Stock Township (part 3 of 9)

Treatment. - Remove the cause and treat promptly. Give nourishing feed in small quantities. Clean and disinfect the stalls and utensils. For the diarrhea, give a cup of strong coffee or two raw eggs. In severe cases, give one ounce of castor oil, one teaspoonful of creolin and twenty grains of subnitrate of bismuth. Repeat the creolin and bismuth with flaxseed tea every four hours. A dose of 15 to 30 grains of Tannopin may be given. When a calf which is fed by hand develops diarrhea, put four drops of formalin into each quart of its milk. Feed in the usual quantity. If the diarrhea is not much better in four days, use some of the remedies mentioned above. A paste of flour and water is good.

Weeds, twigs or trees, stems of straw or hay, pieces of cornstalk, etc., may break off in the eye. While they may enter the eyeball, they more often glide oft" and enter between the eye and the ocular sheath.

Treatment. - Remove the object. To do this it is often necessary to cast the animal. Apply cooling washes and a cold water compress over the injured eye. Five drops of sulphate of zinc to 2 tablespoonfuls of water make a good wash. Boric acid is also very good. Maintain an opening for the discharge of pus when an abscess forms.

By eating some irritating substance the membrane of the mouth may become inflamed. Blisters may form in the mouth of calves because of indigestion

Treatment. - When merely red and inflamed, syringe the mouth out with four ounces of the following solution : one ounce alum and one quart of water. Do this several times daily. When the tongue and mouth are covered with ulcers, paint them daily with a solution consisting of twenty grains permanganate of potassium and one ounce of water. When indigestion is associated with this disease, treat it separately.

Treatment. - Eliminate the cause. Give the animal plenty of pure water. Give each affected cow 2 drams bisulphite of soda daily and the trouble will promptly stop.

Treatment. - In light cases remove to a sheltered, quiet place and give a light diet for several days. When animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to the head, rub the limbs and body with straw or cloths for some time. If the animal can swallow give three teaspoonfuls of strong ammonia in a quart of cold water, \l/2 ounces aqua ammonia will be found just as good. If the animal cannot swallow, inject the ammonia and water into the rectum. Help the animal to the nearest shelter as soon as it can rise and give it all the cold water it will drink. Repeat the ammonia and water twice at half hour intervals, then each three hours until strength returns. Give bran slops and a little grass for several days. Where the animal has been unconscious but strength has returned, 12 ounces of Epsom salts in a quart of warm water may be given.

This is a blood disease caused by indirect infection. Cattle from an infected district first infect pastures, cars, pens, etc., where other cattle obtain the infection secondhand. The ticks which adhere to the infected cattle are the only known means of carrying the infection to other cattle. The tick is essentially a parasite. It obtains its food when attached to the skin of cattle and can mature no place else. The female drops to the ground and lays a large number of eggs which hatch in from three to six weeks according to the temperature. When hatched the tick soon finds its way on to cattle and growth begins. Cattle may have Texas fever in one week after the young ticks get on them.

Treatment. - No satisfaction of a permanent nature is secured from the use of medicines. Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be treated with an agent that will kill all the ticks present, or they may be rotated on tick-free fields until all the ticks have dropped. All the ticks will drop from cattle placed on tick-free soil in from six to ten weeks according to temperature. The time required to free pastures from ticks by starvation is from eight to ten months according to climate and temperature. To do this all animals must be kept from the field for this period.

Grease the limbs and sides of the cattle with crude petroleum or cotton seed oil. This helps to prevent the ticks crawling onto the body. Smear a mixture consisting of one pound sulphur, one gallon of kerosene, and one gallon cotton seed oil. Do this three times each week during the tick season.

This germ, called tubercle bacillus, gains entrance to the body, lodges in the tissues and begins to grow and multiply at that point. As they spread through the body they cause the formation of many small knob-like masses. These masses unite and often form tubercular material of great size.

Symptoms. - A short dull cough is noticed when the lungs are involved. As the disease progresses the animal grows thin, the skin grows harsh, eyes sink in their sockets, quality of milk lessens and there is tenderness of chest when pressure is applied.

Treatment. - Treatment is not seriously considered. However, many cases can be prevented. Great care should be given to the feed, surroundings and breeding of the animal, so it may resist infection when exposed to it. Apply the tuberculin test to all strange cattle before permitting their entrance into the herd. Do not allow healthy cattle to stay near an infected one. After slaughtering the affected animal, scrub and disinfect the stables and walls. Remove all manure and disinfect. A rigid exclusion of tuberculous animals will prevent the appearance of the disease.

Tuberculin Test. - Stable and feed cattle as usual. Examine each one and give a number by which it will be known during the test. Take the temperature three or four times at two hour intervals on day of injection. At 8 or 10 p. m. inject a dose of tuberculin under the skin in the region of the shoulder. First disinfect the skin at point of injection with a 5 percent solution of carbolic acid or any good antiseptic solution. It is not necessary to dilute the tuberculin made by the Bureau of Animal Husbandry ; the dose is 2 cubic centimeters for a grown cow. Yearlings and 2-year-olds may receive from one to one and a half cubic centimeters. Extra large animals and bulls may receive 3 cubic centimeters. Begin taking temperatures the next day at 6 a. m., and continue two or three hours until the twentieth hour after injection, or until 4 or 6 in the afternoon. If the temperature shows no tendency to rise, the test may cease If there is a rise of two or more degrees Fahrenheit above the highest temperature of the preceding day, providing the temperature exceeds 103-8 degrees F., it should be taken as an indication of tuberculosis.

Treatment. - Sometimes remedied by raising the hind part of the stall higher than the front part. A home-made truss may be applied and worn until the period of calving approaches.

Treatment. - They may be removed with the scissors, or ligatured by means of a horse hair or rubber band. Burn the roots with tincture of iron, lunar caustic or glacial acetic acid. Never use acid near the mouth or eyes. Give young cattle Fowler's solution of arsenic, one tablespoonf ul twice each day for a calf six months old.

It may arise from the presence of gallstones or parasites in the biliary ducts. These close up the ducts and the bile, which then passes into the intestines, may be absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. This happens when there is an inactive condition of bowels as in constipation. A swollen condition of the mucous membrane of the small intestine may also cause the disease.

Symptoms. - The appetite is poor; the animal drinks very little; the white of eyes and lining of mouth are yellow, the urine is yellow or brown ; animal lies down and moans when it moves ; it staggers when it walks. - Pressure on the short ribs on the right side produces pain.

Treatment. - Move the bowels by giving one pound of sulphate of soda, one pint of molasses and one quart of warm water. Follow this with a heaping tablespoonf ul of artificial Carlsbad salt in the feed three times daily. Give injections of warm soapy water. Give laxative diet like coarse bran mash, pulped roots and grass or hay in moderate quantities.

Horse Production

Types and Market Classes. - Horses of various types are indispensable in spite of the large number of automobiles and auto trucks. The farm and other lines of industry will always require a given amount of horse labor. Horses suitable for serving different purposes must continue to be produced and the farm is one of the most satisfactory places to produce them.

The height, weight, form, action and disposition of the horse signifies its type. Its usefulness and market value will depend upon which of the several types it represents and upon its age, soundness, condition and ability to work. The market value will further depend upon the supply and demand. The more common types of horses furnish the greater supply and sell at the lowest prices. Misfits, or horses that do not conform to definite market types, are difficult to sell. There is a demand and an established market for types of horses suitable for doing definite kinds of work. Such horses are bought and sold on general markets under classes and subclasses that are named and briefly described in the following tabulation :

It only pays to breed horses of a definite type and character. Prices paid on the Chicago market for the different classes of horses for the year 1916. show the trend of market values. Horses five to eight years of age, sound, in good condition for hard work and of colors easily matched, sell for the best prices.

Monthly Average Price Of Horses For Year 1916

The best types of horses show a predominance of breed character. Breed and feed are the principal factors that determine type. The table on pages 103 and 104 names and furnishes a brief description of the more important breeds of horses bred and maintained in America at the present time.

Draft vs. Light Breeds on the Farm. - Market values and the fact that heavy weight and ability to work are the principal features demanded in the breeds of draft horses, make it appear that, under ordinary conditions, horses of the draft type are best for the farmer to produce. Much of the value of the lighter classes of horses is developed by training, which the farmer is not always in the best position to give. Light horses that have to do heavy work do not have the opportunity to develop gaits, manners and a spirit that makes them attractive and are also rendered unsalable by accidents resulting in blemishes. Furthermore, the automobiles and auto truck have taken the places of the lighter classes of horses to a much larger extent than they have for horses of the draft breeds.

Breeding the Draft Horse. - A weight of 1600 Ibs. or over, feet, limbs and body of sound character, a compact form with strength and quality, and a disposition that is kind and intelligent, are the more essential features of a good draft horse. "Like produces like" and, therefore, the production of desirable draft horses is secured by the selection of mares of grade or draft breeding free from hereditary unsoundnesses, mating them to pure bred draft stallions of the most approved types, and rearing the foals in a manner to

Horse Production Types And Breeds Of Horses

Bay, brown, black, chestnut, gray. Feet good. Body comparatively deep.Trotters or pacers. Remarkable speed and endurance. Highly intelligent.

secure a maximum normal growth. Diseases like heaves, roaring, moonblindness and weakened, malformed limbs predisposed to curbs, spavins, ringbone and other diseases of the feet and limbs and which are hereditary, should be avoided both in the mare and in the stallion.

