Jackson Township (part 11 of 19)

The Ferriferous limestone is much the same in character throughout the whole extent of the deposit with the exception that in some places flinty layers are foimd in the upper part. Near the head of Brushy Fork 3 feet of the upper part is cherty or flinty, and this condition was noted at other places. Generally these flint deposits are local in extent and are more abundant along the outcrop than imder heavy cover. The limestone is dense and hard, but rather brittle. The color varies from a light to a dark gray. The deposit is massive, but an irregular bedding plane is noticed about 1 foot 6 inches from the top. The quality of the stone is shown by the following analyses collected from various sources.

The analysis which is reported by the Belfont Iron Works Company, and which is representative of the stone from Lawrence Coimty used by them for furnace flux, is given below.

The analysis reported by the Globe Iron Company of Jackson, Ohio, of the limestone at the mines of the Bear Run Mining Company near Eifort is as follows:

The Superior Portland Cement Company reports the following analysis as representative of the limestone used by them in the manufacture of cement:

Analyses of samples taken from three carloads of limestone from the Morgan and Horton quarry near Eifort, Scioto County, which is close to the Lawrence County line, show the variation in the sulphur content. Analyses furnished by the Buckeye Steel Casting Company, Columbus, Ohio. Analyst, Downs Schaaf.

The normal calcium carbonate present in the limestone averages high. In some localities, however, the upper part of the stratum is flint, or it is flinty in character, and in a few places the entire deposit contains considerable siliceous material. Excluding these, the average for the deposit is about 93 per cent. Normally the magnesium carbonate present is low. In a few localities it runs to about 5 per cent; while in others it is below 1 per cent and on the average it is nearly 1.5 per cent. In this respect it is superior to the Trenton limestone in the Lehigh Valley cement district of eastern Pennsylvania. The silica or siliceous matter present, when the entire stratum is considered, varies between wide limits owing to the flinty or siliceous nature of the rock in certain regions. From what has been said the silica content will vary both with the locality, and with the part of the deposit considered. The range is from less than 1 to as much as 50 per cent silica.

The limestone also shows a wide variation in the iron content, which is due principally to the weathering of the overlj'ing Ferriferous ore. This ore was deposited as a blue ferrous carbonate in contact with the limestone, or with only a thin shale intervening. Percolating waters holding oxygen and carbon dioxide in solution attack the ferrous carbonate and change a part of it to ferric hydrate, which remains as an insoluble compound, but as ferrous carbonate is somewhat soluble they carry a small quantity of the Ferrous mineral down into the limestone below, where, with the aid of oxygen, ferrous carbonate reacts with the calcium carbonate, precipitating ferric hj'^drate and producing soluble calcium carbonate, which is thus carried away. This impregnation of the limestone by ferric oxide is seen only along the outcrop or under shallow cover where these agencies are active. Often the joints between the blocks of limestone are filled with this ore, and along the outcrop in some localities ferruginous clsLy masses occur below the deposit.

The alumina in the Ferriferous limestone varies from about .5 to 3 per cent, with an average of about 1.5 per cent. For the most part it is combined with silica and water in the form of kaolinite, but from some of the analyse/s, if correct, it is also a component of other minerals in which the content of alumina is greater. Most of the analyses given are really incomplete, as they fail to show the sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese. Sulphur and phosphorus are invariably present in appreciable quantities, and are important when the use of the stone is considered for metallurgical purposes. Most of the sulphur present in the limestone is found in the form of iron disulphide or pyrite, which can be detected usually by the eye. Occasionally small crystals of lead sulphide or galena are found. The amount of sulphur may run as high as .5 per cent. The phosphorus, which is normally from .05 to .30 per cent, and averages about .10 per cent, occurs principally in the form of calcium phosphate. Manganese is invariably present in small amounts, ordinarily in only a few hundredths of a per cent.

Cement. - This limestone is well suited for the manufacture of Portland cement, and compares favorably with the standard cement limestone used in the United States. Magnesia, sulphur, and alkalies are detrimental, and iron oxide, if high, is looked upon with disfavor. In composition it varies between the following limits:^

The silica and alumina in the Ferriferous limestone are in such proportions that shale or cl^,y is required to bring them to the proper ratio for cement. These are easily supplied, as shale or clay suitable for this purpose is found either with or close to the limestone deposit. The Superior Portland Cement Company uses either the shale that lies above the limestone, or the clay and shale that are found below it. In both cases the clay or shale and limestone are taken from the same entry. The York Portland Cement Company, now dismantled, of Portsmouth, Ohio, obtained its supply from the shale above the limestone. The magnesia is well below the limit demanded for this ingredient, as it seldom exceeds one per cent in the finished cement. The sulphur in the limestone, while objectionable, is not serious, although the quantities are from .1 to .5 per cent, as part of this passes off as gas during the clinkering. The high iron oxide in the limestone is looked upon with disfavor. In the cement the quantity usually demanded by the trade is not in excess of 5 per cent. The iron oxide in the limestone under heavy cover is low, but under thin cover or along the outcrop it may run to several per cent. This component is usually high in the shales, and additional iron oxide is introduced where coal is the fuel used in clinkering. The cement made at present from these materials is classed as high iron cement, but has a good reputation for quality, and is used by the United States Government for locks, dams, and public buildings. The iron oxide darkens the color of the cement, which is objectionable where light colored work is desired.

