Jackson Township (part 10 of 19)

The Lower Mercer coal outcrops near the base of the hills along Pine Creek, but the bed north of Kelleys Mills seldom thickens to over I foot. At Union Furnace, on Sperry Fork, this member outcrops near the old furnace stack, where it has been prospected, and is reported to be 1 foot 6 inches in thickness. Along the road south of Kelleys Mills the coal is opened along the roadside, and the deposit here has the following structure: p^ j^

The Lower Mercer coal is a free-burning oily coal with low content of sulphur and ash. It is a good domestic fuel, but the thinness of the deposit and the mining conditions restrict its use. The bony shale below the coal is too hard to cut with the pick, while the overlying shale is cut with difficulty. Jf the bed had a soft clay below, it could be mined more easily. The deposit is of local interest only. The area of the field is small, as it is confined to a few square miles in the vicinity of Kelleys Mills and Union Furnace.

The Boggs ore, the position of which is only a few feet above the Lower Mercer coal, is poorly defined in Lawrence County. The bed is represented by kidney ores in the shales at a few places along Pine Creek. The position of the Boggs ore is shown in the following section, taken near the Kelleys Mills School, in Elizabeth Township:

The Boggs ore in this locality is siliceous in character, and irregularly bedded in the shales. It was mined but little even for the charcoal furnaces, and is of interest at present only for its stratigraphic features.

The Lower Mercer ore was highly esteemed for making iron in the charcoal furnaces on account of the richness of the ore and on accoimt of the quality of the iron produced. The position of the ore is directly above the Lowrr Mercer limestone, which is much less persistent than the ore. The deposit is invariably thin, averaging from 4 to 6 inches in thickness and having a maximum measurement of 8 or 10 inches. The outcrop of the Lower Mercer members is restricted to the Pine Creek Valley, and to the Ohio River hills west of Hanging Rock. The limestone was noted at a few places in the vicinity of Kelleys Mills, where it is about 1 foot in thickness. These members are founfl about 55 feet below the Upper Mercer ore, and about 25 feet below the Upper Mercer coal. The Lower Mercer ore was worked but little in Lawrence County during the days of the charcoal furnaces, as the Upper Mercer and Ferriferous ores were much better developed. This ore is of good quality, and in the natural state has from 40 to 50 per cent iron, but the deposits are entirely too thin to be mined at the present time.

The interval from the Lower Mercer coal to the Upper Mercer or No. 3a coal is largely made up of clays and shales, w^hich are well suited for the manufacture of ceramic ware. Below the Lower Mercer limestone 18 feet of shale are found, while above it 25 feet or more are found. The different layers are suited for the manufacture of paving and building brick, and the materials, except the limestone and ore nodules, from the whole interval of 40 feet or more, may be used. It would be a surface mining proposition, where machinery could be used to good advantage, thus making the cost of winning the materials low. The sandy clays and shales are suitable for the manufacture of sewer pipe, but mor^ care would be required in mining the materials for that purpose. The partially weathered shales, as has been demonstrated in practice, make better roofing tile than the unweathei-ed. The available supply of these shales alojig the Pine Creek Valley in Lawrence County is large, but as yet they have not been developed. The shales, water, and coal are favorable for the successful operation of plants, but the shipping faciUties at present are not the best. This is one of the most promising shale horizons for ceramic purposes in Lawrence County.

In Lawrence County the Upper Mercer coal is found along the Pine Creek Valley in Elizabeth Township, and along the Ohio Valley west of Hanging Rock in Hamilton. It is also present at a few places in the western parts of Decatur and Washington townships, but in these the bed is usually quite thin. This bed has excellent continuity in Lawrence County, and also in Scioto and Jackson, but it has sufficient volume for mining only in restricted areas. However, the coal is an excellent domestic fuel, and for this reason is mined even where the bed is quite thin.

The stratigraphic position of the Upper Mercer coal is about midway in the interval separating the Lower and Upper Mercer ores, but it is much closer to the Sand Block ore. The interval from the Sand Block ore to the coal varies from 1 foot to 15 feet. The coal lies about 25 feet above the Lower Mercer ore, and approximately 30 feet below the Upper Mercer. These intervals, however, are subject to many variations, owing to the diversity of the conditions under which the beds were laid down.

Hamilton Township. - The Upper Mercer coal in Lawrence County is best developed in the river hills west of Hanging Rock, where it has been worked for local use for years. The bed at its best consists of two coal benches, separated by shale or clay. The lower block is more variable in thickness and quality than the upper one, and often it is wanting, or is represented only by a few inches of black shale. On Norman Run several mines have been worked, but the coal was seen only on the outcrop. Mr. John Simons reports that the Upper Mercer coal on this stream has good thickness. The structure of the bed

Mr. Simons states that the lower bench of coal expands from 1 foot to as much as 3 feet in places in the mines. Just north of Hanging Rock on the Newcastle pike, the coal is opened at the road level, but only the upper block is shown.

In the eastern part of Section 9, on the land of Frank Givens, the Upper Mercer coal is mined in a desultory way, and is reported to be about 2 feet in thickness. West of this, in the same section, on the Joseph Thompson property, the structure of the deposit is showTi by the following measurements taken in a drift mine: pt.

At this place the upper bench of coal varies from 1 foot 1 inch to 1 foot 4 inches, while the lower bench expands from 6 to 8 inches. In the hollow north of this, on the land of S. C. Winkler, a number of drift mines were operated for a local fuel supply. John Norris reports that in this vicinity the deposit is from 3 feet to 3 feet 10 inches in thickness, and that there are two benches of coal, each about 1 foot 4 inches thick, and separated by 2 to 5 inches of clay. At this place the coal lies about 27 feet below the Upper Mercer ore. In the western part of Section 9, on the farm of A. C. Bruce, the measurements given below were obtained in a drift mine : Pt. in.

At this place the coal is approximately 160 feet below the Ferriferous limestone, and is reported to expand to 4 feet in thickness in some parts of the mine. In the southern part of Section 3, on the property of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, a record which shows the character of the interval from the Upper Mercer coal to the Ferriferous limestone was obtained, and the measurements follow: pt. in.

In the southweBtem part of Section 3 the Upper Mercer coal has good volume, and is mined for domestic needs. The following record was obtained on the land of C. M. Lawless: p^ j^

In the northeastern part of Section 8, on the farm of George Austin, the Upper Mercer coal has been mined by drifting for many years, and has good volume. A carefully measured section takfn at this place is given below: p^ j^

Elizabeth Township. - From Hamilton Township the Upper Mercer coal extends northward into Elizabeth, where in certain areas it again has fair volume, and furnishes a part of the local fuel supply. Further, the structure of the bed is much the same in this township as it is in Hamilton, and as it is in parts of the fields in Scioto County. Near the forks of the road that leads from vSperry Fork to Little Pine C'reek the Upper Mercer and Lower Mercer coals have been prospected. The following measurements were obtained along the roadside:

Along Fox Hollow, in Elizabeth Township, the Uppir Mercer coal has been worked from a few small entries for local use. The two blocks are separated by a thick clay parting as shown below :

On the farm of Fred Smith, near Wagoner's Station, on the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railroad, several small entries have been worked for local use.

Decatur Township. - The Upper Mercer coal is present on Bear Run and on Pine Creek in the western part of Decatur Township. The extent of the outcrop is small, however, and the coal in places is replaced by massive sandstones. The following record was obtained on Bear Run north of the plant of the Superior Portland Cement Company:

Washington Township. - The Upper Mercer coal occurs along Brady Creek in Washington Township, but the bed is seldom over 1 foot in thickneiis. It lies just below a heavy sandstone, which often replaces it completely.

In Lawrence County the Upper Mercer coal, although somewhat thin, is well worthy of consideration as a mineral asset, on account of the quality of the fuel, and on account of the location of the productive fields which are west of the main body of Allegheny coals. Further, the underlying clay has a value from a ceramic standpoint, as it is usually of good quality. The coal from this bed is a high volatile, free-burning fuel, and, with the exception of the Quakertown, it is the best of the Pottsville coals for domestic use. It has a low content of ash and sulphur, and like the Quakerto^vn it produces but little soot during oxidation. The coal benches are usually broken by vertical joints into blocks; hence it is often called block coal. Owing to this blocky structure the coal mines in large lumps, with but little loss in fine material. As a general thing the coal is overlaid by a tough shale, which forms an excellent roof. In a few places, however, the? roof material is sandstone, which is also safe, as it is massively developed and free from shaly partings. In a few localities only a foot or two of shale intervenes between the coal and sandstone, which condition is somewhat dangerous to the life of the miner. The floor of the bed is, with few exceptions, a plastic but often siliceous clay, while the parting between the two coal benches is of the same character. The cutting is done in these clays.' On the whole the mining conditions are satisfactory for a thin bed. In estimating the value of these thin Pottsville coal beds the underlying clay should also be taken into consideration, especially if the claj'^s have ceramic qualities, and if the conditions are favorable for their utilization. While the Upper Mercer coal is generally thin, a good plastic fire clay is usually found below it. Where

The specific gravity of coal is 1.3, and that of clay 2.49. If 60 per cent of the total coal and clay can be mined, the coal per acre would yield 1,947 tons, and clay 8,135 tons. Three and one-half tons of clay make a thousand standard building brick, so 8,135 tons would make 2,324,000. Under favorable conditions six-tenths of a ton of coal is sufficient fuel for burning a thousand brick; hence the fuel required would be 2,324 X .6 = 1,394 tons. This leaves 553 tons for steaming purposes which is about the amount necessary. Therefore, a 1 foot 10 inch bed of coal will furnish, under economical conditions, the total fuel requirement to manufacture a 4-foot deposit of clay into ware. At $8.00 per thousand at the plant, the value of the product per acre would be J 18,592.