Breeding Light Horses. - Particular emphasis must be placed upon purity of breeding and breeding in line where one undertakes to produce light horses. This system of breeding is highly essential to the successful production of this type of horses. Families or strains that have excelled in the type, quality, disposition and spirit desirable must be depended upon. A carriage horse is heavier than the roadster, but weight is less important than style and action in both types. Cold blooded, indifferent light horses are misfits incapable of high development and may be regarded unprofitable.

Judging Horses. - It is important to be able to judge a horse and know his value. One's ability to exercise good judgment in the selectior) of horses is developed largely by learning to know all the parts of the horse and their relationship to one another in forming a well-balanced body. With this there must be the proper disposition, energy and training that combines to enable the horse to do its work efficiently. Practice makes perfect when one has learned the parts and disposition of horses and acquired the ability to observe carefully and quickly and arrive at a judgment. The parts of the horse named in the accompanying score card for light and draft horses, together with the discussion of diseases and blemishes, should enable one to acquire the art of

The Brood Mare. - It is a serious mistake to use mares retired from work because of unsoundness or old age for breeding purposes. The best plan for

Score Card For Draft Horses

Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean .... Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic; heels wide, one-half length of toe ....

BODY - 10 POINTS Chest, deep, wide; breast bone, low; girth, large Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip. . . Back, broad, strong, muscular

Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean .... Feet, large, even size, sound; horn, dense, waxy; soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic; heels, wide, one-half length of toe, vertical to ground the farmer is to have one or more mares of the best individuality and keep them raising foals, year after year, as long as they are successful in doing so.

The Pregnant Mare. - Exercise is necessary and one of the things often neglected especially during the winter season in caring for the brood mare that is in foal. It is best to work the mare under conditions that insure against overwork and strains that result from too heavy loads. The mare foals 48 weeks or about 340 days after the time of service. During this time she should occupy a comfortable stall and when she begins to show signs of being in foal, a box stall well ventilated and as comfortable as it can be made should be provided. A mare never should be allowed to 'foal in a narrow stall or too small a box stall. The stall should be kept clean, dry and well bedded. In the warmer seasons of the year it is better for mares to foal in a secreted place in the pasture field rather than in an unsuitable stall.

Delwart'S Truss

Stall Suitable for Mare Foaling. - Stalls 12 x 12 feet and preferably 14 x 14 feet should be provided for brood mares. An absolutely clean foaling place is necessary, to safeguard the foal against infection resulting in navel and joint disease. To prepare the stall for foaling and to insure against infection it is recommended that the floor be scraped and cleansed and sprinkled with a 1 to 50 solution of coal tar disinfectant or a solution of four ounces of sulphate of copper (blue stone), to one gallon of hot water, or a 1 to 1,000 solution of corrosive sublimate. Follow the cleansing with a coat of lime whitewash to each gallon of which has been added 1-3 of a pound of chloride of lime. Bed the stall with fresh, dry straw that is free from chaff and dust and keep it as clean as possible until the mare has foaled.

The Mare at Foaling Time. - As foaling time approaches the mare should be given lighter work and the ration decreased. Laxative foods to keep the bowels acting freely should be supplied. Bran and a little flaxseed meal, carrots or roots produce a laxative condition and relieve constipation which must be avoided. About three days before foaling wax will form on the teats. At this time the mare should occupy the box stall prepared for foaling, and be watched until the foal is born.

Watch the mare from a distance where she will not be disturbed or excited by one's presence when she has gone approximately her full gestation period and there are indications that she is about to foal. Ordinarily no assistance in foaling is necessary and the mare should be left alone. It pays, however, to be where assistance can be given if necessary.

If conditions are normal it is best to leave the mare alone for a time after she has foaled. If the afterbirth does not come away within an hour, or two, it should be removed. One experienced in doing this should perform the work. In all instances the afterbirth should be removed from the stall as soon as it comes away from the mare. The stall should also be cleaned and fresh bedding supplied.

Delivering Hind Feet of Colt First. - To meet this situation first tie a strap tightly around the breast of the mare to stop her straining. Then you can get your arm into the vagina, turn the colt around and save the life of both the mare and the colt. - Recommended by Will Perry, De Witt; Iowa, Route 1.

Labor Pains Coming on Before Mouth of Womb is Relaxed. - When this happens pass the hand into the vagina and dilate the opening of the womb. Use the thumb and finger at first but later the hand. Be sure the nails are short and the hand is well oiled with carbolic acid and sweet oil or vaseline (1 part to 10 of oil or vaseline) before the hand is passed.

When to Assist Most. - Assist the mother when she is making an effort herself. Remember a delivery cannot be accomplished unless you are pulling on both forefeet or both hind ones.

Calf or Colt Dropsical. - If the calf or colt is found dropsical push it back, take your knife and tap its belly and then help finish the delivery.

Feet or Head of Calf or Foal Turned Back. - When this occurs push the foetus back into position, arrange the parts as they should be and produce a natural delivery. The back quarters of the mother should be raised almost a foot before this operation is begun. It makes delivery easier many times in such cases if pieces of soft rope are tied around the feet and head of the foetus before it is pushed back. One should remember which ropes are on the feet and which one is on the head.

Care in Assisting at Birth. - One should always be careful in helping the mare or cow as the parts are easily injured. Be sure the fingernails are short and smooth.

Offer the mare a pailful of lukewarm water a half hour after the birth of the foal and again at intervals of two hours, Blanket her if the stable is at all cold and there is danger of her becoming chilled. If she is accustomed to a mash of steamed feed such a feed of oats and bran may be fed an hour after foaling, otherwise give her a small feed of her ordinary grain ration. Under favorable conditions the mare in foal may be exercised after a few days and in 12 to 15 days she should be recovered from foaling and able to resume light work.

Feed for the Brood Mare. - Properly feeding the brood mare insures success in developing a strong, well developed foal. During pregnancy she should be fed sound, whole oats, pure wheat bran and mixed clover or timothy hay. A few ears of corn with the oats and bran will keep her in good condition and give strength to the foal. If the mare is idle, feed hay night and morning, and bright, dry fodder or other good roughage at noon scattered in the field or paddock, when weather permits her to be out. One feed of hay at night, one feed of corn stalks and access to a rack of bright straw and a few ears of corn daily has been recommended as a suitable ration for idle mares. Avoid moldy hay or silage, damaged grain, fodder or rusted straw. Give plenty of pure, fresh water. Allow free access to salt if mare has been accustomed to it, otherwise feed salt in limited quantities until she has become satisfied and may have free access to it without overeating. Do not allow the mare to become too fat, but keep her in fair flesh, and do not let her condition indicate too scanty a ration.

Oats and bran in equal bulk and %. in bulk of corn, makes a good ration for a mare in milk. It is a good plan to moisten this before feeding if it is practicable. Clover or alfalfa hay and grass pasture in season, if mare can be turned out, provide most suitable roughages for keeping up a good milk flow. The condition of the mare, her milk flow and the condition of the colt, should govern the feeding, and judgment must be exercised to the fullest extent possible.

Care of Foal at Birth. - The first and most important attention to give to the foal is to see that the navel cord has been properly severed and disinfected. Navel and joint disease, from which many colts die, gains entrance to the system through the navel cord. Every precaution should be taken to prevent infection from filth or germs of any kind. It is best for the cord to break off naturally in which case it is unnecessary to tie it. If the cord has to be cut, disinfect a string in five percent solution of lysol or carbolic acid, or a 1-500 solution of corrosive sublimate ( bichloride of mercury), tie it one inch from the body and cut it below the knot. Castrating instruments, the emasculator or ecraseur, if at hand, may be used to pinch the cord off and thus make it unnecessary to tie the cord.

Whether the cord is tied or not it should be saturated with a disinfectant twice a day until it shrivels up and no raw spot remains. Do not saturate the body of the foal. Fresh lard or vaseline smeared on the foal's belly will prevent the disinfectant blistering it.

Solution for Saturating Foal's Navel. - The following disinfectant has been recommended by Dr. A. S. Alexander, of the Wisconsin College of Agriculture, and used effectively :

Powdered corrosive sublimate, 2 drams; boiling water 1 pint. When cool, color the solution with 2 drams of tincture of iron. The solution is poison and should be so marked and kept away from the reach of children.

If it is not possible to use this solution and to give attention to foals frequently, it is recommended that the stump of the navel be saturated with full strength tincture of iodine and covered with a dry dressing powder composed of one part each of calomel, powdered alum and either tannic acid or starch and five parts of boric acid. Keep the navel as well coated with the powder as possible. A supply of good disinfectant kept on hand and used properly at foaling time, will insure against losses that are more or less certain to occur without them.

Caring for Weak Foals. - A strong foal will be on its feet and nursing in a very short time and requires no assistance. Weak foals should be assisted to suck until they gain enough strength to do so alone.