The Ferriferous limestone is used by the Superior Portland Cement Company in the manufacture of its product. A description of the plant furnished by its superintendent, J. B. John, follows:

The limestone is mined with Sullivan and Goodman mining machinery by undercutting the same as for coal. It is drilled with a Temple-Ingereoll drill. The limestone is gathered with a 5-ton electric locomotive and is taken to a tipple by a Goodman 12-ton electric locomotive.

The shale we use is the cuttings from under the limestone, which is also taken to the tipple by electric locomotives. The limestone is dumped by automatic crossover dumps into a No. 9 crusher, then passes through 2 No. 5's. The shale is run through a 9-foot dry pan and is taken to the mill on a conveyor belt; the limestone is treated likewise. The shale and limestone are then run through 60-foot dryers. After being thoroughly dried both are weighed and put through kominuters or ball mills, then the mixture goes to the tube mills where raw material is ground so that 95 per cent will pass through the lOO-mesh sieve. We have 3 kominuters and 5 tube mills in the raw department.

The ingredients are then taken to the kiln room where we have 4 kilns, 7^x125 feet long, in which they are burned to a clinker with coal previously pulverized in Fuller miUd. The clinker is then elevated to Mosser stationary coolers from which after cooling it is carried on a conveyor belt to the finishing department where it is ground. The preliminary grinding in the clinker mill is done with 2 Mosser crushers and 1 duplex Sturtevant, 6 Grifl5n mills, and 3 tube mills. After being ground in the finishing department it is carried to the stock house where it is stored in bins. The packing is done with 3 Bates valve bag machines.

Flux. - For fluxing purposes the value of a Ifanestone depends on the available bases present, and on the freedom of the stone from detrimental impurities. For blast furnace fluxes the active bases are lime, magnesia, and part of the manganese oxide, which in this limestone is usually low; hence it will not be considered further. The iron compounds are reduced, and the metal in them goes into the pig iron. The phosphorus, which also goes to the pig iron, if high, is detrimental in making a product for Bessemer steel. Sulphur is detrimental, as it decreases the available lime, and also saturates the slag, thus limiting the quantity of this element that can be taken from the molten iron in the furnace. Silica and alumina decrease the available lime, as they must be fluxed to form a slag.' Taking the limestone of about an average composition, the results will be as follows;

The average analysis of Piqua stone which is used mainly for the magnesia and phosphorus contents is reported by the Belfont Iron Works Company as follows:

The company used, during the time in blast in 1912, 19,000 tons of Piqua stone and 4,600 tons native stone. Also they are using Piqua stone exclusively at present on account of the high phosphonis in the native stone.

The limestone is of a very good grade for use as flux in a blast furnace. This company and one in Ironton, Ohio, use the limestone in their furnaces and obtain excellent results. This limestone is quarried both in the open and under ground. The stone from the open bed is obtained by stripping the upper surface, and that under ground by the usual method of drift mining. Our experience in the mining of this limestone has taught us that a much better grade of furnace flux is obtained from the under ground quiarry.

This company, in connection with the Star Furnace Company, has been opening up limestone territory in Lawrence County, abutting Jackson and Scioto counties, and has installed operations for the mining and handling of same. Approximately the two furnaces will use 50,000 tons limestone per year while in blast.

macadam roads, in this and the adjoining counties t^o the west, it id largely used, and has proved quite satisfactory. Mr. Charles Hutchinson, Commissioner of Lawrence County, regards the Ferriferous limestone superior to either the Cambridge or Brush Creek for road building. Mr. A. S. Rea, of the State Highway Department, states that tests made on the Columbus and Delaware limestones, which are used extensively for road building, and also tests on two samples of Ferriferous limestone from Lawrence County, show that the Ferriferous limestone is of good character for this purpose, and compares favorably with the two other limestones named.

Since most of the firms or private parties, operating mines or quarries, are producing both furnace flux and road material, they will be listed together. On the John Peters property, near Coalgrove, a small quantity of stone, mined by stripping, is quarried for furnace flux and road material. The Hanging Rock Iron Company operates mines near Royer Station for flux stone for its two furnaces. Lawrence Furnace, in Elizabeth Township, is using the Ferriferous limestone mainly for flux, which is obtained principally from two workings, that of E. L. Lambert, and that of Edward Kelley. Mr. Lambert mines by stripping, for the roof is shale and clay. At the mine of Mr. Kelley, less than one mile distant, the roof is sandstone; hence the limestone is worked by drifting. The total output amounts to about 20,000 tons per year.

E. B. Willard has well equipped mines near Bartles Station, in Elizabeth Township. The method of mining is by drifting, as the roof is a massive sandstone. About 45 men are employed, and approximately 60,000 tons per year are shipped for tumace flux, and about 2,000 tons, on the average, for road building.