These plastic clays are well suited for the manufacture of buff and iron mottled building brick, or of sewer pipe. Where the clay and coal are both worked the height is suflScient for ease in mining. The clay is mined from below the coal, which is then loosened by wedging or shooting. Under these conditions the cost of mining would be from 30 to 50 cents per ton for the clay, and from 50 to 70 cents per ton for the coal.

Sand Block Ore

The Sand Block ore, which outcrops along the western edge of Lawrence Coimty, lies between the Upper Mercer coal and the Upper Mercer ore. In some places the deposit is only a foot or two above the coal, but usually it is from 10 to 15 feet. The ore, which varies from- 4 to 12 inches in thickness, is quite siliceous, and has been worked at only a few places in Lawrence County, but more generally in Scioto. The deposit has but little value at present. Sections showing the position of the Sand Block ore are given under Lower Mercer ore, and under Upper Mercer coal; hence they will not be repeated here.

Upper Mercer Ore

The Upper Mercer deposit is known as the Block or Franklin ore of Lawrence County, and as the Big Red Block ore of Scioto County. For years the charcoal furnaces in the western part of Lawrence County drew a considerable part of their ore supply from this member. Next to the Ferriferous ore, it is the most important ore bed in this county, although the member is best developed in Scioto County near Ohio Furnace. The Hanging Rock Iron Company for many years drew a small supply of ore from this field for its coke furnaces, but the company abandoned the mines in 1913. The ore, which has not been worked to any extent in late years in Lawrence County, is generally siliceous, but in some grades of iron it may be used to good advantage in place of the Lake ores used at present.

The tapper Mercer ore was exposed only at a few places, btit the old benches from which it was taken can be followed for miles, as this bed was largely worked by the charcoal furnaces along the Pine Creek Valley, and along the Ohio River. But little has been mined for years except near Ohio Furnace in Scioto County. The ore is above drainage in Hamilton, and in the western parts of Upper, Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships. It goes under cover on Storms Creek near the Kelley School, on Little Storms Creek near Lagrange Furnace, on Little Pine Creek near Lawrence Furnace, and on Pine Creek near the mouth of Youngs Branch. The maximum thickness of the ore is 2 feet, but in many places it is thin or wanting, as the ore has been replaced by sandstones. This ore lies on the horizon of the Upper Mercer limestone, and when the limestone is present the ore is found directly above it. In Lawrence County the limestone is wanting, but the ore is quite persistent. Many of the sections with the measurement of the ore are taken from previous reports of the Survey. The interval from the Upper Mercer ore to the Ferriferous ore varies from 100 to 130 feet, but the usual measurement is from 110 to 120 feet.

Upper Township. - The Upper Mercer or Block ore is present along the lower parts of the valleys of Storms and Little Storms creeks. It was mined rather extensively for the charcoal furnaces, but is not used at prcs.^nt. Just north of Ironton, in Kronnacker's spring house, the ore has the following structure:

Along the lower course of Storms Creek this ore was worked considerably by stripping, and is reported to be from a few inches to 2 feet in thickness. The quality of the ore is stated to be the best when the bed is thin. On Storms Creek it passes under cover just below the Kelley School, and on Little Storms Creek it disappears from view near Lagrange Furnace.

Hamilton Township. - The outcrop of the Upper Mercer ore is readily traced on Osburn Run by the old benches which extend along the hillsides. Near the school, where the member was exposed along the bank of the stream, the ore measured 10 inches, and had clay for the covering stratum. West of this stream, on Norman Run, the ore, judging from the depth to which it was mined by stripping, is also well developed. In this locality the ore is reported to be from 6 inches to 1 foot 6 inches in thickness. The bed is vfry persistent also west of this stream, where the follo^/vdng record was measured in Section 3, on the land of the Hanging Rock Iron Company:

Elizabeth Township. - The Upper Mercer ore was worked along the courses of the streams in the western part of EHzabeth Township where the bed has good continuity and volume. This ore constituted a part of the regular burden for the charcoal furnaces Center, Lawrence, Pine Grove, and Union. In this township, from measurements and reports, the ore varies in thickness from 4 inches to 2 feet. The mean thickness however is from 5 to 10 inches. On Little Pine Creek west of Lawrence Furnace the ore is reported by Thomas Coyer to vary from a few inches to 2 feet in thickness. Generally the roof is shale, but in some places it is a massive sandstone. In some of the workings he reports the ore as follows :

North of Kelleys Mills along Pine Creek the Upper Mercer ore has been mined in many places. On the Fred Smith farm the ore measured 6 inches in thickness, while north of this, on Cooney Branch, it was 8 inches thick where exposed along the banks of the stream. In both places the ore was siliceous in character.

Decatur Township. - The Upper Mercer ore is fomid along Bear Run and along Pine Creek, in the western part of Decatur Township. Here the bed is only moderately steady, as it is often replaced by thick sandstones. These regions contributed but little ore to the old charcoal furnaces that were built and operated in the district, as their supply was drawn largely from the far richer and better developed Ferriferous ore. In this township the member lies from 95 to 120 feet below the Ferriferous limestone, and it has an average thickness not to exceed 6 inches.

Washington Township. - The charcoal furnaces in Washington Township obtained a small quantity of ore from the Upper Mercer bed, which is present only along the stream courses in the western part of the township. The ore is usually thin, and the member unsteady.

In these comparisons 2 per cent silicon and 4 per cent total carbon are figured to the iron. In ordinary practice about one-half the manga* nese found in the burden goes to the iron, while the remainder is carried out in the slag and this condition is used in the comparisons.

The iron produced is made up of the following: Total iron in burden of ore, stone and coke. Total phosphorus in burden of ore, stone and coke. One-half manganese in burden of ore, stone and coke. The three above items equal 94 per cent of the total pig. Silicon 2 per cent.

The freight rate on Lake Ores from the docks at Toledo or Cleveland to Ironton is 90 cents per ton of 2,240 lbs. The average price of Pocahontas coke delivered at Ironton would be approximately $2.85 per ton of 2,000 lbs. This is taking the average price over a period of about ten years.

The general over and above cost including the labor, taxes, insurance, office J expenses, maintenance of property, and cost of marketing, would be somewhere in

; the neighborhood of $1.00 per ton of ore smelted. This is on the basis of smelting approximately 540 tons of ore per day. The cost of native limestone per ton of 2,240 lbs. is from 80 to 85 cents, delivered at Ironton.*

Limestone, cost per gross ton at furnace, 85 cents. Average cost of net tons of coke at furnace, $3.05. Freight on L^ke ore, 90 cents per gross ton. Over and above cost per ton of pig iron, including all labor and repair costs, taxes, insurance, etc., would be $1.0936; cost of native ore per gross ton delivered at furnace would be SI. 92 for the '^Limestone" ore, and $1.98 for the Block ore.*

The common practice of the charcoal furnace operators where carbonate ores were used was first to calcine them, which action was an advantage, as the ores then reduced more readily in the short stacks. This same practice was also followed where the ore was used in the large coke furnaces. Mr. W. M. JelTerys reports, **We have not attempted to use this ore in the natural state. It has always been calcined, but we are of the opinion that it could be used in the natural state by crushing.

In the breaking up and in the reduction of the ores the following heat units are required when the grams of the substances used are equal to the molecular weights. 4FeCOa + (4 X 24,900 cal. = 99,600 cal.) = 4FeO+4C02 4FeO -f (4 X 65,700 cal. = 262,800 cal.) = 2Fe, -f 20,

Thus the total heat required to break up 4FeC0», and then reduce the 4FeO to 2Fe« is 362,400 calories, or the calories per unit of iron are 1,618.

It is seen from these calculations that the heat energy required is exactly the same. The results are different when the heat required to smelt the raw carbonate is compared with that required to smelt the calcined ore, as shown below:

.4FeC0a requires 362,400 calories for its complete reduction, while 2Fe80» requires 391,200 calories for its complete reduction, or, 28,800 calories more are required in the second case to produce 2Fe8 than in the first case. This is an excess of 129 calories per unit of iron, or 129 calories more are required to reduce one unit of iron from the oxide than from the carbonate, so that from this point of view there is no special economy in roasting the ore.

ered also. The COs produced carries out heat while the Ot given up by the iron oxide combines with the CO gas to form COi with evolution of heat. The temperature at which the gases leave the furnace is ordinarily 200° C. The specific heat of COt at this temperature is .414. When the carbonate ore is chaiiged into the furnace, the heat items are as foUows:

This 119,746 calories must be furnished by the oxidation of C to CO by air. . 1 unit C burned to CO gives 2,430 calories. The gases produced carry out the following at 200° C. -. I units CO =J X 200 X. 3084 = 144 calories

When the calcined ore is charged the items are as follows: Heat units required to break up 2Fe*0a = 391,200 calories Heat given by oxidation 6COH-30« =6C0f (6X12X5,670) =408,240

The 4,819 calories yet required must be supplied by the oxidation of C to CO by air, which gives 2,069 calories per unit C. The equation follows:

Total units carbon required are 724-2 = 74, so in this case 224 units iron are reduced by 74 units carbon or carbon per unit iron is .330. The difference in carbon per unit between using the raw and calcined ore is .473 - .330 = .143, or 14.3 per cent of the weight of the iron. This saving of carbon will justify the calcining of the carbonates esi)ecially where it can be done with cheap fuel.