The bowels of a weak foal and even of a strong one, may need attention. If there is not a prompt bowel movement, give an injection of either warm water, sweet oil or equal parts of cream and molasses and warm water. A small rubber hose, or a fountain syringe with a small rubber nozzle is best to use in giving an injection. A dose of two or four tablespoonfuls of castor oil, in milk should be given if bowels do not move in 24 hours.

Scouring is an indication of bowel trouble, resulting in young foals from indigestion and constipation and there is no better remedy than castor oil and varying the ration to overcome or counteract the cause.

Feeding and Weaning the Foal. - Draft foals should make one-half their mature weight the first year of their life. To accomplish this they must be fed liberally. Foals should be accustomed to grain before five months of age, when they are usually weaned. After weaning the following ration will prove successful until they are turned out the second summer at 13 to 15 months of age :

Feed all of this mixture they will eat three times per day. No other hay is necessary until they are one year old. A foal will eat 9 to 15 Ibs. (20 to 30 qts.) daily, according to the age. To dampen and thoroughly mix the feed is an advantage. Where one is not in a position to feed such a mixture, a ration of 20 parts bran and cut alfalfa or cut clover with 80 percent crushed oats will prove satisfactory. Combinations of coarse roughage and corn should be avoided. Silage is not a good feed for foals. Allow free access to salt and provide plenty of fresh water. Exercise is very essential to the best growth. Well bred foals are most easily fed and properly developed to produce types that are most satisfactory for work and market purposes.

Raising the Orphan Foal. - Occasionally there is necessity for raising a foal by hand. This may be done successfully by exercising patience and giving careful attention to every detail.

Milk low in butter fat from a cow recently fresh, sweetened with molasses or sugar, diluted with warm water and lime water, constitutes the feed that most closely resembles the mare's milk. A tablespoonful of sugar with warm water enough to dissolve it, 3 to 5 tablespoonfuls of lime water and milk enough to make a pint, would be a proper mixture for this amount. The lime water tends to correct digestive troubles and is very necessary. At first the foal should be fed half a teacupful every hour. Lengthen the feeding periods and increase the amount gradually as the colt gains strength. In a few days feeding six times a day will answer and later four times. When the foal is 5 to 6 weeks old, some skim milk may gradually be added to the feed and feeding periods be reduced to

In case of scouring reduce the amount of milk and give castor oil treatment. Be careful not to overfeed and lay emphasis on keeping everything sweet and clean.

Care of the Foal's Feet. - Under natural conditions a foal's feet may be expected to grow and develop normally and without the necessity of giving them attention. It is true, however, that bad feet, ankles, and the wrong kind of action often develop as a result of the feet growing unevenly or in the wrong manner.

They should be watched and trimmed whenever there is an opportunity to level them at the bottom or keep them in line with a straightforward action. Do not pare the foot away any more than is necessary and aim to grow all the foot possible.

Training the Foal. - The horse is much more susceptible to training than many people stop to consider. Much of the disposition and habit of a horse and the ease or difficulty with which he is handled is a matter of acquirement. It is, therefore, important that from the beginning the foal be handled and developed in a manner to become most satisfactory and pleasing. Regular lessons in teaching the foal and horse what is expected of him accompanied with firmness and patience, is the most approved system of training. There shouH be a clear understanding of what the foal is to do. Avoid confusion by not trying to teach too many things at a time. Aim to develop the intelligence and confidence of the foal rather than to force him into subjection by breaking his spirit and having him obey through fear. Guard against bad habits and do not let them become fixed. Mismanagement and the want of something better to do are the cause of most bad habits in horses. Exercise and a proper amount of work play an important part in the training and development of all classes of horses. At the age when the foal may begin to work, two and a half to three years, be particularly careful not to overwork him. Reserving his strength will result in a more complete development and a longer lifetime of the most satisfactory service.

Age to Castrate Colt. - Castration should be done by one well qualified to do the work and is usually done after the colt is a year old. Too early castration interferes with the development of masculine characteristics that are important in the gelding. Colts should be in a healthy condition at time of castration and exercised or turned to pasture following the operation. There is less opportunity for infection and colts heal faster if turned out to pasture prior to and at time of castration.

The Care and Feed of the Stallion. - Stallions of a better class than the average would greatly increase the value of the horse industry and improve the general character of horses in every community. There should be a community interest in the type and character of the stallions that stand for service within it. Owners of mares should be as much concerned about the care and management of stallions as they are with the care and management of their brood mares and foals.

Four important evils prevent stallions from having the vigor and fertility to insure mares being safely bred and from possessing the ability to impart soundness, strength and longevity to their foals. These evils are hereditary unsoundness and disease, idleness, pampering with the wrong kind of feed, and service at too young an age and in excess. There is no reason why these evils should exist or cannot be avoided. There are plenty of sound, healthy colts of good parentage in the country which if properly reared should make it unnecessary to use anything of secondary class. A community effort and proper appreciation on the part of owners of mares and stallions in selecting and handling stallions would save money, time and disappointment and insure a class of horses and a market for them that would be highly profitable.

Proper Age for Service. - Properly reared and managed, the best service of a stallion is from eight to sixteen years. A two-year-old colt will serve mares without indications of harm at the time, but experienced horsemen claim that in after years he will show undesirable results of it in both himself and his colts. One of the most successful breeders of horses in America advises not to let a colt serve until he is at least four years old and further states that five is better.

Number of Mares Stallion Should Serve. - Commence breeding twenty mares at the proper serviceable age and increase each year at the rate of ten until fifty mares are bred each season, never going beyond this number and never serving more than two mares a day. This should insure a high percentage of mares safely bred, colts of a vigorous, sound character and a long useful lifetime of service on the part of the stallion. Stallions are frequently required to serve 100

Horse Production 119

Feeding the Stallion. - The greater number of stallions are likely to be overfed at the beginning of the breeding season and poorly fed during their idle season. Pampering the stallion with drugs, stock foods, tonics and unhealthful feeds to fatten and stimulate him is unnecessary and produces unsatisfactory results. Feeding must be a matter of intelligent judgment. It is safe to depend upon bright, clean oats and hay and a bran mash once or twice a week as the condition may seem to warrant. A liberal quantity of oats and bran, two parts of oats and one of bran fed twice a day, and once daily through the breeding season, giving a feed of boiled barley with a little flaxseed cooked with it and fed hot at night, is recommended. Fresh grass is always relished and keeps the bowels in good condition.

Authorities, differ on the matter of feeding corn. Some advocate a few ears occasionally, others avoid feeding it. This is evidence that more than one system of feeding may be followed. Stallioners of the older school recommend saltpetre to keep the system clear and to avoid "Monday morning" difficulties. A tablespoonful of saltpetre in the Saturday evening bran mash is the customary practice of many good stallion owners. Intelligent feeders keep the stallion in normal condition throughout the year; feed to have him gain rather than lose weight during the breeding season, avoid radical changes in the system of feeding and do not feed hay or give large quantities of water in the morning to distend the belly and make service difficult.

Dr. Campbell, of the Kansas State Agricultural Experiment Station, suggests the following combination of feeds that might be fed to stallions. The parts are by weight :

He further suggests that one-third alfalfa fed in the morning and two-thirds prairie hay fed at night and corn fed three times a day, is a comparatively cheap and satisfactory ration where alfalfa is grown, and that barley or kafir might be substituted for corn.

The judgment of many stallion owners leads to the conclusion that rations containing oats and a variety of the most wholesome feeds should be seriously considered and provided, especially as the breeding season approaches and advances.

Exercising and Grooming the Stallion. - Daily exercise throughout the year is essential to best results in keeping a stallion. To work him regularly is one of the best means of exercising. Driving, riding and allowing him to run in a paddock daily are other means. He should not be overworked, but kept in a firm muscular form, that gives energy, vigor and health.

Regular and thorough daily grooming does much to insure health and vigor and is all that is necessary under a proper system of feeding to make the stallion the pride of his owner and of the community, in which he does service.

A Precaution in the Use of Stallions. - It is necessary that a stallion be absolutely clean and free from infectious diseases and in no instance should he be allowed to serve mares which are questionable. Mares having a diseased condition of the reproductive organs will not be likely to breed successfully and there is no object in taking a chance on breeding them and infecting the stallion and the mares he serves later.

Buying a Stallion. - An individual or a community of farmers should take into consideration the following suggestions on buying a stallion :

Suggestions for Stallion Owners. - Employ if necessary a regular attendant whose judgment on matters pertaining to horse production will insure the best care of the stallion, and enable him to make many valuable suggestions to owners of mares.

See to it that his feet are in the best of condition, level at the sole, not pared down at the sole, frog and bars, or rasped on the outer wall. Shoes that are well fitted should be provided when the stallion is traveled about the country and worked.

Sterility in Stallions and Mares. - Most stallions are potent and retain their potency to an old age. There may be an inability or an indisposition to serve a mare, however, due to causes resulting in temporary or permanent sterility. Permanent sterility is usually congenital, present at birth, and the result of an incomplete or abnormal development of the reproductive organs. Stallions with both testicles retained in the body undeveloped are usually sterile. Stallions with one testicle developed (ridglings), may be sure breeders, but there will be a tendency for his colts to be in the same condition and it is undesirable to. select a stallion of this character.