The mines of Michael Rilev are situated near Center Station, on the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railroad. The roof is a massive sandstone, therefore the mining is done by drifting. The mine is equipped with air compressed drills, and the limestone is loosened with dynamite. The long wall system is used. On an average 20 men are employed, and the quantity of stone mined per year is about 25,000 tons. The Ironton furnaces are the principal market. Mr. W. R. Maxey ships some limestone from his workings, which are located on the Detroit, Toledo & Jronton Railroad, about one mile west of Lawrence Furnace. The deposit, which lies well up on the hills, has shale and clay for roof materials; hence it is mined by benching. At present he is installing an 80 h. p. engine and an 18-inch jaw crusher. Approximately 5,000 tons of stone per year are shipped for road ballast, furnace flux, and concrete work. Small amounts cf stone are shipped on the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway from the Hall mmes, near Jep Station, in Decatur Township, and from the McGugin mines, near Olive Station.

The Bear Run Mining Company, near Eifort, in Washington Township, mine the supply of stone used for furnace flux by the Globe and Star furnaces of Jackson, Ohio. A switch IJ miles long runs from the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad to the mines. Both coal and stone are shipped. The tipple is provided with four tracks for railroad cars, so that the different grades of coal and stone can be loaded at the same time. The tram road from the tipple to the mines is 1,200 feet long. The grade on the tram. is suflScient to allow the cars to run from the mines to the tipple by gravity. Mule power is used to haul the cars to the mines. Compressed air drills are used in mining the stone, which is crushed by a No. 5 Austin spindle crusher, with a capacity of 40 tons per hour. The power for the crusher is produced by a 45 h. p. engine, made by Houston-Stanwood & Gamble Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. The compressor, which is also provided with a 45 h. p. engine, is made by the Bury Compressor Company, Erie, Pa. The steam is supplied by a 75 h. p. boiler, made by the Gem City Boiler Works, Dayton, Ohio, The number of men employed for mining both coal and stone is from 100 to 120, and the output of stone is about 50,000 tons per year.

We are mining 4 feet of the Clarion coal which is overlaid with 7 feet of limestone. After the coal is mined the limestone is drilled and shot down to a height of 5 to 6 feet, leaving the balance of the stone for a roof. The limestone is used for blast furnace and macadam purposes.

For open hearth furnace flux magnesia is not desired; hence the fluxing value of a limestone is based on the available lime only. Sulphur, if high, is objectionable. The steel producers require a slag that will take up sulphur from the molten metal; consequently, as the quantity of this element that a slag can hold in solution is limited, all sulphur introduced with the flux lessens equivalently the quantity of this component taken from the metal. Silica, if high, is also undesirable, as it tends to throw the sulphur out of solution in the slag, or as it decreases the solubility. The quantity of sulphur eliminated from the metal depends to a considerable extent on the basicity of the slag. The quantity of phosphorus contained in the limestone, unless high, is unimportant. It is in fact beneficial rather than detrimental.

Lime. - For hydrated lime the high magnesian limestones are preferred. The Ferriferous limestone makes a hot, violent lime, which excludes its use for many purposes. There is a good field for hydrated lime for fertilizers in southern Ohio for much of the land, especially that where the soil has been derived largely from shales and sandstones of the Mississippian, and of the lower part of the Pennsylvanian series, is deficient in this ingredient. Plant life requires both lime and magnesia, but bv far more of the former. Lime made from this stone is well suited for this purpose, in fact it is much better than the dolomitic lime found largely on the market. There are no regular lime burning plants in the county, but small quantities are occasionally burned by the farmers. Th(*y make a pile on the ground of layers of stone and coal or wood, which is then fired and allowed to bum until the fuel is consumed. The calcination is imperfect, as the outer layers of stone are but little affected, and the larger lumps have unbumed cores. Some farmers prefer the raw limestone, ground very fine, to the hydrated lime, as it causes less trouble in drilling, and as its effects are more lasting.

Concrete. - The stone is well suited for concrete work. It is dense and firm, and it breaks into angular pieces with sharp edges and corners. It is not classed as a good building stone, for it does not cut well, but for foundation work it can be used to good advantage.

In conclusion, the Ferriferous limestone is well adapted for the manufacture of Portland cement, for blast furnace flux when basic, malleable, or foundry iron is made, for t^oncrete work, for road building, and for fertilizers.

During the day.« of the charcoal furnaces the Ferriferous ore was the most important bed in Lawrence County, but owing to the influence of the Lake ores, and to th^ increased demands of the modern furnaces, it has gradually decreased in influence from that time, so that at present the member is an asset ot small value. While the quality of the Ferriferous ore is inferior to the high-grade Lake ores, and while the stratum is thin and variable, yet its relation to the furnaces in this region is such that the bed is worthy of careful consideration. The ore lies directly above the Ferriferous limestone, which association is also of interest.

The Ferriferous ore is a persistent deposit, but varies considerably in thickness in different localities. In the shale or clav above this deposit one or more layers of kidney ore occur in parts of the region. These are of the same general origin as the ore below, and consequently they arc given as a part of the Ferriferous ore deposit. The section near Lawrence Furnace shows three rows of kidney ore which E. L. Lambert, who has had a very extended experience in the region, says will average 10 inches in thickness. At the mine of W. R. Maxey, west of Lawrence Furnace, two rows of these kidneys are found, but at the limestone mine of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, near Royer Station, only one layer is present.