The calcining of ore is also expensive for several reasons. The ore is handled once or twice more than if used raw, and while low grade fuels are generally used, these must be given a value. Considerable ore is lost in dust that results from the extra handling and calcination. Some of the ash from the fuel used is mixed with the calcined ore, thus increasing the gangue to be fluxed in the furnace.

There are also several points against using the raw carbonate. In a normal working furnace the FeiOi is reduced to spongy metaUic iron near the top. The FeCO« is broken up and reduced several feet lower or close to where the slag zone b^ns. The carbonates are dense; hence their impervious character retards greatly the reducing I ction of the gases, as the COs must first be expelled and then the FeO reduced. If the ore is added in large pieces before ibis breaking up and reduction is complete, it may be carried far down into the slag zone, which generally causes trouble. If the ore is crushed to small pieces, the breaking up and reduction will take place in the proper zone. Magnetites for years were held in disfavor, as the furnace managers were trying to use them in too large pieces, but at present they are Crushed and work very satisfactorily. The carbonates, if used raw, should also be prepared by crushing before use. In a measure the capacity of a furnace is limited; that is, the amount of stock which can be charged per day. The carbonate and oxide ores compare in weight as follows:

From the above it follows that, if carbonates alone were charged, the tonnage of iridn produced from the furnace would be much less than where oxides alone are charged. In the table where the two are compared in this way, it shows that 3,080 lbs. of coke are required to smelt 2,268 lbs. of iron from the carbonate and only 2,584 lbs. of coke for the iron from the oxides. This difference is due to the capacity of the furnace and to the low yield of iron when the carbonate is used, as in both cases 540 tons ore were charged.

These siliceous carbonate ores give a low yield of metal, but they may be utilized to good advantage to bring the silica in the burden up to the quantity required. Their value is considerably increased if the ore is calcined before use. On the whole, the Upper Mercer ore of Lawrence County is equally as valuable as the siliceous Lake ores. It belongs to the class of ores adapted for the smelting of foundry iron. The member is weU worthy of consideration as a mineral asset of the county and is of interest also in connection with the early history of iron making in the Hanging Rock Iron Region.

The Tionesta coal is very persistent in the northern part of Lawrence County, and has been worked in a small way for many years. It has been mined on Darby, Buckhorn, and Olive creeks, and on Brushy Fork in Elizabeth and Decatur townships, but the bed is best developed on Brady Creek in Washington Township. While this coal is found in the southern part of the county, it has not been worked south of Little Pine Creek in Elizabeth Township. The thickness of the member, where best developed, is only from 2 to 3 feet, but the quality of the coal is excellent for domestic use.

The Tionesta coal is found about midway in the interval between the Upper Mercer ore and the Brookville coal, which is poorly represented in Lawrence Countv. The Tionesta bed lies about 32 feet above the Upper Mercer ore, and about 63 feet below the Ferriferous limestone. It is often called the 60-foot coal, owing to the fact that it occurs about 60 feet below the limestone, which is the most important bed for reference in the region. The clay below the Tionesta coal usually has good volume, but is somewhat siliceous in character. The associated shales have ceramic qualities, and in many places have good thickness. These beds will also be considered under the above heading. The Tionesta coal extends from the Ohio River northward

Upper To%vnship. - ^The Tionesta coal is poorly represented in Upper Township, as the bed in much of the area is replaced by thick sandstones, or is marked by thin deposits of carbonaceous shales, with impure coal bands. No Tionesta coal of value was found in this township.

Hamilton Township. - Massive sandstones replace the Tionesta coal in most of Hamilton Township also. In the western part of the area about 1 foot of this coal was observed at a few places on the main ridges.

Elizabeth Township. - The Tionesta coal is better developed in Elizabeth Township than in either Upper or Hamilton. However, the areas in which the bed has sufficient thickness to be mined by drifting, even in a small way, are not large. It has the best volume along Little Pine Creek, where house coal has been mined at a few places. The following section, taken at Lawrence Furnace, shows the position of the Tionesta coal with reference to other well known beds:

The Tionesta coal, lying about 64 feet below the Ferriferous limestone, is quite persistent, and farther north it thickens considerably. The interval from this bed to the limestone in this region is from 60 to 70 feet. Near Empire Furnace, in Scioto County, the local coal supply is drawn largely from this bed. On Cooney Branch, near the La\\Tence- Scioto county line, the section is as follows: uoal occurs 62 feet below the limestone, and is 1 foot 5 inches thick.^ At the head of Darby Creek, north of Lawrence Furnace, the coal has been mined in a small way. Its position is 66 feet below the Ferriferous limestone, and its structure is shown in the following section:

Decatur Township. - In its extension northward from Elizabeth Township into Decatur the Tionesta coal thickens somewhat, but it has sufficient volume for drift mining only in small areas. It was mined and used, to a small extent, with charcoal for iron smelting in Buckhorn Furnace, but, as the results were not favorable, this practice was soon abandoned. The old entries are seen near the furnace stack, and they lie about 70 feet below the Ferriferous limestone. No good section of the rocks was obtained, but Luther Rankin reports the Tionesta coal in this locality to be 1 foot 6 inches in thickness.

found in Lawrence County is along Brady Creek, in Washington Township, where the coal is regularly mined for a part of the local supply of domestic fuel. The member is quite persistent, however, across the township, but in some places the bed is traced more by its clay than by the coal itself, for this is very thin and shaly. In local areas in the northern part of the township the coal is completely replaced by sandstones. Along the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway, northeast of Olive Station, the Tionesta coal, somewhat thin and broken, was exposed near the track level. The section obtained follows:

Near the head of Olive Creek the coal is reported by Thurman Donley to be in one block 1 foot 6 inches thick. It has been worked in a small way here for local use.

Near the mouth of Hawkins Hollow, ettst of Bloom Funuu^e, in Section 28, this coal has been worked for local use. No good section of the rocks in the interval to the limestone was obtained, but the distance is 70 feet, aneroid measurement. The structure of the bed is as follows:

Just west of the old stack of Pioneer Furnace on Brady Creek, in Section 22, the blossom of the Tionesta coal was seen, but the structure of the bed could not be obtained. The interval from the coal to the Ferriferous limestone is 60 feet, and on this account the coal is locally known as the 60-foot bed. North of Brady Creek the coal thins to a few inches except in the vicinity of Monroe Furnace in Jackson County, where it is well developed. The following section, made at Monroe Furnace, is given in order to show the position of the Tionesta coal with reference to the Ferriferous limestone:*

Owing to the character of the overlying strata, the Tionesta coal is known locally as the **Slate" bed. The roof material of this member, in the northern part of Lawrence County, is a dark tough shalci imder which mining is quite safe, as any give or break of the roof may be detected easily by sounding. Further, this kind of a roof allows a large percentage of the total coal to be mined. The floor of the Tionesta bed is a siliceous clay, which gives firm support for the posts and pillars. The bed, however, has some objectionable mining features. When the coal has sufficient volume for regular drift mining it is broken up into two or more coal benches, separated by clay or clay shale partings, the weight of which often exceeds that of the coal. Under these conditions, also, the coal mines dirty. The lower or main coal bench is ever)rwhere of fair quality, but the upper benches are in many places somewhat impure. This member is also uncertain in extent and volume, which further limits its importance. On the whole the character of the Tionesta coal in Lawrence County is not such as to justify mining in a large way at present. It is important, however, for its contribution of fuel for local needs.

The Tionesta coal resembles the two Mercer coals in many respects, but it is less pure than the highest member of Upper Mercer. The coal in the benches has a blocky structure, which allows the fuel to be mined in lumps, with only a small loss in fine material. It is a free-burning fuel, and is moderately low in ash, which is clay-like in character. The soot produced during the combustion of the coal is not troublesome; hence it is liked for domestic purposes. It contains more sulphur than the underlying Mercer coals, but much less than the Clarion coal of the Allegheny formation. The sulphur in the coal is in the form of iron disulphide, and is distributed irregularly along the bedding planes. When all properties are considered, the Tionesta coal is a very good domestic and general purpose fuel. The operators of Buckhom Furnace experimented with this coal for iron smelting, but their tests were not satisfactory.

The Tionesta clay lies directly below the Tionesta coal. When normally developed this clay is light colored, and quite free from fluxing impurities, but it is nearly everywhere siliceous in character. The thickness of the bed shown on the outcrop is 3 feet 6 inches at Lawrence Furnace, 3 feet near Olive Furnace; 5 feet in the northwestern part of Decatur Township; 5 feet on the Hansgen property, on Brady Creek, and 5 feet in the northwestern part of Washington Township. In Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships the average thickness of the clay is nearly 4 feet, while that of the overlying coal is about 1 foot 8 inches. Considered conjunctly, these beds are worthy of attention for ceramic purposes. The clay is well fitted for high-grade building brick, and it may be employed also in the manufacture of stone ware, paving block, and sewer pipe. In some localities this clay assumes the phase of a clay-bonded sandstone, which may be utilized for acid refractory ware. The Tionesta clay at present is not worked at any place in Lawrence County.