Temporary sterility is caused by injuries or diseases affecting the reproductive organs and also may be the result of extreme change of environment, overfat condition or rundown condition and excessive use in the stud.

Many instances are known where imported stallions have failed to serve mares successfully for the first year or two in this country after which they proved to be entirely satisfactory. In most instances stallions are sold with a guarantee to get 60 per cent of normal brood mares in foal. A much better result than this may be expected, however, if the stallion is potent and not used to excess.

Mares frequently cause more or less difficulty as a result of their sterile or barren condition. Mares past twelve or fourteen years of age are likely to be sterile due to disuse and changes that have rendered the reproductive organs inactive. Over fat mares are difficult to get with foal. Diseased and closed and hardened condition of the reproductive organs are causes of inability to conceive. Some mares appear to have an inability to produce a foal oftener than once in two years. It is easier to breed mares successfully in the spring of the year than it is in the fall, in fact, the spring when mares are shedding their coats may be regarded as the normal and most successful season to breed them and to have them raise their foals most satisfactorily.

Care and Management of the Work Horse. - The work horse is the ultimate and most important end of the horse industry. He is worthy of every care and comfort that can be given him and the driver and caretaker of the working class of horses have a responsibility equal to that of any other class of men engaged in animal production.

Work Horse Suggestions. - To the fullest extent possible, choose a work horse of the class that is best adapted to the kind of work he must perform. If work for which he is unsuited must be performed, give him extra consideration and every encouragement.

Do not expect young, immature or aged horses to do the work that horses in their prime can do. It is unprofitable to depend upon either for work that is urgent.

Do not turn off an old horse that has paid his cost and keep many times and let him fall into the hands of men who are inconsiderate of his welfare. Horse hides, bone and meat serve purposes that render it possible to have old horses humanely and profitably destroyed.

As far as possible to do so, keep work horses' working regularly to their fullest capacity. It is better for them and much more profitable to their owner. Farm horses are idle during a large percentage of the working days of the year which fact must be taken into consideration in keeping and feeding them to the best advantage.

Buying the Work Horse. - Judgment and money secure a good work horse. One must expect to pay a reasonable price for a work horse and there is nothing saved in buying something undesirable at a reduced cost. The best is cheapest in buying, breeding and raising a work horse. If one does not feel confident to judge a work horse, it will pay to hire an expert and get the benefit of his judgment.

Be careful to consider and secure suitable age, sound, serviceable feet, limbs and body, a well balanced straightforward action, a good disposition and a good feeder.

Feeding and Watering the Work Horse. - The character and amount of work a horse is required to do should determine largely the kind and amount of the ration. The system of feeding has more to do in determining one's success in feeding the work horse, than the feed itself. Especially should one bear in mind that the horse is not like the cow or steer and that he performs a different service. The stomach of the horse is not adapted to carrying large quantities of roughage and at the same time permitting the horse to work with ease. The practice should be then to feed grain and a small amount of hay in the morning, grain and very little hay if any at noon, and grain and a liberal amount of hay in the evening when there is opportunity for the horse to eat and digest at his leisure.

Amount of Hay to Feed. - One pound to one and one-fourth. pounds of hay per 100 Ibs. of body weight may be considered an approximate amount of hay necessary to feed the work horse daily. The hay should be bright, clean quality. While timothy may be regarded the standard roughage for horses, especially in sections where it is commonly grown, it is not necessarily the only good roughage. Prairie hays and hays made from cereal crops like oats, barley and wheat, cut in the milk stage, and southern hays like Johnson grass and lespedeza properly cured, may be regarded satisfactory roughages. Thickly grown corn fodder and corn stover well cured and free from mold, provide excellent roughage for horses in winter, and may be used to advantage. It is always best, however, for the work horse to have well cured hay if it is possible to secure it. Straw that is bright and clean may be used to good advantage in winter and will save the hay for later use or for other classes of stock.

Clover and Alfalfa Hay for Horses. - Many condemn the feeding of clover and alfalfa hay to horses. For work horses, however, these hays may be fed to advantage if the amount is limited and the horse is not allowed to eat too much. Horses like these feeds better than other kinds of hay and will be sure to eat more than is good for them if judgment is not used in supplying them proper amounts. A somewhat less amount than 1 pound per 100 Ibs. of live weight may be safely fed. Timothy or prairie hay fed in combination with legume hay, make a fine combination.

Silage for Horses. - The following summary statement by E. A. Trowbridge, of the Missouri Experiment Station, indicates the possibility of utilizing silage where careful judgment is used in feeding it:

Corn silage is now being fed with success by a large number of horsemen and farmers to all classes of horses and mules. Horses at hard work need a concentrated ration and should not be expected to eat large quantities of silage.

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Suitable Grain Mixtures for Horses. - Oats are the most common and the safest of all feeds for the horse. They are improved upon for horses doing heavy work by the addition of other feeds. Nine parts of oats and one part of bran by weight with two to four ears of corn thrown in with the mixture at each feeding time, form a suitable feed for horses doing heavy work. Thin horses may be given six ears of corn in addition to the oats and bran.

Corn is commonly fed in the middle and southern states and, when fed with judgment and balanced by feeding it in combination with clover or alfalfa hay or other concentrates relatively high in protein, it may be regarded an excellent feed. Fed on the cob or shelled are usual methods of feeding it. Experiments as well as the practice of the Paris Omnibus Company, indicate that corn and cob meal finely ground is equal to corn alone. The ground cob renders the corn meal less likely to form a heavy mass in the stomach of the horse and thus produce colic.

Corn fed with timothy or prairie hay is best fed in combination with bran and oil meal. A mixture of six parts of shelled corn, three parts of wheat bran and one part of oil meal, proved equal to a ration of oats in trials conducted at the Kansas Experiment Station.

Barley is used on the Pacific Coast for horses. Feeding trials indicate that a slightly greater quantity of barley is required than oats to produce the same results.

Careful judgment on the part of feeders will make it possible to feed a great variety of grains and grain by-products. Care should be exercised in getting combinations that are bulky like oats or the other combinations suggested and that will balance the ration with reference to starchy feeds like corn or barley and nitrogenous feeds like beans, bran and oil meals.

Amount of Grain to Feed. - Farm work horses at hard labor should receive from one and one-fifth to one and one-third pounds of grain per 100 Ibs. of live weight per day. This amount will ordinarily maintain their weight. Additional amounts will have to be fed at the discretion of the feeder to increase the body weight if it is desirable to do so. The grain should be fed in three equal feeds morning, noon and night.

Precautions in Feeding Grain. - Horses should be gradually accustomed to grain and the amount governed according to the work and condition of the horse. The grain feed should be reduced one-half on Saturday nights and on idle days, until four days have elapsed, or until the horses have again been put to work, when an increased amount may again be fed. "Monday Morning Diseases," (Lymphangitis) and Azoturia are prevented by carefully adhering to this rule.

Avoid letting horses eat their grain too rapidly by mingling chaffed hay with it or compelling them to nose it out from between round, smooth rocks that have been placed in the feed boxes.

Grinding Grain. - A saving of about ten percent may be made by grinding, crushing or rolling grain for farm work horses when at hard labor. Horses having poor teeth will naturally do better on ground grain. Crushing or rolling renders grain less dusty and it has been found that ground grain fed dry requires twice as long for horses to consume it as when it is thoroughly dampened. How well horses eat and thrive and the expense of grinding or crushing should determine to what extent it pays to grind feed for them. Small, hard grains should be ground to produce satisfactory results.

Watering Horses. - Methods of watering may vary, but a certain order of watering should be followed after a horse has been accustomed to it. Horses that have been without water for a long time should be allowed only a small amount of water at first chance of getting it. It is dangerous to allow a horse when very warm, to gorge himself with water, but a small amount will be refreshing and unharmful. It is well to have horses cool enough upon entering the stable to drink before they are fed and also water them the first thing in the morning.

Providing Salt. - Horses require salt and are fond of it. An ordinary handful supplied on Sunday is a practice that provides a sufficient amount. Horses at hard work require more salt than idle horses. Regularity and not overfeeding at irregular intervals are precautions to be observed in feeding salt. A lump of rock salt kept before the horse at all times is the practice followed by many horsemen.

Grooming, Clipping and Blanketing. - Thorough grooming is as important as feed for the work horse. Removing the waste material that comes from perspiration and keeping the pores of the skin open and clean, insures health as well as a good appearance of the horse. Idle horses do not need the grooming that work horses do. The work horse should be groomed at night sufficiently to enable him to rest well. A scraper to remove perspiration that may be flowing freely will reduce much of the work of grooming. An old broom to sweep fresh mud from the legs as soon as a horse is brought into the stable is also an easy way to reduce the work of grooming. Currying with a curry comb not sharp enough to injure the hide and briskly brushing with a good brush and woolen cloth, improves the appearance of the horse as well as keeps him in fine health and spirit. The curry comb should never be used on the head or on the limbs below the knees and hocks. A stiff, "Dandy" brush or corn brush takes the place of a curry comb for the head, limbs, mane and tail.