The Ferriferous ore was seen in 23 places in Lawrence County and the average thickness of the bed is 7 inches. On the whole, the bed is somewhat thicker than this, as some of the exposures noted were on the outcrop where the bed was thin and was worked but little during the days of the charcoal furnaces. Where the ore was heaw it was benched to deep cover, so that at present it is seldom seen under favorable conditions. The average thickness of the ore is reported by various parties who formerly mined it to be about 12 inches. The average thickness given in the chapter on Lawrence County in the Report of Progress for 1870 for 15 sections is 10^ inches, which is probably near the true thickness. In places the ore is very thin, only an inch or two being present, while in a few localities it expands to 3 or 4 feet over small areas.

The ore is of swamp origin. It was deposited in quiet waters heavily charged with carbon dioxide, which precipitated the soluble ferrous salts brought in as ferrous carbonate. Under heavy cover the ore still exists as the carbonate, but along the outcrop or under light cover it has been oxidized more or less to ferric hydrates. The specific gravity of the limonite ore ^\ill average about 2.9; while that of the carbonate will run close to 3.5. Considering the ore 10 inches thick and 60 per cent available, the yield per acre wall be 1,974 net tons for the limonite and 2,382 net tons for the carbonate. For the charcoal furnaces the ore was mined mainly along the outcrop by stripping. Some small entries were worked, but these extended only short distances under cover. Carbonate ores were difficult to smelt in the short stack charcoal furnaces, so that only the oxidized or limonite ores were desired. Consequently the main body of ore is scarcely touched as the deposit was followed only along the outcrop.

This deposit is generally too thin to be worked for the ore alone with any economy. Too much material must be removed for eatry ways in order to get sufficient height. Ordinarily the roof is shale or clay, either of which is hard to hold. Where the deposit Avill average 15 inches or more in thickness, and where the roof is of good quality, it may be mined advantageously. If the associated materials have a value, then the ore may be mined with these. The ore and limestone are worked together in a few places. In some cases the clay above is of excellent quality and it may be mined with the ore At the present price of Lake ores, this deposit can be mined only in a secondary way, except in local areas where it is well above the normal thickness.

The quality of the Ferriferous ore varies between rather wide limits, yet the average composition compares favorably with that of the low grade Lake ores. The analyses given on Table II are instructive.

These analyses show the general quality of the ore. It is nonbesseraer and best suited for foundry, but it can be used to good advantage in making either basic or malleable iron.'

The figures for value of coke and stone delivered at Ironton, and for the over and above cost used, are these supplied by Col. H. A. Marting.

Prices of Negaunee and Clinton silica ores quoted by the Cleveland-ClifiEs Iron Company, delivered at Lower Lake ports are $3.57 per ton for the former and $2.22 for the latter.

The price of Adriatic ore quoted by PickandSy Mather & Co., delivered to Lower Lake porta is $3.28, which at Ironton, Ohio, would be $4.18 per ton.

It has been the common practice in southern Ohio not only to calcine the carbonate ores, but also the limonite or hydrate types. Where the ore is charged raw into the furnace the heat units used are as follows:

Considering the fuel 90 per cent carbon, the requirement for roasting 2,000 pounds of ore is 53 pounds. Radiation losses are not considered in the above, and the loss of heat due to air excess is neglected. The difference in fuel between calcining in the furnace, and in special kilns, is thus only 136 pounds per ton of ore. Thiis saving is far overbalanced in loss of material, labor, etc., during calcination.

The common practice with furnace operators at present is to carry an 8 per cent water burden. This means 8 per cent of the total weight of the stock is water. The main reason is to keep the top of the furnace cool, which holds the reduction zone in the proper position. The water carries out the heat from the top of the furnace, thus keeping down the temperature. It is not important whether this is the hydroscopic or combined water from the stock. When dry stock is charged this zone is too near the top, which results in abnormal working of the furnace. So raw ore should give better results than the calcined. W. M. Jeffreys, superintendent of The Hanging Rock Iron Company, reports: limestone ore. It is found in two grades, the red and the gray. In former years this ore wvLB calcined before using it in the furnace, but for the past year the Hanging Hock Iron Company has abandoned this method of treatment and is now using the ore in the natural state, and the results from same are excellent."

The calcined ore is less firmly bonded than the raw ore. It is fragile, consequently considerable ore is lost in the form of dust, owing to the extra handling involved in calcination. The cost of preparing the ore for roasting either in piles or kilns must be considered, and also the interest on the money invested. Considering the points both for and against calcination, the latter outweigh the former. The best economy is obtained by using the ore in the natural state.