Many feet of shales of good quality for ceramic products are shown in the interval from the Tionesta coal to the Clarion clay. The shales in the upper part of this interval are in the Allegheny formation, but as there is no definite break in the deposits, and as the composition of the shales throughout the entire interval is much the same, they will be considered at this place. All the gradations can be found from a soft fine-grained gray shale, or a plastic clay to tough blue shale, dark fissile shale, carbonaceous shale, black band ore, bony coal, or sandstone.

Some of these varieties are unsuited for ceramic purposes. The tough thin-bedded blue or black shales often spall when subjected to heat. In burning ware made from such shales this action may completely disrupt it. Shales with high iron content fuse at low temperatures under reducing heat, as the iron oxides, which are reduced from the higher to the lower state, attack the silica to form low fusing silicates. Carbonaceous shales, with considerable iron oxide, cause trouble in burning, as they act much the same as the shales with the high iron content under reducing heat conditions. If the carbon is not oxidized at low red heat, it reduces the iron with the formation of iron silicates or slags, which, by flowing at moderate temperatures, deform the ware.

The varieties best suited for ceramic ware are the soft gray or ordinary shales, the arenaceous shales, and the clay shales. The drying and burning shrinkage coefficients of ware made from the different varieties of shales vary greatly. The total shrinkage in ware made from the fine-grained shales, or those high in fluxes, is generally sufficient to cause warping or checking of the ware. Coarse-grained arenaceous shales have low shrinkage usually, and make ware that retains its shape well through the drying and burning stages. The shrinkage of the clay shales is about intermediate between the fine-grained and the arenaceous shales. The fine-grained shales generally vitrify early to a dense mass. The arenaceous shales, where the proportion of sand is

The color developed in the ware made from the shales is also of importance, and is due largely to the quantity and disseminated condition of the iron, to the quantity of lime and clay substance, and to the state of oxidation and vitrification. For paving brick, color and texture are important, but texture is by far the most so. A dark color is usually wanted, as this seems to indicate a better state of vitrification. The texture must be such that the brick are tough, or will withstand long abrasive strains. Toughness in ware is secured where two classes of components are active; one class is made up of those materials that fuse and bond, and the other of those that remain rigid or unaffected. When these classes of components are properly adjusted, the texture of the ware is stony and dense. Ware of this character is very tough and durable. Where the mass vitrifies to a glass, the ware is brittle, and where no vitrification takes place, it is porous and fragile. Shales containing coarse sand are well suited for this grade of ware, as the finer parts vitrify, while the coarser particles remain unaffected. Such shales go to a good dense, tough mass, with low shrinkage, and generally with good color. Mixtures of shales and clays also give good results, as the shale vitrifies much earlier than the clay.

For sewer pipe the materials must have practically the same qualities as for paving brick. The ware must be tough to withstand shipping and handling; further, it must be vitrified to prevent absorption and abrasion. The color desired by the trade varies from dark red to brown or to nearly black.

Almost any shale may be used in making common brick, as color and shape are of little importance. For wire cut, or pressed building brick, shape, texture, and color are of value. The brick should have straight faces and edges. Warped, dished, or checked ware is very undesirable, as it does not lay up well in the wall. The trade at present prefers a partially or completely vitrified brick, on account of the low absorption. The color should be pleasing to the eye, but the shades desired vary with the individual taste.

Roofing tile should be strong and tough to withstand the strains. Both semi- and completely vitrified tile are found on the market. A good bright cherry red is the color most desired. Weathered shale is better fitted for this class of ware than the unweathered, for in the former the iron is oxidized principally to the ferric state, the fluxes are low from leaching, and the carbon has been largely removed by oxidation.

Each stratum of shale should be tested to find for what particular ware it is best fitted. Mixtures of the different shales found in the same interval should also be made and tested. In these tests the following points should be noted.

Ease of Grinding. - Most shales require grinding or long weathering to reduce them to the necessary state for working into ware. The dry pan is the most common machine employed for the reduction of the material, but chasers and wet pans are used in some places. For most shales the dry pan is the cheapest and most efficient method. A 9-foot dry pan will reduce from 50 to 100 tons per day of ordinary shale. The kind and amount of grinding machinery necessary for a certain capacity of plant depends on the ease of reduction.

Ease of Developing Plasticity. - The ease of developing plasticity determines the method to be followed in the preparation of the ground shale for its formation into w^are. In the dry processes a certain degree of steaming or aging is necessary, while in the stiff and soft mud process pugging only is required. The extent of this action depends on the ease of developing plasticity, which in most shales is readily produced.

Ease of Forming Into Ware. - The forming or manufacture of the materials into ware is accomplished in several ways. Hand molding for common brick is occasionally practiced. No difficulty is experienced, as the soft mud used is easily shaped into the desired forms. Soft mud machinery is also used to a limited extent. Stiff mud machinery is the common method used in the manufacture of brick, sewer pipe, and roofing tile. The main point is the behavior of the mud as it flows through the dies. When the column is formed by the auger machine, laminations, cracks, and unequal densities are to be observed. IjCSS lamination occurs when the plunger machine is used. In the dry process filling out the comers and bonding the mass are the main results to be accomplished.

Drying Behavior. - Checking and warping are vital points, as these defects make the ware unmarketable. They are produced by the strains set up in the ware due to drying, or to the manner of making, or to both. Auger machine-made ware shows these defects most. The drying shrinkage should be carefully measured. When this is high, checking and warping usually develop either during the drying or the burning of the ware. This defective ware may amount to several per cent of the total output. The rate and method of drying should be determined, as the kind and capacity of the drier used depend on these. As a general thing, ware made from the coal formation shales dries quickly and safely. The toughness of the dried ware should also be taken into account, as the breakage in handling, when the ware is fragile or tender, is an important item of loss.

Scumming. - This is important, only, where the color of the burned ware must be considered. In face brick and roofing tile it is a serious defect, as the discoloration is offensive to the eye. But little attention 's paid to it in sewer pipe and in paving brick. It is caused by the

Temperature and Range of Vitrification. - That temperature at which the fluxing or bonding components have combined, with those giving rigidity to the mass to form the strongest and best developed structure, is considered in clay working the vitrification temperature. The structure of the body, as previously stated, depends on the relative quantities of these two classes of components. When the fluxing components are low, the body Will be open and porous; when high, it will be stony or even vitreous. There is one temperature at which the structure of the body is best developed, and this temperature depends principally upon the composition of the ingredients.

The range of vitrification is that period in the burning which begins with incipient vitrification and extends to complete vitrification, or to where the ware softens and deforms. During this period the ware has a good structure, while below it the ware is soft and porous, and above it the product is vitreous and deformed. This range varies with the composition and with the texture of the different materials. If the range is long, little difficulty will be experienced in burning the ware, but if short, the danger of over or under burning is greatly increased.

Structure of Mature Body. - The structure of the body required varies somewhat for the different classes of ware, and also for different grades in some of the classes. For paving brick it should be dense and stony, as they must be hard, tough, and non-absorbent. Much the same structure is demanded for sewer pipe, and for roofing tile. For the better grades of building brick the trade at present requires a well vitrified body especially for outside work. The demand is for brick that absorbs but little if any Water, and that does not discolor easily. For filler brick an open porous structure is generally preferred.

Burning Behavior. - Warping, dishing, and checking, during the burning process, depend largely on the strains set up in the ware during the drying process, augmented by strains due to heat action. The kiln strains are softening during the water smoking and vitrification periods, and fire shrinkage. The total drying and fire shrinkage of shales is usually from 1 to 1| inches per foot. Shales contain more or less carbonaceous matter which may cause trouble during the burning, especially if the carbon content is high, or if the body is very dense. This carbon must be oxidized at low red heat, or it causes a reduction of the iron oxide from the higher to the lower state, which then attacks the silica to form low fusing slags. This chemical and physical action causes bloating and deformation of the ware.

earths present. The iron oxide in shales varies ordinarily between 5 and 10 per cent. Ferric oxides are red, while the ferrous oxides or their compounds are dark. The color of the ware depends on the state of oxidation, which may l)e varied by the method of firing. For the production of a red color an "open" fire with excess of air is required, and for that of the dark colors a '*tight" fire with insufficient air is necessarj'. The finish or dark glaze required for paving brick is produced by reducing conditions during the later part of the bum.

The various strata in the interval have not been tested bv the Siirvey; so definite information on them cannot be given. Deposits should be thoroughly tested to find for what particular wares they are best fitted before any development is undertaken. ^luch expense and labor can be avoided by so doing. Lawrence County has a wealth of clay well suited for the manufacture of high-grade building brick, and sewer pipe, and of shales which are superior for paving brick and roofing tile.