In the spring of the year when the coat of hair is heavy and just prior to the time shedding commences, much discomfort can be saved the horse by clipping him. Clipping is most conveniently done by two men and the use of the machine clipper. This will also be the means of saving feed and overcoming danger of overheating, chills, colic and resultant ills. There is little danger from clipping if the horse is properly sheltered and blanketed when not at work.

The driver should regard blanketing during the fall and winter seasons as necessary as he regards the necessity of putting on a coat to keep himself warm. Blanketing horses in the stable tends to keep their coats in better condition than they otherwise will be, although in stables properly constructed it may not be regarded as a practice that justifies the expense. Horses that are blanketed while in the stable are more susceptible to taking cold when taken out of the stable if they are not carefully blanketed when left standing.

Care of the Harness and Shoulders. - One should be particularly careful to see that the harness properly fits the horse and that the draft or pull against their collar comes as near to being at right angles with the shoulder as possible. Keeping the harness in good repair and properly fitted to the horse overcomes trouble with sore shoulders and makes the work which the horse has to do much easier. The harness should be kept clean especially at points which come in contact with the body. Collars should be pounded and kept soft and smooth. A collar that fits snugly at the beginning of the spring work when perhaps the horse is in high condition of flesh, may be somewhat too large when the horse becomes reduced in flesh. Ordinarily the collar should fit so that there is just room for one's hand between the collar and the lower part of the neck. The use of sweat pads tends to overcome the collar being too large and may offer protection to shoulders that are soft and tender. In all instances they should be kept clean and dry. An extra pair of sweat pads that will enable a dry pair of pads to be used in all instances, will be a good investment. Much of the difficulty from sore shoulders is overcome by working horses early in the spring season to harden their shoulders gradually and have them in good condition before the heaviest work comes on. Bathing the shoulders thoroughly with salt water and drying them thoroughly each day in the early part of the spring season, tends to harden them and overcomes soreness.

Stabling Horses. - In the construction of new barns and in the modification of old barns, there is always opportunity to improve upon the arrange-- ment of stables and conveniences for giving live stock of the various classes the most suitable care and attention. The horse stable should be carefully constructed to afford plenty of air, sunlight and ventilation. Stalls should be arranged in a manner to avoid sunlight shining directly into the faces of the horses. Large, roomy stalls ^l/2 to 5 feet wide and 10 feet deep, provide roomy stalls in which horses can rest comfortably, and be easily groomed and harnessed. The floors should be constructed to drain properly and keep the bedding and stall as dry as possible. A concrete floor with a rough surface to prevent slipping and a wooden grate immediately under the horse is the most suitable floor. The grate should be so constructed that it can be lifted up and the floor cleaned whenever necessary. Horse stables need not necessarily be as warm as stables for other classes of stock and it is not a good plan to have the horse stable in the same part of the barn with cattle and other classes of stock.

If the horse stable is included in the same barn with cattle, a partition that will separate them is desirable. Horses kept in cow barns which are as a rule much too warm for horses, incur danger of taking cold upon being exposed to cold outdoor weather. The horse stable should be arranged with a suitable room for hanging harnesses. This affords a saving in keeping harnesses dry and away from the stable atmosphere which contains more or less ammonia that tends to rot the leather.

Where hay chutes are provided and lead from the hay mow to the manger, precautions should be taken to have the opening at the manger large enough to prevent horses getting their heads fast. Getting their heads fast has resulted in their throwing themselves and breaking their necks. Where hay chutes are used, judgment should also be exercised in the amount of hay that is put in the chutes in order to prevent the horses overeating. Stalls should be well bedded with straw, shredded corn stalks, shavings or sawdust. While shavings and sawdust are suitable for bedding, they do not make as good manure for the land as do straw and cornstalks. Horses that are inclined to eat their bedding may be kept in better condition if shavings and sawdust are used for bedding purposes.

Mule Production

The breeding of mules in America dates back to 1878 when the king of Spain presented George Washington with a jack which was used at Mount Vernon and sired mules that sold at high prices. The mule is a hybrid resulting from the cross of the jack and the mare, and will not breed. Jacks from Spain of the Catalonian breed have been the most popular of several breeds used in America for the production of mules. This breed stands 14*^ to 16 hands high and possesses style, size, action and hardiness and early maturing quality that combine to make the desirable qualities a jack should possess to sire the best class of mules.

Types of Mules. - The mule is generally smaller than the horse, being 14 to 17 hands high and weighing from 600 to 1,600 pounds. The size of the jack and of the mare determine the type and character of the mule. As a rule, mares of good quality weighing from 1,300 to 1,400 pounds, bred to jacks of good size and quality and action, having heavy bone and long, erect ears, produce mules of the most desirable type. Better prices are usually paid for mare mules than for horse mules. The most desirable color is black with a tan nose and flank. Bay, brown, gray and dun colors are more or less common.

Hughes, in "Successful Farming," makes the following classification of mules bred in America and handled on the markets in mule breeding sections :

Classification Of Mules Horse Production 127

Adaptability of Mules. - The mule has proved to be a most useful beast of burden and his popularity is increasing. His hardiness, ability to take care of himself and adaptability to most kinds of climate, especially the extremely warm climates, have led people, including many farmers, to regard him more practical to use than the horse. More has been done in America to develop the mule than in any other country. More than one-half of the mules in the world are in the United States. Prices paid for mules compare favorably with those paid for horses, and one should expect to pay fully as much to secure a good pair of mules as he would pay for a good team of horses.

How To Tell The Age Of A Horse

Names of Teeth. - In a complete set of teeth a horse has forty and a mare thirty-six. They are named as follows : front six on either jaw, (twelve in number) incisors ; next tooth on each side of the incisors in a horse, canine or bridle tooth (four in all) ; next six, double teeth, on each side of both jaws, molars or grinders (twenty- four in number).

Two Sets of Teeth. - A horse has two sets of teeth corresponding to the baby teeth and permanent teeth of a human being. The first set are called milk teeth or temporary teeth and consist of twelve incisors and twelve molars. Half of these are in each jaw. The temporary teeth are whiter, smaller and have a better defined neck at the gums than the permanent ones.

Teeth At Different Ages

Birth. - At birth a colt has two "nippers" or central incisors on each jaw and three molars. Sometimes these teeth may not break through for a day or two.

Four to Six Weeks. - At this time the lateral incisors break through on both jaws. (The lateral incisor is the tooth on each side of the two central incisors).

Six to Ten Months. - The corner incisors break through when a colt is from six to ten months old. (The corner incisor is the outer incisor in each half of both jaws).

Two and One-Half Years Old. - At this age the two central incisors are shed and also the fifth permanent molar on each jaw. The first and second molars are replaced by permanent ones. (See Photograph.)

Fig. 8 - A- 14-yvar-e!d mouth. After 8 years the age i* estimated by the angle at which the incisors come together, by their length, and by the shape

' of the wearing surface. The older the horse the nearer this surface approaches a triangle. It Is practically impossible to estimate the age correct- Iv after the caps have disappeared from the teeth.

Condition Of The Teeth

This Is one of the first points that should be considered In purchasing a horse or in the care of one. Many a horse becomes weak, poor in condition, and emaciated simply as a result of bad teeth which have been neglected. If the horse turns his head to one side while eating, shows signs of poor nutrition, and passes whole grains of oats or corn with the feces, his teeth need attention.

The continual grinding of the teeth In eating causes the outer edges of the upper molars and the inner edges of the lower molars to become sharp. These sharp edges lacerate the thin skin of the inner cheek and the tongue, and make chewing painful. This and irregular teeth tend to cause the animal to imperfectly chew his feed before swallowing it; and unless the teeth receive proper attention, the animal becomes emaciated.

In old animals the teeth often become smooth, making it impossible for them to chew hay and grain. In such cases only soft feeds should be given.

An examination of the teeth may be made by running the hand Into the mouth and feeling them to see if they are sharp or if any of them are too long. Only a qualified veterinarian should be allowed to treat the teeth.

Sketch of the permanent incisors, indicating the order in which they appear in pairs. The central pair of permanent incisors m both the upper and lower jaws appear when the horse is about two and one-half or three years of age, the next pair replace the temporary incisors when the horse is about four years of age, and the outside pair, making a. full mouth, usually appear at five years of age.

Passing to the permanent incisors in the upper jaw at nine years the central pail have almost completely lost their mark At ten those adjoining these have reachec the same condition, while at eleven th< marks have about vanished from all 01 the permanent incisors. It will be noticec that as the age advances the appearance o1 the worn tables assumes a more tri angular form.

At five years it will be noticed that marks are very distinct and the tables worn but slightly in all of the incisors. At six years the center pair in the lower jaw show some wear, the mark becoming smaller. At seven years the second pair have nearly lost their marks, while at eight the third or outside pair show considerable wear with but a trace of the mark.

Comparison of a five-year-old mouth witl one that is twenty years old, showing th< marked contrast that develops, as age ad vances, in the slope of the teeth as viewec from the side. To Goubaux and Barrier'; "Exterior of the Horse" the author is greatl] indebted for the prints of horses' teeth whicl have been shown. These have been modifiec somewhat to bring out more clearly the neces sary distinctions.