Lower Kittanning Coal And Clay

and has afforded a good revenue from outside sources. The thick deposits of clay and shale on the Lower Kittanning horizon have scarcely been touched, although in Washington Township they are utilized for fire brick, building brick, and sewer pipe. Regarding these deposits Dr. Edward Orton says:

Under this head we came to the great clay horizon of the State. Its importance far outweighs that of any other clay seam of our scale. Indeed, it is probably equal in value to all other sources of clay in the Coal Measures combined. It belongs between the Ferriferous limestone and the Lower Kittanning coal. Often it fills the entire interval between these well-known beds. In some sections, however, where the interval is usually expanded, a sandstone occurs and the clay and shale are consequently reduced to some extent thereby. The Kittanning clay horizon proper is seen at its best where it enters the state from Pennsylvania, and where it leaves the state in its extension into Kentucky. In both of these localities of the Ohio Valley, viz., in Columbiana and Jefferson counties, on the one side, and on the other in Lawrence County, it shows large volume and excellent quality.*

The Lower Kittanning coal on the average lies about 23 feet above the Ferriferous members and about 40 feet below the Middle Kittanning coal. The member is well developed in Upper, Hamilton, , Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships, where it has been worked for many years. The bed is also found above drainage in western Perry, Lawrence, and Aid townships; further it appears on Buffalo and Symmes creeks in the central part cf Symmes Township. But little information was obtained in regard to these members under heavy cover, as only a few drill records are available. Owing to the worth of these beds they will be treated at some length and traced across the county. See Map V facing page 354.

Perry Township. - The Lower Kittanning coal and clay are found along the courses of the streams in the western part of Perry Town- j ship. The coal is mined at a number of places, but so far the clay has not been utilized. Along the Ohio River the Lower Kittanning coal is present near the road level in the western part of the township, and passes below drainage on Lick Creek east of the village of Sheridan, where it is reported to be about 2 feet in thickness. Where the member is exposed west of this, it is somewhat unsteady as the coal is often partially or completely replaced by a thick sandstone that lies just above, the coal horizon. At places, however, the coal has fair volume as shown by the following record obtained on the land of Julia McCowan, about one mile west of Sheridan: ^ ,

On Little Ice Creek the Lower Kittanning members pass from view about one mile south of the village of Forestdale. The coal, although overlaid by a massive sandstone, usually has good volume. A section taken on the farm of Charles HoUey is given below:

Near Forestdale this coal has been mined for local consumption for many years, and the territory is not yet exhausted. In a mine operated by Frank Brammcr the average measurement of the bed is as follows: ^ i^

The clay in this locality is seldom exposed for observation, as it lies close to drainage level, but it is reported to be as a rule from 3 to 5 feet in thickness. West of this, on the farm of Oscar Willis, the coal has much the same structure as it has at the Brammer mine. Where measured, the upper coal bench was 2 feet in thickness, the clay parting 1 foot 1 inch, and the lower coal bench 8 inches. Along the Bearing Road near the township line, this coal is regularly mined by drifting on the property of David Laymond, where the following measurements were obtained: p^ j^

Here the upper bench of coal varies from 1 foot 3 inches to 2 feet, while the lower bench of coal and the clay parting remain fairly constant. North of the Bearing road, on Little Ice Creek, this coal is also mined on the property of Charles Shaefer, and has much the same structure as shown in the above section. Along Ice Creek the Lower Kittanning members are above drainage eastward along the course of the stream to near the mouth of Turkey Fork. The coal is not so well represented here as it is on Little Ice Creek, and the clay is lacking somewhat in its normal volume and quality. Moreover, the parting between the two coal benches in places expands to several feet, as is shown by the following section, taken along the road about one mile south of the mouth of Turkey Fork:

In the above section the Lower Kittanning clay member is divided by a thin carbonaceous shale into two divisions, which correlate wi4h the two well developed clay beds found on this horizon in the central part of the county. Here the clays are thin and siliceous, but near the mouth of Sugar Creek they are much better developed, and often occupy most of the interval from the Ferriferous ore to the Lower Kittanning coal.

Upper Township. - The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in all of Upper Township. The coal bed in this region has contributed a part of the factory and domestic fuel supply of Ironton for many years, and yet contains a large quantity of coal for future demands. The largest unworked fields are in the vicinity of Hecla Furnace. The stratum has excellent continuity throughout the township, but in some localities the bed is somewhat thin and impure. The volume of the clay deposits is usually large; while the quality is up to the standard for a plastic clay of coal formation origin. Near Coalgrove, on the John Peters property, a general section showing the character of the rocks in the Lower Kittanning interval was obtained, and is given below:

Here the upper bench of coal varies from 1 foot 3 inches to 2 feet, while the lower bench of coal and the clay parting remain fairly constant. North of the Bearing road, on Little Ice Creek, this coal is also mined on the property of Charles Shaefer, and has much the same structure as shown in the above section. Along Ice Creek the Lower Kittanning members are above drainage eastward along the course of the stream to near the mouth of Turkey Fork. The coal is not so well represented here as it is on Little Ice Creek, and the clay is lacking somewhat in its normal volume and quality. Moreover, the parting between the two coal benches in places expands to several feet, as is shown by the following section, taken along the road about one mile south of the mouth of Turkey Fork:

In the above section the Lower Kittanning clay member is divided by a thin carbonaceous shale into two divisions, which correlate wi4h the two well developed clay beds found on this horizon in the central part of the county. Here the clays are thin and siliceous, but near the mouth of Sugar Creek they are much better developed, and often occupy most of the interval from the Ferriferous ore to the Lower Kittanning coal.