An analvsis of the shales below the Ferriferous limestone at the Superior Portland Cement Company's plant is reported by Mr. E. C. Switzer as follows:*

The ceramic industry is poorly represented in Lawrence County, although many conditions are quite favorable for the success of clay product enterprises. The quantity of the materials is large, and the quality good; further, the cheap coal, of which the county produces large quantities, could be used as fuel, thus affording the best possible market for this material. When properly selected or mixed large deposits of these shales are well fitted for the manufacture of paving and building brick, sewer pipe, and roofing tile. In the manufacture of paving brick the plants in this region would have to compete with the Portsmouth plants, which are well located, but have a costly fuel supply. For red brick, sewer pipe, or roofing tile, the competition would not be severe.

Allegheny Formation

The Allegheny formation is the most important division of rocks appearing at the surface in Lawrence Comity. It begins with the Brookville or No. 4 coal and ends with the Upper Freeport or No. 7 coal. Other well known members are the Clarion coal, Ferriferous limestone and ore, Lower Kittanning coal and clay, Middle Kittanning coal, and Lower Freeport coal. The rocks of this formation are best exposed in Upper, Hamilton, Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships, although they are present also in Perry, Fayette, Lawrence, Aid, Symmes, and Mason townships.

In Lawrence County the Brookville coal, locally known as the Conway, is generally wanting, or is represented only by a stain, but in a few localities in the southern part it thickens to 12 or 18 inches. This coal has been mined along the outcrop at a few places in Upper Township, north of Ironton, but the bed is of little importance at present. It is exposed in the road tunnel just north of Ironton, where the following section was taken: p^ j^

North of the tunnel the Brookville coal was observed on the outcrop at a few places, but the bed was thin and impure. In the northern part of the county the coal, in most of the area, is replaced by thick sandstones. As the coal is thin, and as the associated beds have no practical value, the member will not be traced in a detailed way. The thin ore bed at this horizon was mined to a very small extent for the charcoal furnaces. The deposits are very local, and the quality of the ore poor. The position of the Brookville coal is from 15 to 35 feet below the Ferriferous limestone.

Clarion Or Hecla Sandstone

The position of the Clarion or Hecla sandstone is between the Brookville and Clarion coals. The thickness of the member varies from place to place, but it is usually from 15 to 30 feet. This sandstone extends northward from the Ohio River across Upper, Hamilton, Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships into Jackson County. As many sections showing the position and thickness of the Clarion sandstone are given elsewhere in this bulletin they will not be repeated here.

From the Clarion or Hecla member most of the sandstone used in building and lining the charcoal furnaces in Lawrence County, and also in Jackson, was obtained. Jefferson Furnace, near Oak Hill, Jackson County, the only active charcoal furnace in Ohio at present, has been relined with this material for over 60 years. The rock has excellent, fire resisting qualities, and is chemically constituted to withstand the action of acid slags. In Lawrence County the deposit of Clarion sandstone near Coalgrove is worked for shipment by John Peters, and it is known locally as *'fire stone". This sandstone has a light yellow color, and is composed of quartz and feldspar sand of medium sized grains, with a small quantity of clay and iron oxides for the bonding component. In conjunction with a dense sandstone called a ganister, and found at the base of the Clarion clay, the Clarion sandstone is mined by stripping and prepared for the market. The material is sold to the trade both in a block form and in a crushed state. A small quantity of clay is usually added to the natural stone before it is ground in the dry pan.

An analysis of the sandstone, made by W. M. Barnett, shows that it contains about 88 per cent silica, while two analyses of the prepared material, also made by the same person, are compared below with that of a mica schist, which is used in steel works for the same purpose as the sandstone:

The material is used in lining cupolas, Bessemer converters, and ladles. The principal markets are the steel plants at Ashland, Kentucky, and at Columbus, Ohio. The output of both the prepared and natural sandstone and ganister is about 5,000 tons per year.

Canary Ore

The Canarj'' ore lies at the base of the Clarion clay, and is found at only a few places in Lawrence County. It is a kidney ore of a yellowish color, and is low in iron. The bed was worked, to a small extent, by stripping, during the active period of the charcoal furnaces. At present the Canary ore has no value worthy of consideration.

Clabion Coal And Clay

In Lawrence County the Clarion coal is found in good development only in Washington and in northern Decatur townships. From central Decatur Township south to the Ohio River, the position of the member is marked by a thin stain of rotten coal or carbonaceous olay« The underlying Clarion clay, however, in this county, reaches its maximum thickness in the area south of the coal field. In fact, the clay is usually thin and siliceous where it is overlaid by coal. The Clarion clay is found not only in Washington and Decatur townships, but also in Elizabeth, Hamilton, and Upper. The coal lies directly below the Ferriferous limestone, or about 30 feet above the base of the Allegheny formation. The normal position of the Clarion clay is directly below the coal, but owing to the absence of the coal bed in the southern part of the county it lies just below the Ferriferous limestone. See Map IV facing page 318.

Upper Township. - In Upper Township the Clarion coal is marked only by a stain, but the clay has normal development in most of the area. Further, at the base of the clay, there is present in local districts a hard siliceous material which is called ganister. A section taken on the John Peters property, near- Coalgrove, shows the relation of the Clarion clay and ganister to other members. The measurements follow:

This ganister is local in extent, but it is found also in small areas at other places in the county north of this. At the plant of the Ironton Portland Cement Company, A. C. Steece reports that the Clarion clay is from 6 to 10 feet in thickness, and is of good quality for briek making. On Hog Run the clay is about 8 feet in thickness, and the underlying ganister, which is locally developed, is from 1 to 2 feet. In the northern and western parts of the township the Clarion clay is very unsteady, and the ganister was not observed.

Perry Township. - The Clarion clay is present in places along the courses of Ice and Little Ice creeks, in the western part of Perry Township, but the coal is wanting. When the clay is present, it is from 3 to 8 feet in thickness, and quite siliceous in character. The ganister has been worked near Forestdale for the steel plants at Ashland, Kentucky. On Little Ice Creek north of the Bearing road, on the property of Charles Schaefer, the beds where exposed measured as follows:

Hamilton Toimship. - The Clarion coal is wantmg in all of Hamilton To^Tiship, while the clay is present only in isolated areas, and is seldom more than 3 or 4 feet in thickness. It is^ of the usual siliceous character, and gradates into sandstones. The position of the beds is well toward tKe summits of the main ridge.

Elizabeth Township. - The horizons of the Clarion coal and clay are above drainage in nearly all of Elizabeth Township. Their positions are near the summits of the high knobs on the main ridges in the western part, but owing to the descent of the rocks to the east and south they are at drainage level along the courses of the streams in the eastern part. The Clarion coal is marked only by a smut streak, but the Clarion clay is present in force in all the township except that part south of Little Pine Creek and west of Pine Grove Furnace. In the northern and eastern parts of this township the clay has excellent volume and continuity; in fact, it is better represented here than in any other part of Lawrence County. At Lawrence Furnace the Clarion clay is quite thick and is well fitted for ceramic uses. It is plastic, light colored, somewhat siliceous, and is low in iron and other fluxing compounds. A measurement obtained just east of the furnace is given below:

At the mines of W. R. Maxey, one mile west of Lawrence Furnace, the Clarion coal is represented by about 6 inches of black carbonaceous material, but the Clarion clay, the lower part of which is very siliceous, is 9 feet in thickness. Near the head of Darby Creek the clay was again well exposed for measurement, and the thickness is 7 feet. The following record was taken at the mines of E. B. Willard, near Bartles Station:

Decatur Township. - In a general way the Clarion coal has excellent volume and continuity in Decatur TowTiship north of a line drawn from east to west through Moulton, while south of this the member is marked only by a thin bed of decayed coal or by a smut streak. The Clarion clay, however, is best developed in the area in which the coal is wanting. The horizons of the beds are found well up on the hills in the western part of the township, and pass from view near the headwaters of the streams that rise on the main ridge, which extends along the eavStern border. At the mines of Michael Riley, near Center Station, the Clarion clay measures 5 feet in thickness, but the coal is scarcely represented. In the southwestern part of the township the following

Near the head of Bear Run, E. C. Switzer reports the Clarion coal to be.l foot 3 inches in thickness. Just across the main ridge north of this, at the head of Young's Branch, a heavy blossom of this coal is exposed in the bed of the stream. The coal was not sufficiently solid for measurement, but Luther Rankin stated that the bed under cover was 4 feet in thickness. The member is somewhat unsteady in this locality, but the blossom of the coal was observed at a few places on the hill west of this stream, near the mouth of which the record given below was obtained:

In the hills east of the creek the coal was not seen, although the member, Mr. Rankin states, has fair volume at a few places. At the head of Howard Run the Clarion coal has been mined, but, as the entries had fallen, no section could be obtained. William Clutts reports the total thickness of coal and partings to be nearly 7 feet. In Buckhorn Hollow the blossom was seen at several places, and the coal was formerly mined in the bed of the creek near the head of the hollow. A. J. Goody reports that the Clarion coal is well developed near the head of the hollow, but. that it is thin or wanting towards the mouth. Further, he states that it thins by replacement of the upper coal benches by sandstones. West of Moulton the sections show 3 feet of clay, but no coal below the limestone. In Branch Hollow, southwest of Moulton, the coal is wanting, but the clay is present. The section obtained near the mouth of Painter Creek. shows that the Clarion coal has normal volume, and that the clay, although somewhat siliceous, is 4 feet in thickness. The structure of the rocks is as follows:

On the north side of the hill, south of Painter Creek, the coal is reported by Frank Smith to be well developed, while on the south side of the hill the bed, he states, thins to 15 inches, or even less. It persists to near the center of the hill and then thins rapidly. In the hill north of Painter it has normal volume and excellent continuity. Mr. H. L. Moulton reports the Clarion coal in this region as follows:

It is well developed on Painter Creek. East of the railroad, south of Painter Creek, it b developed in Carmen Hollow, which is west of Jep Station, but is wanting in the hills south of this along the pike. The mines of the Hall Coal Company, which are idle at present (1912), are located east of Jep Station. The main entries are in the Painter Creek hill to the east, and the coal has practically the same volume as that found on Painter Creek. On the hill w^est of the railroad some mines have been worked. The coal has a normal thickness south of this to Caiinen Hollow. An east and west line through Moulton marks practically the southern limit of the Clarion coal in Lawrence County.