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Five Years Old. - The permanent corner incisors are almost up into wear and the animal has a full set of permanent-teeth. At this age the filly becomes a mare and the colt becomes a horse. (See Photograph)

Twelve Years Old. - The cups are worn out of all the upper teeth. The central incisors of the lower jaw are about as thick as they are broad.

Shoeing And Care Of The Feet

Nearly all diseases of the feet are the result of improper shoeing and the lack of care of the feet. If the conditions are such that the horn is not worn off faster than it grows and the foot is strong, shoes are unnecessary.

Shoes become necessary when the animal shows signs of the feet becoming sore because of the rapid wearing away of the horn when traveling on hard roads, etc. This may be confined to the front feet only and will disappear when shoes are applied to their feet. For ordinary purposes simple plates, without calks and just heavy enough to prevent bending, are better.

Shoes with sharp calks are necessary when the roads are slippery and when heavy pulling requires that the horse get a grip which will enable him to stand.

Extra heavy shoes are sometimes required on the front feet of draft horses, and often a horse is shod to suit some abnormal condition of the foot such as the high-heeled shoe to give relief in bone spavin, or the barred shoe for horses subject to corns.

Shoe Fitting. - All loose horn should be removed. Care must be taken to keep the sole of the foot perfectly level for otherwise injuries to the joints may result. The frog should be left in its normal shape and size and the bars should not be cut away. The shoe must be the exact size and shape of the foot after the foot is trimmed to its normal form. The shoe should be fitted cold, never hot; the nails should be small and when driven out well down on the hoof. After the shoe is fastened clinch the nails by imbedding them slightly in the hoof with a hammer and smoothing them off with a rasp. The outside of the hoof should never be rasped. Shoes should be reset every five or six weeks if the feet are to be kept in a normal condition. For all defects such as interfering, overreaching and other defects in gait consult a first-class horseshoer.

Throwing Or Casting A Horse

Side-line Method. - Take a three-fourths inch rope about forty feet long, double it at the center and tie to make a loop about two feet long. Slip this loop over the horses neck like a collar letting the knot come at the top of the neck. Pass the two loose ends down either side of the horse, around the hind leg under the fetlock joint and back through the collar Now with one man at the animal's head and one holding each rope, slowly back the horse. The men holding the ropes pull them tight and this draws the animal's legs forward and up to his sides throwing him. His legs should be tied in this position to hold him down. This method is especially valuable for throwing young horses for castration as their hind legs are forward and out of the way.

One-man Method. - Take up the "off" foreleg with a strap. This can be done by passing the strap over the animal's back and holding it on by putting a surcingle on and tying the strap to this. Hold the foot up with one hand and draw the horse's head to his shoulder (away from the foot that is up) with the other. This throws the animal to the side with the foot raised. The operator should get on the side close to the horse's head as it goes down to keep him from getting up.

Hobble Method for Old Horses. - Put a strap with a ring on each leg just below the fetlock joint. Pass a rope or chain through these rings and draw the horse's feet together until he loses his balance and falls. Use this method on horses over ten years old. If old horses are thrown with side lines they are liable to injure their backs by struggling.

Preparation for Throwing. - To avoid injury to the horse pick out a level place in which to throw him. Have a folded blanket ready to put under his head while down.

Care Of The Sick And Injured

A sick or injured horse should be put in a box stall if one is available. In case there is no box stall put the animal in a wide, comfortable stall as far away from the other horses as possible, where he can be made comfortable and it will be quiet. His stall should be clean, and free from drafts.

Making Patient Comfortable. - The patient should be made as comfortable and contented as possible. The stall should be kept clean and tidy. The floors should be scraped often. The stall should be well ventilated as pure air is essential to a speedy recovery. It should be kept at a comfortable temperature and should be dry. All disagreeable odors of medicine should be eradicated. If the patient can lie down he should have a good bedding of dry, fine, loose litter. If he eats this bedding he can be bedded with moss or sawdust. Unless it is necessary from the nature of the disease to have the stall dark, enough light should be admitted to make it cheerful. A horse suffering from a nervous disease must not be excited. One person should do all the doctoring to avoid frightening him. After the patient is fed any food that remains should be immediately removed or it will make him lose what little appetite he may have if it is left. He should always have pure clean water where he can get it without effort. Even when he is not thirsty he enjoys washing his mouth out with the water. If hay is fed it should be the best and should be clean. If a horse has colic he should have plenty of space in which to roll over.

Blankets and Bandages. - It may be necessary to protect the patient from drafts with blankets. This can be done by putting blankets on him or by hanging them up to enclose the stall. In putting them on the horse keep them well forward and tied under the chest and in hanging them up to enclose the stall be sure sufficient space is left for ventilation. The blankets should be woolen and their weight carefully adapted to the weather. The extremities may be protected with light woolen bandages after being rubbed lightly to increase the circulation. In applying a bandage take a strip of woolen cloth about three inches wide and six feet long, roll it into a neat roll and begin wrapping the part at the bottom winding upward. With a little practice a good bandage can be put on in this way. If a liniment is applied to a part after it is bandaged care should be taken to prevent its blistering.

Slings. - It is often necessary to place a sick or injured horse in slings. A sling can be made from a wide piece of stout canvas or from wide straps. It is supported from above by means of a chain and tackle. This enables the patient to rest his legs and still be in an upright position. It is seldom necessary to carry the whole weight of the animal in using a sling. It is better to place the sling under him so he can settle his weight into it when his legs are tired or stand on his legs at will. Remember to so adjust the sling as to have it fit closely behind the elbows and throw the animal's weight on his chest and not on his abdomen.

Side Supports. - Side supports are often very beneficial to the patient that is unable to lie down. These should be placed in about the same position that the shafts would come. It may also be well to place one in front of his breast and one in back of him, in case he is injured behind. Such supports should be wound with clothes to protect the animal.

Food for Sick Animals. - It is very important to know what and how to feed a sick animal if he is to make the speediest recovery possible. As a rule the main thing is to preserve the animal's strength. If the patient can eat he should be given cooling, laxative, nutritious but not bulky foods. This will keep his bowels free and open. Food should not be forced upon an animal. It should be prepared attractively so as to tempt him to eat. In case it is refused, the food should be at once removed and offered again in a short time. Do not force the animal to eat unless recovery depends upon his conservation of strength alone. Medicine should not be given in the food if it spoils the flavor for the patient. The following make excellent foods for sick animals : roots such as carrots, good fresh grass, apples (fed from the hand), milk, gruels and bran mashes. Gruels and mashes may contain dry or boiled oats, raw eggs (beaten), bran and ground oats mixed in cut hay and wet with cold water. To make a gruel stir about a quart of oatmeal or cornmeal into a gallon of cold water and let it soak for an hour. To make a bran mash add some salt to about five quarts of bran. Put this into a pail and cover with boiling water. Cover the pail with cloths to keep in the steam and to keep it warm. It is well to add a few oats to the mash if necessary to tempt the horse to eat.

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The Drench. - To drench a horse his head must be drawn up high enough to make the medicine run down but not too high. The head can be easily raised by means of a rope, a loop of which is passed back of the incisor teeth of the upper jaw. The end is then passed under the nose band of the halter and through a pulley or over a beam. The medicine is given in liquid form from a strong glass bottle such as a wine or whiskey bottle. It is poured in slowly at a corner of the animal's mouth.

How to Make a Horse Swallow Medicine. - If the horse refuses to swallow pour a teaspoonful of water into one of his nostrils. This will make him take the medicine.

Pills or Balls. - To give medicine in the form of a pill or ball hold it in the tips of the three middle fingers of the right hand. Grasp the tongue of the horse with the left hand and pull it well forward, turning the tip of the tongue towards the roof of the mouth. Next insert the right hand and push the pill far back past the bulge in the tongue. Withdraw both hands quickly and the medicine will go down.

The Syringe. - The syringe makes a fine way to give medicine to a horse. One can get a small hard rubber syringe for this purpose. The syringe is held in the right hand while the animal's mouth is opened with the left and the medicine is forced into the back part of the mouth. Medicine can be given quickly and easily this way.

Castration

This consists in removing the organs of generation of the males. Colts are generally castrated when a year or two years old. If a colt is not well developed it is better to let him go until he is three years old. Colts should not be castrated when it is exceedingly hot or cold or when the flies are bad. The best time is generally in the spring when the pastures are good and the weather cool.

The colt to be castrated should be thrown on his left side or stood with his side to a wall and restrained by a twist on his nose. The scrotum or testicle sack should be washed clean and antiseptics used. Remove the smaller testicle first. The scrotum should be firmly grasped below the testicles and the testicles squeezed against the skin until it is tight. Next a bold incision is made close to the line dividing the scrotum in the center and well forward. This cut should be long enough to allow the testicle to drop out easily and allow sufficient drainage. The cord should be cut at least four inches from the testicle to prevent a tumor forming. Among the ways of severing the cord are by tying the cord with a strong but small string and cutting the testicle with a knife close to the string, and by using the emasculator or ecraseur, instruments designed for that purpose.

