the day after. We are informed there is no water for twelve miles.

One hundred pioneers set out this morning, strongly escorted, to cut a road to the St. Marys River, twelve miles. I expect the bridge will be completed so as to march early in the morning.

Gamp St. Marys River, August 1, 1794. - Proceeded on our way before sunrise, and arrived at this place at three o'clock, being twelve miles as aforesaid. Our encampment iB on the largest and most beautiful prairie I ever beheld, the land rich and well timbered ; the water plenty but very % bad - the river is from forty-five to fifty yards wide, in which I bathed. I am told there is plenty of fish in it

August 2, 1794. - The legion detained here for the purpose of erecting a garrison, which will take up three days. This day one of the deputy quartermasters was taken up by the Indians. Our spies discovered where four of the enemy had retreated precipitately with a horse, and supposed to be the party the above person had been taken by. It is hoped he will not give accurate information of our strength.

August 3, 1794. - An accident took place this day by a tree falling on the commander-in-chief and nearly putting an end to his existence ; we expected to be detained here some time in consequence of it, but fortunately he is not so much hurt as to prevent him from riding at a slow pace.

No appearance of the enemy to-day, and think they are preparing for a warm attack. The weather very hot and dry, without any appearance of rain.

Camp thirty-one miles in advance of Fort Recovery , August 4, 1794. - The aforesaid garrison being completed, Lieutenant Underhill, with one hundred men, left to protect it; departed at six o'clock and arrived here at three o'clock, being ten miles. The land we marched through is rich and well timbered, but the water scarce and bad; obliged to dig - holes in boggy places and let it settle.

Camp forty-four miles in advance of Fort Recovery, August 6, 1794. - We arrived at this place ht four o'clock, nothing particular occurring. The land and water as above described - had some rain to-day.

Camp fifty-six miles from Fort Recovery, August 6, 1794. - Encamped on this ground at two o'clock. In the course of our march perceived the track of twenty Indians. I am informed we are within six miles of one of their towns on the Oglaize River, supposed to be the upper Delaware town. If so I expect to eat green com to-morrow.

Camp sixty-eight miles from Fort Recovery, August 7, 1794. - This day passed the upper town on the Oglaize, which the Indians evacuated some time ago. I expected to see one of their new towns, where I am told there are all sorts of vegetables, which will be very acceptable to the troops. We have had no appearance of Indians to-day.

Camp Grand Oglaize, August 8, 1794. - Proceeded on our march to this place at five o'clock this morning, and arrived here at the confluence of the Miami and Oglaize Rivers at half past ten, being seventy-seven miles from Fort Recovery. This place far excels tn beauty any in the western country, and believed equalled by none in the Atlantic States. Here are vegetables of every kind in abundance, and we have marched four or five miles in cornfields down the Oglaize, and there is not less than one thousand acres of com round the town. The land in general of the fir nature.