Up Nigger Creek a thick blossom was seen in several places, but the coal was not found opened. Near the head of the creek, Alfred M alone reports the total thickness of the coal and parting to be from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet. The following section was taken in the McGugin mine, near Olive Station, in northern Decatur Township:

Symmes Township. - The Clarion coal appears in the bed of Buffalo Creek near the Rehmer School, in Symmes Township, and this is its most eastern exposure in Lawrence County. John Rehmer states that the coal is 1 foot 6 inches in thickness, and that a small quantity of fuel has been obtained here by stripping. No drill records showing the character of the member imder cover in this area were obtained, but the continuity of the bed, where it passes from view in the northeastern part of Decatur Township, would indicate that there may be a small field of good coal in northwestern Symmes Township.

Washington Township. - -The Clarion members extend from Decatur Township northward across Washington into Jefferson Township, Jackson County. The beds are found near the summits of the main ridges in the western part, but, owing to the dip of the rocks at the east and south, they pass below cover west of the high ridge that extends along the eastern border. Both coal and clay are quite constant throughout the area, although at a few places they are replaced by sandstones. Further, in local areas, the upper bench of coal is wanting, or is in a decayed condition. The field of Clarion coal in Washington Township is an important asset to the mineral resources of Lawrence County. As the Clarion clay is usually thin and somewhat siliceous, and as it ranks far below the great overlying Lower Kittanning bed, its utilization is practical only where mined along with the coal, and where other conditions are favorable for the success of ceramic industries. Near the head of Olive Creek, in Section 35, the Clarion coal was seen in the road that leads from this stream to Indian Creek. At this place the coal is thin, as is shown by the following section:

About one mile further north, on Olive Creek, in Section 36, near the track of the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway, this coal is only 1 foot thick. James Donley reports the Clarion coal to be thin from Olive Station east along the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway to where it goes mider cover south of the timnel, but to have normal volume from Olive Furnace west to the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad. North of Olive Furnace, along the Ironton pike, the coal has been mined, and Mr. Donley reports it to be 3 feet 6 inches in thickness. Near the head of Brushy Fork, in Section 28, the structure of the coal is as given below:

Geology Of Southern Ohio

The coal is well developed on Brady Creek, and has been worked considerably for local use. Near the old stack of Pioneer Furnace several mines have been operated, but as they have fallen no measurement could be obtained, except on the outcrop, where the blossom of the coal was 3 feet thick. Near the head of the creek, at the Town House on the Ironton road, a section of a mine shows the structure of the bed as follows:

In Section 22, on the J. P. Hansgen property, about one mile east of Peach Orchard School, a record, taken on the outcrop, and given below, shows the thickness of the Clarion clay in this locality:

At the mines of the Bear Run Mining Company, east of Globe switch, in the northern part of Section 16, the structure of the Clarion coal, which is regularly mined in conjunction with the Ferriferoua limestone, is shown in the following record:

East of Eifort it has been mined for years for local use. No good section was obtained, but the coal is reported by John Haines to be well developed. A section in a mine of the Portsmouth Refractories Company, in Spencer Hollow, is as follows: p^ j^

Along the road that leads from Black Fork to Spencer, in the eastern part of Section 3, the Clarion clay was well exposed for measurement. The relation of this to other beds is shown in the following section:

Near the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company, in Black Fork Hollow, the Clarion coal is well developed, and the Clarion clay assumes a flinty phase. These features are shown in the record given below:

The Clarion coal has normal volume in Irish Hollow and on the main ridge south of this. The flinty phase of the Clarion clay was also observed, but the deposits are somewhat local in extent.

The clay on the Clarion horizon, as shown by the sections, is well developed, at least in parts of Lawrence County. In the southern portion of the coimty, as far north as Bartles Station, it has good thickness w^here the limestone is present, but farther north, where the coal overlies the clay, it is usually thin or siliceous. Near Spencer and Black Fork, in the northern part of Washington Township, a few feet of flint clay are found directly below the coal. The average thickness of clay in Elizabeth, Upper, and Hamilton townships is about 5 feet, with a maximum of 12 and a minimum of 2 feet. WTiere the deposit is thick the lower part is usually siliceous.

The clay is regularly mined and marketed at only one place in the county, and that is near Bartles Station, where E. B. Willard works it as a secondar>' product from the limestone mines. Crude clay is shipped from here to the fire brick works of the Charles Taylor & Sons Company, at Cincinnati, Ohio, and ground clay is also prepared for the iron and steel trade. A ^foot dr>' pan is used for grinding. The total output is about 3,000 tons per j'ear. A section of the mine shows the deposit to be 6 feet thick. Counting 60 per cent of the clay available in mining, the yield per acre would be 12,200 tons. The conditions for mining both clay and limestone are good, as the roof is a hea'V'A' sandstone. The analvsis of this clav, furnished bv E. B. Willard, is as foUow^s:

At Lawrence Furnace the clav is 8 feet and the limestone 7 feet thick. The materials above the limestone are shales and clays, which form a poor roof for mining. The best method would be to leave 2 feet of the limestone in place for a roof, which would give 5 feet of stone and 8 feet of clay to be taken from the same entry. The cost of drilling, shooting, loading, and hauling in this case, for both stone and claj', would be about 30 cents each per ton.

In the northern part of the county, where the coal appears, the clay is not well developed, as it is usually thin or siliceous, except in the extreme northern part where a few feet of flint clay are found. A section on Painter Creek, in the northern part of Elizabeth Township, show^s 4 feet of siliceous clay, and another on Olive Creek 3 feet. On Brady Creek, in Washington To\>'nship, the section on the Hansgen property givf s 5 feet of siliceous clay. Two feet of flint clay are found in places along Spencer Hollow and along Black Fork Creek. In this area clay, coal, and limestone may be taken from the same entry. The partings between the coal benches are usually plastic clays of fair quality, yet little of this would be available, for in mining the coal the clay would be mixed with fine coal, slate, and sulphur compounds. Mr. D. D. Davis, president of the Ohio Fire Brick Company, Oak Hill, Ohio, who has tested this clay, reports:

We have had no success with it in the making of fire brick. Its composition is fair, but the clay does not have the proper strength to withstand a high degree of heat; besides there is something in it that burns very brown, and discolors the brick. It is used by several fire brick producers as bonding clay, but we do not find it satisfactory'.

The uses of this clay may be summarized as follows: If is rot well fitted for the manufacture of high-grade refractory ware, and is inferior in quality to the Lower Kittanning clay found in the same region, or to the Sciotoville clay found farther west. At its best the ware made would be ratcel as low-grade, which woulel not compare with that made from either of the clays given above. The clay from the northern part of the area is considered by Mr. D. D. Davis to be not even a good bonding clay, while that from the southern area is of better quality, and is used for this purpose. The Clarion clay, however, is well fitted ^or the manufacture of building brick as it gives at maturity a good buff or iron mottled body, which is very resistant to weathering agencies and attractive to the eye. This use of the clay should be encouraged. Where the clay is quite siliceous in character, it has about the right composition for paving blocks. Such clays burn verjdense and have excellent toughness or abrasive resistance. Owing to the association of the Clarion clay with the Clarion coal and Ferriferous limestone, this bed offers good opportunities for increasing the industrial wealth of Lawrence County.

The ganister deposits in Lawrence County are confined to isolated patches in Perry, Upper, Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships. It is a dense light colored material very high in silica. It cortains root marks of lepidodendron and appears to have been formed at the beginning of the swamp period during which the Clarion clay anel coal were laid down. The composition of the material is showTi by the partial analysis of the dry ganister furnished by W. M. Barnett. The components determined are given below: Dried at

This material is prepared for the market by mixing three-fourths ganister with one-fourth clay, after which the batch is ground in a dry pan. The silica in the prepared material is shown by Barnctt to be 74.10 per cent. The ganister from the deposits near Coalgrove is being used, and is pronounced satisfactory; in fact, it compares favor- ably with the Pennsylvania ganisters, which are largely used. The stone is low in iron oxides and in clay and has a high fusion point. Its acid character well^ fits it for use in acid steel work, for which it is used at Ashland, Kentucky, and at Columbus, Ohio.