A colt should rest for some time after being castrated; then he should have light exercise to remove the blood clots that collect in the scrotum. His bowels should be kept open with injections of glycerine and warm water and the wound should be bathed with antiseptics.

Swelling after Castration. - In case the scrotum swells badly after the colt is castrated and the animal does not eat well he should be looked after. Infection due to a lack of cleanliness during the operation ; confining the colt in dirty stables after being castrated.

Treatment. - Put the colt in clean quarters or better let him run in a good pasture. Give him plenty of exercise and a tablespoonful of saltpeter (to a two-year old) once a day for three or four days. Be sure the kidneys are active and the bowels well opened. Dip the finger in disinfectant and open the wound in case it needs draining. Twice every day it is well to inject a solution of carbolic acid into the sack. Use it one part to thirty of water. It will help relieve the pain if you wash the sack with hot water.

How To Locate Lameness

Below we give the indication of lameness in each different part of the horse in the simplest way possible, so as to make a handy reference when an animal goes lame.

2. One should not jump too hastily to a conclusion as to the location of the lameness. Rather than put a blister on the wrong place he might better delay until the indications are more prominent.

5. Lameness seldom exists any length of time without some inflammation, but a stone in the foot may be very painful to the animal before any great heat can be perceived.

6. In examining the foot, the shoe should be removed, the nails should be examined for signs of pus or blood and the bottom of the foot cleaned and gone over for punctures or bruises.

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When Standing. - Pastern of lame leg held more upright than others; resting. leg more often and longer than others; lying down unusually long; heat, swelling or pain in some part of leg, (discovered by handling and moving it).

When Trotting Slowly. - Lame foot is lifted more quickly than others and less weight is put upon it, making a different noise as the foot hits the ground. (Turning the animal sharply to the left or right so as to bring the weight alternately on the right and left legs generally increases any signs of lameness.)

When Standing. - One forefoot held far in advance of the other, indicates soreness in back part of leg; resting the toe on the ground, bending the fetlock and knee, both forefeet being about even. When Trotting Slowly. - Head and forequarter raised on lame side as forefoot comes to the ground but drops on well side. Caution : Do not mistake this for lameness behind because of the depression in the opposite hind hip.

When Standing. - Both forefeet kept in advance of the body, horse resting on heels; hind legs held well under body; changes position often ; shoulders held upright and stiff ; head held high ; loins arched ; hind feet held well under the body."

Blemishes Possible On A Horse

called Sallenders. Navel rupture. Inguinal hernia. Bursal enlargement. Rings on hoof. Sand crack. Small thigh. Capped hock. Thoroughpin. Blood spavin. Curb.

Hair off tail called Rat-tail. Drooping rump. Wasting of muscles. Pointed hip. . Eel back. Saddle gall. Sway back. Fistulous withers. Saddle gall.

Diseases Of Horses General Symptoms

Abdomen sensitive to pressure; pain continuous in bowels; high fever; pulse hard and rapid; horse hates to lie down and before doing so stands with feet together, legs partially bent and hesitates before going down. - Inflammation of the Bowels, Page 163.

Breathing difficult; perspiring freely; trembles violently if forced to go; staggers and seems unconscious until he falls ; attack usually occurs when the horse is exercising soon after feeding. - Stomach Staggers, Page 177.

Breathing labored ; nostrils standing open because of double hitch in breathing; often a deep moist cough and frequent discharges from the nose; cannot work hard without stopping frequently to breathe. - Heaves, Page 167.

Breathing quickened ; cough ; chill followed by a fever which increases gradually; rapid pulse; rattling sound in the lungs detected by putting the ear to the chest. - Pneumonia, Page 171.

Bone broken and displaced; part cannot be used; a grating sound can be heard when the bone is moved; the broken bone may be felt; pain and swelling. - Fractures, Page Page 166.

Bones of head becoming larger and lighter; face full and round; later the legs are affected and there is some inflammation. - Big Head, Page 153.

Chills followed by fever; the glands inside of the leg are swollen and sore; manipulation of leg causes pain; leg enlarged. - Big Leg, Page 153.

Chill followed by fever which increases gradually for a time ; quickened breathing; rapid pulse; cough; rattling sound in the lungs which can be detected by placing the ear to the chest. - Pneumonia, Page 171.

Coffin-joint is not bent when walking and horse points the affected foot out while standing; lameness that may be worse when exercised; stands on toes when possible; excessive pressure produces pain. - Coffin-joint.

Cough ; chill followed by a fever which increases gradually ; quickened breathing; rapid pulse; rattling sound in the lungs detected by putting the ear to the chest. - Pneumonia, Page 171.

Cough. - Often a deep moist cough and frequent discharges from the nose; horse cannot work hard without stopping frequently to breathe ; labored breathing; nostrils standing open because of double hitch in breathing. - Heaves, Page 167.

Cracks and chaps extend in all directions on back of pastern ; hollow of pastern is swollen ; red and tender ; bleeding in cold weather. - Scratches, Page 175.

Discharge from the nose that is thin and colorless becoming thicker and darker as the disease progresses; pimples on the lining of the nostrils; glands under the jaw large and tender; general weakness. - Glanders, Page 166.

Discharge of foul smelling pus from crack in horny frog of foot; hoof dry; heel feverish ; tenderness and lameness more noticeable when foot hits hard object. - Thrush, Page 180.

Discharge that is thick from eyes; eyes Ted; throat sore; high fever; constipation; weakness; poor appetite; head hangs; watery discharge from lining of nose. - Pink Eye, Page 171.

Diseases Of Horses 141

Dull and listless appearance of animal; loss of appetite; fever; eyes watery and discharge from nostrils; throat usually swells and an abscess forms under lower jaw. - Distemper, Page 162.

Ears and legs of mare are cold ; some fever ; bowels constipated ; secretion of milk small ; may be some inflammation of the udder. - Milk Fever, Page 93.

Eating impossible; jaw muscles firmly contracted; stiff muscles hard; sweats profusely; head elevated; nose protrudes; easily excited; "haw" drawn across corner of eye ; usually stands. - Lockjaw, Page 169.

Eating with difficulty; spitting food out; holding head to one side; slobbering when drinking; loss of flesh; swelling on side of face or under lower jaw; pus often discharges from swelling. - Abnormal Teeth.

Elbow has swelling that is soft and flabby and contains a watery fluid. It increases in size and .becomes hot and tender. - Shoe Boil, Page 175.

Eye. - "Haw" drawn across corner of eye ; head elevated ; sweats profusely ; muscles of body hard and stiff ; jaw held shut ; cannot eat ; nose protrudes ; easily excited ; horse usually stands. - Lockjaw, Page 169.

Eyes inflamed and have thick discharge ; head hangs ; loss of appetite ; weakness ; constipation ; high fever ; watery discharge from lining of nose ; sore throat. - Pink Eye, 'Page 171.

Eyes watery and discharge from nostrils ; animal dull and listless ; poor appetite; fever; throat usually swells and an abscess forms under lower jaw. - Distemper, Page 162.

Face of horse full and round; bones of head larger and lighter than usual; later the legs are affected and there may be some inflammation. - Big Head, Page 153.

Falling insensible after stopping; throwing head up; acting stupid; reeling and staggering; soon gets up as if nothing had happened; sometimes horse only stops, gives a few convulsive movements of his head and shivers. - Blind Staggers, 'Page 158.

Fever high ; pulse hard and rapid ; pain continuous in bowels ; flank is sensitive to pressure ; horse hates to lie down and before doing so stands with his feet together ; legs partially bent and hesitates before going down. - Inflammation of the Bowels, Page 163.

Flank. - Horse looks toward flank; pain moderate but continuous; lies down often or stands stretched out as if to urinate. - Indigestion, Page 167.

Flank if pressed causes horse to flinch; pain continuous in bowels; high fever; pulse hard and rapid; horse hates to lie down and before doing so stands with his feet together, legs partially bent and hesitates before going down. - Inflammation of the Bowels, "Page 163.

legs are affected and there is some inflammation. - Big Head, Page 153. Head hangs; loss of appetite; weakness; constipation; eyes become very jaw; pus often discharged from swelling. - Abnormal Teeth. Head has a painless swelling on top of it at first ; later there is some pain and up then returning; breathing rapid. - Spasmodic Colic, Page 176. Heart beats irregular ; consciousness lost ; horse stops ; pants violently ;

Diseases Of Horses 143

Hindquarters lame and stiff; trembling of the muscles; profuse perspiration; difficulty in moving; often hind parts go down before horse can be moved to stable ; muscles swollen and rigid ; animal makes unsuccessful efforts to get up ; urine dark in color. - Azoturia, "Page 152.

Jaw held shut by firmly contracted muscles; impossible to eat; sweats profusely ; muscles hard ; head elevated ; nose protrudes ; easily excited ; "haw" drawn across corner of eye ; horse usually stands. - Lockjaw, Page 169.

Joint swollen following a wound on the leg in which there is a slippery fluid ; joint inflamed; horse becomes very lame; fever; loss of appetite; intense pain ; as the inflammation increases the fluid becomes darker and may contain pus. - Open Joint, Page 170.

Lameness, and tenderness, more noticeable when foot hits a hard object; slight discharge of foul smelling pus from crack in horny frog; hoof dry ; heel feverish. - Thrush, Page 180.