Upper Township.^ - The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in all of Upper Township. The coal bed in this region has contributed a part of the factory and domestic fuel supply of Ironton for many years, and yet contains a large quantity of coal for future demands. The largest unworked fields are in the vicinity of Hecla Furnace. The stratum has excellent continuity throughout the to\TOship, but in some localities the bed is somewhat thin and impure. The volume of the clay deposits is usually large; while the quality is up to the standard for a plastic clay of coal formation origin. Near Coalgrove, on the John Peters property, a general section showing the character of the rocks in the Lower Kittanning interval was obtained, and is given below:

East of this, along the river hills, the coal thins somewhat, and often becomes erratic in structure. A section obtained along the road in the extreme southeastern part of the township illustrates the thinning of the bed from its normal volume. The measurements follow:

North of Coalgrove this bed has been mined regularly by drifting, for a part of the local supply, and is reported to have approximately the same structure as was shown for the bed on the land of John Peters. At the plant of the Ironton Portland Cement Company the following measurements were obtained :

The upper bench of coal is reported to vary from 2 to 3 feet in thickness. The clay lying directly below the coal is generally thin and siliceous, but that lying at the base of the interval is stated by Albert Steece to vary from 3 to 12 feet, and to be of good quality, in fact, much better than the clay found above it. Along Sugar Creek, south of the Marion Road, in the northeastern part of the township, the clay is reported to have exceptional volume. Thousands of tons have been piled on the dumps in the mining of the Ferriferous ore. The coal in this locaHty is reported to be somewhat below normal, but quite persistent. In places in this locality nearly the whole interval from the ore to the coal is reported to be made up of clays which have excellent quality. Near where the Marion Road crosses Sugar Creek both the Lower and Middle Kittanning coals are mined in a small way. A record obtained here is given below:

The field of Lower Kittanning coal, near Hecla Furnace, has not been worked, except in a small way for local needs. A section, taken near the furnace, follows:

The Lower Kittanning coal and clay were worked by the Orchard Knob Brick Company while the plant was in operation. It was located about one mile north of Ironton. A section secured at this place follows:

In the northeastern part of the township the Lower Kittanning coal is generally thin, and lies close to the Middle Kittanning member. Further, the underlying clay is diminished in volume, and is somewhat siliceous in character. In the northwestern part, however, both coal and clay are present in force, and the coal is largely exhausted, as it has been mined for many years. A section taken east of La Grange

Lawrence Township. - The Lower Kittanning coal is found above drainage along the courses of the streams that head in the western part of Lawrence Township. The coal is generally thin, somewhat shaly, and in places the bed is completely replaced by a thick sandstone. The clay underlying the coal is also poorly developed. The conditions of the members appear to indicate that this is 'the border of the Newcastle field.

Hamilton Township. - The areas of the Lower Kittanning members in Hamilton Township are relatively small as the beds are found near the summits of the main ridges. The clay has good continuity, but the coal is often partially or completely replaced by sandstones. In a part of the area, however, the coal is about 3 feet in thickness. As the member has not been mined, to any considerable extent, no jneasurements showing the character of the bed under heavy cover were obtained, but the section reported is as follows:

Elizabeth Township. - Passing northward from Hamilton and Upper townships, we come to Elizabeth, in which the Lower Kittanning members reach their maximum volume in Lawrence County. The thickness and quality of the beds in this field are scarcely surpassed elsewhere in Ohio. The coal has been extensively mined for the general market, but the thick deposit of clay has been but little attacked, although the conditions are very favorable for its utilization for ceramic products. Owing to the importance of these beds^ both specific and general sections of the interval will be given in order to present their extent and character in a definite way. The general character of the Lower Kittanning beds in the southern part of this township is illus-

The variations in the thickness of the Lower Kittanning coal and parting in this locality are shown by the following measurements furnished by The Ginn Company of the bed in its mine, which is located near the head of Little Storms Creek south of Vesuvius Station:

North of Royerville both the Lower Kittanning coal and clay have excellent volume and purity. These features are shown in the following record obtained at the limestone mines of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, which are located west of Etna Station:

At the mines of the Halley Coal Company at Etna Station, the upper bench of the Lower Kittanning coal varies from 2 feet to 2 feet 10 inches in thickness, the clay parting from 5 to 5 inches, and the lower coal bench from 6 to 12 inches. The average thickness of the two coal benches is about 3 feet. In this vicinity the Lower Kittanning clay has excellent volume, as it usually occupies nearly all of the interval from the coal to the underlying Ferriferous ore. A section of the coal , bed taken in a mine follows:

These measurements are practically duplicated at the mine of C. C. Smith north of Etna Station. Along the road north of Pedro or Etna Furnace the following record was obtained in a drift mine:

The clay in this vicinity is quite thick, but it was not well exposed for measurement. On Storms Creek in the vicinity of QlifTside, the Lower Kittanning coal is partially or completely replaced by the massive overlying sandstone. A section secured in a cave west of C'liflfside and given below shows the condition of the members:

Along Storms Creek north of Vesuvids Furnace the coal is usually present, but as a general thing the bed is somewhat thin and is often shaly. Near Lawrence Furnace the Lower Kittanning coal has furnished fuel for many years and the territory is not yet exhausted. A general section of the rocks on this horizon follows:

From Royerville and Lawrence FurHace west along Little Pine Creek the Lower Kittanning coal averages about 3 feet 4 inches in thickness and has only a thin stratum of clay intervening between the coal benches, but it is usually overlaid with about 1 foot of shaly coal or ^^nigger head" which is somewhat troublesome in mining. East of these places the good coal in the bed contracts and, as previously stated, it is thin and often bony on Storms Creek. On Cannons Creek the coal is below the normal w thickness, while the shaly coal or "nigger head'' which overlies the main coal bench thickens to as much as 2 or 3 feet. These features are shown in the following section taken near where the Johns Creek road crosses the stream:

One mile west of Lawrence Furnace, in Elizabeth Township, at the IT ire of W. R. Maxey, a good section of the Lower Kittanning interval was obtained and is given below:

The above section shows both benches of the Lower Kittanning clay to be well developed and to be separated by the thin coal bed, which is nearly always present .when the lower bench of clay is found. These with the Clarion clay, which also has excellent qualities, give a total thickness of over 25 feet of ceramic material. When coal, clays, limestone, and ores are considered, this interval is extremely valuable and is duplicated at few places in southern Ohio.

One-half mile north of Lawrence Furnace, on the Edward Kelly land, the following measurements of the Lower Kittanning coal were secured in a mine:

As this coal stratum extends northward to the vicinity of Superior, Bartles, and Dean it has slightly less volume than it has in the field near Lawrence Furnace and Royerville, but it has good continuity and quality. The bony coal which overlies the bed in the latter region is seldom present here, while the parting separating the two coal benches has about the same mean thickness. The upper bench of the Lower Kittanning clay as a general thing is somewhat thin, while the lower bench in most of the area is replaced by sandstone. At the mine of E. B. Willard near Bartles the rocks seen and reported are as follows:

Aid Township. - The Lower Kittaimiixg members are found along the courses of the main tributaries of Storms Creek that head in western Aid TowTiship. The 'area above drainage is very small, and the coal is poorly developed. The bed, which is thin and unsteady, lies close to the Ferriferous limestone. The clays also lack volume and quality. A section taken near the mouth of Paddle Creek is given below:

The character of the bed in this locality indicates that, as it passes eastward, the good coal thins and the impure shaly layers thicken. It appears to be on the border of the main field. Further this same tendency of the bed to contract or break up as it extends eastward is also denoted by a study of the records taken in Elizal>eth, Upper, Lawrence, and Perry townships.

Decatur Township.- The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in practically all of Decatur Township. The beds are found near the summits of the main ridges in the western, part, but owing to the dip eastward they pass below cover just west of the main ridge that extends northward along the eastern border. Decatur Township contains areas of thick coal and also areas of thin and broken coal. Some wan.ts are also found. The clay has good continuity and as a general thing fair volume. The lower bench of this clay, however, is seldom prcspPit in force. Mr. J. H. Moulton reports that the Lower Kittanning coal east of the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway from Painter Creek south to the tunnel is thin or wanting, but south of the tunnel in Texas Hollow it shows 3 feet 6 inches of clean coal. In the hills west of this railroad from Jep Station south along the railroad and pike to the divide about 2 miles south of Moulton, the Lower Kittanning coal is also thin, or wanting. In the northeastern part of the towT.ship it has good volume, while in the western part it is somewhat patchy. The following section taken east of Center Station shows the relation of the Lower Kittanning, Lost Seam, and Middle Kittanning coals and their positions with reference to the Ferriferous limestone:

Along the road that leads from Center Station to the Superior Portland Cement plant the relation of the Lower Kittanning members to other beds was secured as the rocks were well exposed for measurement. The record follows: p^

At the mines of the Superior Portland Cement Company the section is as follows, and shows the general condition of the Lower Kittanning members in this locality. p^ in

From Center Station and Bartles to north of Moulton the Lower Kittanning coal is wanting, thin, or patchy. Along the pike at the head of the hollow south of Moulton the section obtained shows the following condition of the coal and clay: pt. in.

In Branch Hollow southwest of Moulton the entire interval was not seen. The Lower Kittanning coal and Ferriferous ore were reported by David McFann:

Mr. McFann states that the parting between the two coal benches expands in places to as much as 1 foot 6 inches, and that the lower coal bench reaches 1 foot in thickness. A section made west of the above locality in Buckhom Hollow near the old furnace stack is as follows :

Near the mouth of the hollow another section taken in a mine is practically the same as the above. Along Youngs Branch no openings were s?er, but the coal on the outcrop shows about the same thickness as in Buckhom Hollow. Near the mouth of Painter Creek the outcrop sho^s about 3 feet of clean coal, but towards the head it is somewhat thinner. A combined section near the head of Painters Creek in the rortheastern quarter of Decatur Township follows: coal again appears in the bed of the stream on Buffalo and on Little Buffalo creeks at their junction and extends up each of these for a short distance. North of the Rehmer School on Little Buffalo the bed is represented by 1 foot 8 inches of bony coal. West of the Rehmer School on Buffalo 7 inches of Lower Kittanning coal was seen in the bed of the creek. It is found along Buffalo south to the first western tributary where about 2 feet of bony coal was exposed in the stream bed. The Lower Kittanning coal appears in the bed of CauUey Creek on the M. V. Thompson property. It outcrops for about three-fourths of a mile and is reported by Mr. Thompson approximately 3 feet thick under cover.