At present in Lawrence County the Clarion coal furnishes only a small part of the local fuel supply, but as the Lower Kittonning, which is of much better quality and the main reliance at present, becomes exhausted, this bed will become important, as the total area of the field is about 25 square miles, of which at least 15 square miles is productive territory, and as the mining conditions are fair. The relation of coal and limestone is also of interest, especially in mining, for by working the coal first an efiicient method of mining the stone ii opened. The Clarion coal is important and well developed in the northern part of Decatur Township and in the whole of Washington, where it is persistent and regular. The average structure shown by the 13 sections, not considering the bony bottom layers seen in a few places, is as follows:

This gives a thickness of 3 feet 1 inch for the coal, and of 8| inches for the clay and draw slate, or a total of 3 feet 9^ inches, which is sufficient height for ease in mining. If mule or electrical power is used in haulage, some material from the bottom may have to be removed in the entries. This bed, 3 feet 1 inch thick, will yield, if 60 per cent are available, 3,400 tons per acre. The specific gravity of the mine run coal is 1.35. >

The structure of the Clarion coal offers several obstacles to the successful mining and marketing of the fuel. The clay partings diminish the efifect of the explosives, and require additional shots to loosen the several benches. Further, removing the partings from the coal and getting them out of the way increases the expense. Some fine clay always remains with the coal, and of course this diminishes the value of the fuel. If the mine is very wet the clay forms a plastic mud, which sticks to or coats the coal, and which, on drying, has a light color. Such fuel has a bad appearance. Naturally, it also adds to the per cent of ash. The significance of thick partings is shown by the fact that the coal iTi the Clarion bed weighs 2,341 pounds and the partings 992 pounds side. Where the bed is cut by hand or by machine, these soft clay partings are an advantage, as they are much softer than the coal. Further, by cutting in the clay all the coal is saved. Most of the fuel mined from this member at present is "bunkered" or "shot off" the solid.

The roof of the Clarion coal is the Ferriferous limestone, which under heavy cover is of excellent character, as it is very solid, and as the joints, if developed, are thin. Along the outcrop and under thin cover it is generally blocky in structure from weathering along the joints. In this case mud partings from a few inches to a foot or more in thickness are found between the blocks, and these make the mining both difficult and dangerous. Further, the coal in such places is often weathered and worthless. Generally a few inches of "draw slate," which is taken down, separates the coal from the limestone. The lower surface of the limestone is quite uniform; hence but few small rolls are encountered. The floor materials vary in different sections. It may be either soft clay, clay shale, sandstone, or siliceous clay, but generally it is the latter. Soft clays are poor floor material ; for, where the pressure is great, the posts and coal blocks left for supports may be squeezed down into them. This tends to fill the entry ways with clay, the results of which require the tracks to be taken up and the clay to be removed. The area of coal left for ribs, stumps, and pillars must be much larger where floor materials are soft than where they are solid and firm. The sandstones and siliceous clays are excellent floor material. Where both a good roof and bottom are found a large per cent of the total coal in a bed is available. The Clarion coal in this region generally has both.

Soft clays are less expensive to remove from the entry ways for tracks and drains than the harder materials, but they are the source of more additional expense, because the tracks sink easily and require ballasting, and, also, the drains soon fill with material which must be removed. The floor of this coal is quite free from rolls or dips. Rolls cause wet places in the mine, or make expense in draining. The dip of the stratum should be considered, as ease of drainage and of haulage depends much on this gradient. The general dip is south of east; so the main entries should run in a northwesterly direction, which would allow the mine to drain without much experse. Further, under such conditions, the loaded cars will move down hill.

The associated materials are important. The Clarion coal has above it the Ferriferous limestone, which is well developed, and which is of good quality throughout the whole area, while the coal is underlaid by clays which are of fair grade and thickness in part of the territory. Coal, limestone, and clay may be taken from the same mine. The method followed is to mine the coal first, then remove the clay, and lastly "break down" the limestone, or a part of it. If the materials above the limestone make a poor roof, about two feet of limestone

Genemliv <"on^:d-r»^1. the oT^alrtv of the <>jal is rat«Ki low^ as the :?ulphiir and a.-h are ViOth hizh, and a? the latter clinkers freely. It s'houid be ciasr^^d a-» a fr*^ r.-iniin^ C'ltah ^ut ii* ^hi^ respH^-t it is inferior to the Lowf-r or Mid'ile Kit tannine fuels. It Kjttis fre^y as long as the volatile* niatt<^r is pa.-.^ii.e on, th«^n the residue of fixe»i carV«»>n bums slowly and with h«it litri<* Cam^. The c>al does not stand handling and 5hipp*r:g wf-l: as it is much joint^i, and as the lumj>5 are rather weak- Th*- Clanon is a coking otal. and the pr«>iuci is of good quality when stru'^tur*' al'>ne is cor rid^rvd. Th*=- c»-il strj«-t'jre is wt- U developed^ and the wall- ar»- thick and strong. The stricture is such that it would Yjf satisfactorv' for fuma*"^ us-^: for it WL»iild carrv a h»-av^' burden and have a iars*^ --urfa'-e of carr*>n expo^e«i to the gasfs. Cc»ke was made years ag«» from this c»>a] at Vinton Furnace in Welsh ovens for use in the charcixtl fumar**^-. ^»ut it proves! unsatisfactor>'. owing to the hi^ sulphiir conT#=-nt. Thf- remains of the ol«i ovens and a pile of the coke made may F^ >^n th^re at thiF^ present time. Mr. Wm. H. McGugin made a r^mall quantity of fi>ke from it at Olive Furnace. The physical prop^rti*s of this pr«>luct were go^^l.

Tut' suiph'ir in the Clarion cr»al occurs in thp forms of organic and iron «»ijphid*s. In th** pn»cf ss s of coking in us? at the present time only a^KiUt or.f-half the sulphur is eliminated, while the other half rf-mains in the coke. The av«^rage sulphur in four samples from hii^Tf 'Tif'*- CoJiTity, d^tf rmine<i by the Survey,^ is 4.S4 p»T cent, conse- CiJifri*iy. if only one-half were eiiminateil, and the yield in coke only *^Kj jf^T f'fvA, the sulphur in the pn>iuct would be 4.0^i per cent, which is far a hove the limit accepted at the present time for metallurgical jfirjfri r. Th'- avfriig^* ash in the four samples is 13.t» per cent, and if the er,Ke yii ]*{ w^re »iO per c^T.t the final product would contain 22.70 TfT f'^T* a-h. wr.i.-h \iMuI«i make it practically unmarketable. The -..Iphir cor*» i.y -f>< eifit d in coke is usually 1 pir cent or less, and the a-ri ur d* r 12 f>^r e^ vi. With the systen:s in use at prtsent in the wash- ;: g ar M e/.kjr ^ of ,oal it i> searc* ly possible that this cual could l>e purified * : o :z:i *ff u -ik^- a -Jiitu'r.l^- eok**.

Mine of McGugin & Company, section 7, Decatur Township, Lawrence County. The sample was cut from an old entry where the coal was weathered. Sampled in August, 1901, by Professor Edward Orton, Jr.

Mine of J. R. Edwards, section 23, Washijigton Township, Lawrence County. Sample cut 75 feet from entrance to mine where the coal was fresh. Sampled by Professor Edward Orton, Jr., in August, 1901.

Mine of McGugin & Company, Olive Station, Decatur Township, Lawrence County. Sample cut well under hill where coal was clean and bright. Sampled by Professor Edward Orton, Jr., in August, 1901.

Mine of Isaac Hall, section 15, Decatur Township, Lawrence County. Sample cut one-half mile from entrance. Surface of coal has been exposed two months. Sampled by Professor Edward Orton, Jr., in August, 1901.

The average calorific value for the four samples is 6,329 calories, which gives it a rating below the Lower or Middle Kittanning coals. For domestic use, coal with high sulphur content is objectionable, for in burning it gives off sulphur dioxide gas, which attacks the tissues of the throat and lungs. The average sulphur foimd in the Clarion Coal is about 4.50 per cent, which occurs principally in the form of iron pyrite and organic sulphides. During combustion, the latter, and part of the former, goes to sulphur dioxide gas, which, escaping with the other waste gases, produces the injurious effects. For steaming purposes the Clarion coal has some undesirable qualities, the most objectionable of which are the corrosive action of the sulphur on metal and the clinkering of the ash. The action of sulphur dioxide on metals is given by Somermeier as follows:

Upon the cooling of the flue gases the sulphuj^ dioxide, formed during the combustion of the coal, unites with water and forms sulphurous acid, which as such or upon further oxidation to sulphuric acid has a corrosive effect upon metallic structures. The corrosive action takes place after cooling and the popular idea that sulphur in coal causes corrosion of boiler tubes, etc., by action of sulphur dioxide is largely without real foundation.^

Where high temperature is carried in the furnace, the corrosive action on the metal grates is due largely to the sulphiu- held in the fused ash. During the combustion of the coal the oxidation of ferric sulphide is generally incomplete, and ferrous sulphide and oxide are formed. Ferrous sulphide fuses at a low red heat and this, with the low fusing compounds produced by the ferrous oxide combining with the silica and alumina of the ash, forms fluid slags which, coming in contact with the metal where the air supply is limited, causes the corrosive action on the grates which are soon eaten away or become brittle and break. The ash of this coal clinkers readily. An analysis of a sample of ash is as follows:

The iron shown in the above analysis was principally in the form of ferric sulphide in the coal, which under reducing conditions goes to either ferrous oxide or sulphide or both. Considering the iron present as ferrous oxide the bases present are as follows:

We have used this coal, hut it does not give as good results as the Lower Kittanning; for the Clarion clinkers freely and apparently contains more foreign matter.