Lameness improving with exercise ; soreness and small swelling just at the bottom and inside the hock joint towards the front; holds foot forward bending hock joint when standing. - Bone Spavin, Page 158.

Lameness severe especially when on hard roads; leg held loose when standing; dark spot found where corn is located. This spot generally contains pus and causes pain when pushed. - Corns, Page 161. Lameness severe; pastern joint swollen, heated, tender; bony bunch' usually

Lameness that is worse when exercised ; coffin-joint is not bent when walking; stands on toes when possible; excessive pressure produces pain; points affected foot out when standing. - Coffin-joint Lameness. Leg enlarged; glands inside of the leg swollen and sore; manipulation of leg causes pain ; chills followed by fever. - Big Leg, Page 153.

Leg held loose when standing; lameness severe especially when on hard roads; dark spot found where corn is located. This spot generally contains pus and causes pain when pressed. - Corns, Page 161.

Legs and ears of mare are cold; some fever; bowels constipated; secretion of milk small ; may be some inflammation of the udder. - Milk Fever, Page 93.

Moves hind quarters with difficulty; nose often turned towards flank; high fever; colicky pains; frequent and scanty passage of urine that is dark and thick. - Inflammation of the Kidneys, Page 167.

Mucus. - Profuse discharge of tears and mucus from eyes; eyes red and inflamed; lids swollen sometimes; strong light irritating. - Sore Eyes, Page 96.

Muscles of body hard and stiff ; jaw held shut ; cannot eat ; sweats profusely; head elevated; nose protrudes; easily excited; "haw" drawn across corner of eye ; horse usually stands. - Lockjaw, Page 169.

Nose has thin colorless discharge becoming thicker and darker as the disease progresses ; pimples on the lining of the nostrils ; glands under j;aw large and tender; general weakness. - Glanders, Page 166.

Nose has watery discharge from its lining; eyes inflamed and have thick discharge; head hangs; poor appetite; weakness; constipation; high fever; sore throat. - Pink Eye, Page 171.

Nose often turned towards flank ; moves hind quarters with diffic ulty ; high fever; colicky pains, frequent and scanty passage of urine that is dark and thick. - Inflammation of the Kidneys, Page 167.

Diseases Of Horses 145

breathing rapid; pain stops for a short time but soon returns. - Spasmodic Colic, Page 176. Pain continuous in bowels ; fever high ; pulse hard and rapid ; horse hates to lie stretched out as if to urinate; pain moderate but continuous. - Indigestion, Page 167. Pains which assume a colicky nature; moves hind quarters with difficulty; pulse weak; heart beats irregular. - Sunstroke, Page 179. Paralysis of different parts. - Paralysis, Page 170. Part cannot be used ; displacement of broken bone ; a grating sound can

Pawing now and then ; sluggishness ; no appetite ; general uneasiness. - Indigestion, Page 167. Perspiration profuse ; muscles trembling, swollen and stiff ; hind quarters lame large and tender; general weakness. - Glanders, Page 166. Puffy swelling on front part of hock joint. - Bog Spavin, Page 158. Puffy swelling on inside and outside of leg just in front of large tendons.

contains pus and causes pain when touched. - Corns, Page 161. Pus discharged over top of hoof; severe lameness. - Gravel. Rapid and full pulse; chill followed by fever; short, dry and husky cough; chill followed by a fever which gradually increases ; quickened breathing; rapid pulse. - Pneumonia, Page 171. Reeling; head thrown up; seems stupid; staggers; may fall insensible and

Diseases Of Horses 147

Slobbering when drinking; head held to one side; eating with difficulty; spitting out food ; loss of flesh ; swelling on face or under lower jaw : pus often discharged from swelling. - Abnormal Teeth.

Sweats profusely; muscles of body nard and stiff; jaw held shut; cannot eat; head elevated; nose protrudes; easily excited; "haw" drawn across corner of eye ; horse usually stands. - Lockjaw, Page 169.

Swelling on face or under lower jaw; pus often discharged from swelling; slobbering when drinking; head held to one side; eating with difficulty; spitting out food; loss of flesh. - Abnormal Teeth.

Swelling on the elbow that is soft and flabby and contains a watery fluid. It increases in size and becomes hot and tender. - Shoe Boil, Page 175.

Swelling on top of head at first; later there is some pain and the swelling is full of pus ; feverish condition of the parts. - Poll Evil, Page 172.

Swelling, small and sore just at the bottom and inside the hock- joint toward the front ; lameness improving with exercise ; holds foot forward bending hock-joint when standing. - Bone Spavin, Page 158.

Swelling that is puffy and feels as if it contained air; usually on the outside of the leg just above the fetlock-joint. - Wind Puffs, Page 181.

Swelling that is puffy on inside and outside of leg just in front of large tendons. By pressure the joint oil is forced from side to side. - Thoroughpin, Page 180.

Swollen in hollow of pastern ; swelling red and tender ; cracks and chaps extend in all directions and often bleed in cold weather. - Scratches, Page 175.

Swollen and inflamed joint following a wound on the leg in which there is a slippery fluid; horse becomes very lame; fever; loss of appetite; intense pain; as inflammation increases the fluid becomes darker and may contain pus. - Open Joint, P'age 170.

Tears. - Profuse discharge of tears and mucus from eyes; eyes red and inflamed; lids swollen sometimes; strong light irritating. - Sore Eyes, Page 96.

Tenderness and lameness of foot more noticeable when foot hits hard object ; slight discharge of foul smelling ptis from crack in horny frog; hoof dry, heel feverish. - Thrush, Page 180.

Tender spot found on sole of foot, frog or heel by pressure; more or less lameness ; removing the shoe and finding no nail prick or corn. - Stone Bruise, Page 177

Diseases Of Horses

Trembling of muscles; hind quarters lame and stiff; profuse perspiration; difficulty in moving; urine dark in color; often hind parts go down before horse can be moved to stable ; muscles swollen and rigid ; animal makes unsuccessful efforts to get up. - Azoturia, Page 152.

Trembling violently; perspiring freely; breathing difficult; if forced to go staggers and seems unconscious until he falls; attack usually occurs when the horse is exercising soon after feeding. - Stomach Staggers, Page 177.

Urine. - Frequent and scanty passage of urine that is dark and thick; horse moves hind quarters with difficulty; often turns his nose toward his flank; high fever; collicky pains. - Inflammation of the Kidneys, Page 167.

Wound on leg in which there is a slippery fluid. Soon the joint becomes swollen and inflamed; horse becomes very lame; fever; loss of appetite; intense pain; as the inflammation becomes more severe the fluid becomes darker colored and may contain pus. - Open Joint, Page 170.

Treatment For Diseases Of Horses

This is the expulsion of the embryo colt. It is caused by inflammation of the bowels, kidneys, bladder or lungs. Blows from other animals, overwork, or falls are also causes.

Symptoms. - Coming in heat early, straining, neighing, swelling of the vulva, flanks falling in, pawing and kicking are indications of abortion.

Treatment. - Prevention is most practical. Prevent the above named causes. Feed properly, avoid constipation, bloating from frozen foods, etc.

This is a disease of the liver and blood-forming functions. It is usually caused by overfeeding during the lighter working periods which do not give enough exercise to carry off the food. It attacks the horse shortly after being taken from the stable, or onto the road. It causes partial paralysis of the hindquarters.

Symptoms. - In mild cases this affection sometimes appears as lameness in one limb. In severe cases the horse suddenly loses the spirit of starting out. Dullness, heavy flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face and marked trembling are visible. Muscles of loins swell, horse moves stiffly, sweats profusely, drops behind and soon falls. When the horse falls it is usually hard for him to recover.

Treatment. - Here, also, prevention is best. Watch your stock. Regulate the feed. Let the animal get enjoyment from eating. Most animals as well as human beings will over-eat. Exercise regularly or turn out into the pasture every day.

In severe cases give 5 drams of aloes, followed by 4 drams of bromide of potassium which may be given again in o hours. This quiets the horse.

Hot fomentations such as blankets rung out of hot water placed on loins or small of the back eases the spinal cord, muscles, liver and kidneys and help the kidneys to act.

This is a condition in mares which prevents conception. It often causes great loss where one can use the colts to good advantage. The condition should be eliminated if possible as it often injures both mare and stud, also decreases the number of mares that can be successfully served in a neighborhood. The causes are over acidity and abnormal conditions of the womb. Inversions, reversion and closed womb are causes which necessitate a veterinarian. In case of over acidity use the remedy given below.

Treatment. - Take one cake of bread yeast and dissolve in one pint of boiled lukewarm water. First flush the vagina with boiled water, then with clean, well oiled hands (rubbed with sweet or olive oil) and smooth finger-nails, insert hand into womb gently dilating it with the fingers. About three to six hours before serving the mare, inject the yeast mixture. This is the most successful method used by breeders.

This is a disease of the bones in the head and causes them to become soft and porous. There is an enlarged, swollen condition of the head from which the disease gets its name. It affects all types of horses, mules, etc., and is found under all conditions. No cause is known, but the idea is, that it is a condition due to microbes.