The Clarion coal in burning makes much smoke and soot. Unless the draft is strong, this soon fills the flue system, which then requires cleaning by hand or by burning wood. The normal ash of the coal is high, and it decreases the value of the fuel as it lowers the carbon, content. The handlrag of this ash, both in the coal and when burned is also an added expense. A summary of the points for the Clarioni coal is as follows:

TLr F-rrif-rv'U^s or Vanport limf stone. an«l the Ferriferous or Baird «.»rv, the n^xT mriiJ^rs found in the Allegheny formation, have con- :r:'rute«i mu-'L to the prosperity and wealth of Lawrence County, and :h*-y l:i fair to a^id materially to its revenue for many years to come.

North of this along the lower course of Ice Creek the limestone and ore are somewhat steady. The Ironton Portland Cement Company used this limestone for several years in the manufactiu'e of their product, but at present they use the Maxvilie which has great thickness and high purity. A. C. Steece reports that in this locality the Ferriferous ore varies from 6 inches to 1 foot 6 inches in thickness, and that the limestone measures from 4 to 6 feet. Along Sugar Creek south of the Marion Road the limestone and ore are normally developed. Near the road tunnel just north of Ironton a small oulying patch of these rocks is found, while along Storms Creek both beds are unsteadJ^ The limestone is present in patches along the course of the stream in the northern part of the township, while the ore extends with some wants well towards its mouth. Much the same conditions as these are found along the course of Little Storms Creek, for both members are seldom present in force.

Hamilton Township. - The Ferriferous limestone is wanting in eastern Hamilton Township and in the western part it is represented more often by irregular masses of flint than by limestone. The ore, however, is somewhat more persistent than the limestone and has about normal volume. This bed varies in thickness from a few inches to 1 foot 6 inches, but in places it is admixed with irregular masses of flint.

Elizabeth Township. - As we pass from the river townships north- . ward into Elizabeth, both the Ferriferous members are present in force and with the characteristic development for which they are noted, also in Jackson and Vinton counties. The beds extend in nearly an unbroken sheet over all the township except that part west of Pine Creek, and that part south of Little Pine Creek and west of Pine Grove Furnace, in which areas the members are marked only by isolated patches of ore and flinty limestone. About one mile north of Royer Station at the limestone mines of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, the following measurements were made under favorable conditions:

In local areas in this vicinity the ore has exceptional volume as it expands to as much as 4 feet in thickness and appears to replace the entire bed of limestone. Analyses show that the ore is of exceptional quality also. In the vicinity of Pedro both limestone and ore are quite well developed, but in the extension of the members eastward to Storms Creek the limestone in many places is flinty and thin, while the ore holds normal thickness. Where measured, the ore varied from 6 to 12 inches in thickness, but the limestone seldom exceeded 5 feet. Near Lawrence Furnace the limestone, where examined, was from 5 to 8 feet in thickness, while the ore was from 2 to 10 inches.

One mile west of Lawrence Furnace, at the mines of W. R. Maxey, the limestone measured 7 feet 10 inches and the ore 8 inches. In this locality, also, two irregular layers of ore are pre^nt in the shale that overlies the regular deposit of Ferriferous ore. These upper beds each average about 5 inches in thickness. At the head of Darby Creek the rocks exposed measured ss follows: p^ j^

On Cannons Creek, east of Lawrence Furnace, the Ferriferous limestone is often flinty in character, but it has about normal volume. The ore varies in thickness from 1 inch to 1 foot. E. B. Willard mines the Ferriferous limestone by drifting near Bartles, where the following measurements were obtained: p^ j^^

Near Center Station both the Ferriferous members have good volume, and have been mined in a large way. The limestone is from 6 to 9 feet in thickness, while the ore varies from 4 to 12 inches. On the main ridge, south of Center Furnace, both members are generally present in force. In Elizabeth Township, west of Pine Creek, small patches of limestone and ore appear on the high knobs on the main ridge east of Irish Hollow.

Decatur Township. - The importance of the Ferriferous members in Decatur Township is attested by the fact that at least 6 charcoal furnaces drew all or a good part of their supply of ore and flux stone from the beds in this area. The volume and continuity of the members are excellent, and the direct association of the Clarion coal with them in the northern part of the township also increases their worth. The members will now be described in a more detailed way in order that the main features of these rocks may be rightly imderstood. At the mines of Michael Riley, near Center Station, the following record, which shows about normal volume of the members in this vicinity, was obtained in the mines:

In this locality the massive overlying sandstone forms an excellent roof for safety and ease in mining. These same general conditions also extend west of Center Furnace, where the following record was obtained at the mines of the Superior Portland Cement Company:

In Branch Hollow, southwest of Moulton, the Ferriferous limestone is somewhat patchy, and varies in thickness, when present, from 3 to 7 feet. The ore is quite steady, and is reported by David McFann to be about 1 foot in thickness. Further, the condition of the beds near Moulton is somewhat the same, while along the pike, near the head of Pine Creek, the limestone measured 6 feet. Near the mouth of Painter Creek, north of Moulton, the following record was obtained:

At the mines of the Buckhom Coal Company, near the mouth of Nigger Creek, the ore, limestone, and underlying coal all have excellent volxime. The record obtained follows: p^ j^

In Buckhom Hollow the limestone is usually thin, while in places it is wanting. The ore is rather steady, and in local areas is reported to expand to 2 feet or even more. The mean measurement of the bed, however, is from 8 to 10 inches. Along Youngs Branch, and along Willow Run also, the general features of the members are much the same as they are in Buckhom Hollow.

Symmes Township. - The Ferriferous members appear above drainage level in only one locality in Symmes Township, which is on Buffalo Creek, in the vicinity of the Rehmer School, where the following was measured: ^^ ,

Township since the erection of Olive Furnace in 1833. At present the ore is not regularly mined, but the limestone is worked in a large way for road ballast and for furnace flux. The members extend entirely across the township, and with few exceptions have normal volume and quality. Along Olive Creek, east of Olive Furnace, the Ferriferous limestone has an average thickness of about 6 feet, while the ore is reported to measure about 8 inches. At Ohve Station the following measurements were taken:

In the first hollow west of the furnace stack the limestone measured 6 feet and the ore 4 inches, while on Brushy Fork the ore in places is replaced by a thick sandstone, but the limestone is present in force. On the main ridge north of this both members are rather steady, but the limestone is often flinty in character, and the ore replaced in restricted areas by the thick overlying sandstone. On Brady Creek, near the Town House, on the Ironton Road in Section 23, the beds have the following volumes:

Other measurements taken west of this along Brady Creek show from 5 to 7 feet of limestone and from 1 to 10 inches of ore. In the central part of Section 16 the Bear Run Mining Company mines by drifting the Ferriferous limestone for flux stone at the Jackson furnaces, and the Clarion coal for the general market. Measurements taken at the mine follow:

Near the plant of the Portsmouth Refractories Company, in Section 10, the limestone measured 6 feet and the ore 6 inches. East of this, in Section 3, the measurements obtained follow: for road ballast and flux stone. This bed varies from 4 to 9 feet in thickness; while the ore usually measures from 2 to 10 inches. A section taken near the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company is given below:

During the days of the charcoal furnaces the Ferriferous limestone was used for flux stone, but at present it is extensively used not only for this purpose, but for cement, road ballast, concrete, and agricultural lime. Its value has steadily increased, and will probably continue to do so in the future, for increased quantities are required each j^ear, and other uses also arise. It is one of the most important beds found in Lawrence County.

The average thickness of the Ferriferous limestone shown by 56 sections is 6 feet 1 inch. In the southern part of the field the thickness seldom reaches 7 feet; while in the northern part it often measures from 8 to 9 fe^. The specific gravity is 2.68, so that the yield per acre where the rock is 6 feet 1 inch thick and 60 per cent is obtained would be 13,316 net tons. The total quantity available in the county is large and amply sufficient to supply the needs for many years.

Because the limestone is extensively mined by drifting, its roof is a matter of importance. Small areas in the region have sandstone above the limestone for roof materials. Nea^ the Ironton Portland Cement Company's plant, the sandstone lies close to the limestone. Another area, in which the relations are similar, is found from Lawrence Furnace north to Bartles and to Center Station, thence west to the Superior Cement Plant and also east from Lawrence Furnace to where the member passes below drainage on Cannons Creek. The sandstone also overlies the limestone from Olive Furnace west to the Lawrence County line, and also along the upper course of Brushy Fork. In the remainder of the region clay or shate forms the roof. The clays are soft and tender and contain many pressure cleavage planes, consequently mining under them is both expensive and dangerous. The shales form a better roof except where tender and much jointed. Where either clay or shale forms the roof, it is much safer and more economical to leave up part of the limestone.

The cost of mining depends largely on the structure and relation of the strata on the equipment and on the tonnage produced. Where part of the limestone is left for the roof, and the production is about 150 tons per day, John M. Hanes reports the cost for drilling, shooting, loading, and hauling to be about 30 cents per ton, but in large well- equipped mines this cost would be reduced sSmewhat. Where the limestone is mined by stripping, the cost depends on the thickness of the cover that must be removed and on the expense of shooting, loading, and hauling, all of wjiich Mr. Hanes reports to average about 25 cents per ton.