The Lower Kittanning coal appears above the waters of Symmes Creek south of McDaniel in the northeastern part of the township. The bed was mined to a small extent and is reported to be about 2 feet 6 inches in thickness.

Washington Township. - The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in practically all of Washington Township. The beds lie well toward the summits of the hills in the western part and near the base of the hills in the eastern part. Both members are rather steady throughout the entire area. The coal is often thin, while the clay is occasionally replaced to a large extent by sandstone. On the whole there is a large quantity of valuable coal and clay yet available from these members in the field. The character of the rocks in the Lower Kittanning interval in the vicinity of Olive Station is shown in the following section taken along the road that leads to Indian Creek:

In the hills west of Olive Furnace the coal is generally thin, and in places is wanting, as it is replaced by sandstones. In the hills between Bushy Fork and Brady Creek the coal is in much the same condition and the clay is often restricted in volume and siliceous in

Along Brady Creek west of this the coal seldom expands to 2 feet 6 inches and in places it measures only about 1 foot. The clay, which is quite siliceous in the lower part, varies from 4 to 12 feet in thickness and averages- about 6 feet. Near the plant of the Portsmouth Refractories Company in Spencer Hollow, northwest comer of Washington Township, the section reported by John Hanes as characteristic is as follows:

Near the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company in Black Fork Hollow, the section reported by the mine foreman for the mean thickness of the Lower Kittanning beds is as follows:

A study of the sections shows the remarkable changes m the character of the strata that make up the interval. During their deposition the forces at work and the conditions in this old coal basin were shifting or changing continually. A plastic clay stratum in one section may be replaced by a flint clay, by a shale, or by a sandstone in the next. A coal bed may change in character, thin, or even go out completely in a short distance.

The economic value of any deposit depends not only on the value of the deposit itself, but also upon the ease with which it can be mined, and upon the value of the associated deposits. A coal bed may have good value alone, but, if a bed of clay can be worked with it, its value is increased. The success of the Oak Hill brick plants has been due largely to the fact that both coal and clay are taken from the same mine. Ih the Etna region, where both the Lower Kittanning coal and clay are well developed, the coal alone is mined. In a short time the mines are abandoned, and the roof left in such a condition that the clay is unavailable, or may be mined only with great difficulty. Millions of tons of clay in Lawrence County have thus been wasted.

The limestone is mined with difficulty where th^ overlying material is soft shale or clay, unless a part is left for the roof, but. where this is sandstone the entire stratum is obtained. The shale and clay partings in the coal beds also increase the cost of mining, and if these are not well removed they decrease the market value of the fuel. The^e points will be taken up more in detail as the separate deposits are discussed.

The next member in the series is the Lower Kittanning clays and shales, which are often partially replaced by sandstones. The clays, shales, and sandstones occupy the interval between the Ferriferous ore and the Lower Kittanning or No. 5 coal. The clay found directly above this coal in the northern part of the county should also be considered, for economic reasons, as part of this series, but geologically it is a separate member. The clays and shales of this horizon have a greater economic value than the materials from any other horizon in the county. In fact, they far surpass in value any of the coals, limestones, ores, and other clays and shales. There is a great wealth of clay material in this interval which is of most excellent quality. The thickiwss of the Lower Kittanning clay, shown by an average of the various sections taken throughout the region, is about 8 feet, and of the shale nearly 6 feet, or, in all, it is 14 feet. The clay is well developed in the region around Royerville and Pedro, in Elizabeth Township, where it is often 15 or more feet thick, and also at the mines of W. R. Maxey, on Little Pine Creek, where the section shows 16 feet of clay of good quality. Near Moulton and Olive Furnace the deposits are heavy, varying from

8 to 15 feet. In the northern part of the county the clays are often 12 feet in thickness, while here the shales are best developed, as they expand from 5 to 15 feet*

The importance of these vast clay deposits has not been fully recognized in this section. Clays from this horizon form the basis of the immense sewer pipe industry along the Ohio River from Steubenville to. East Liverpool. Large quantities of stoneware are made from it in the Zanesville district. The large stoneware pottery industry in Pennsylvania, at New Brighton, Beaver Falls, and vicinity, uses the Lower Kittanning clay principally. It is the basis also of the fire brick industry in the same region, which is of importance. The Oak Hill, Ohio, fire brick plants use this clay to a large extent. It is also an excellent clay for the manufacture of high-grade buff, iron clay, and gray building brick. The beautiful face brick used in the construction of the Portsmouth High School were made from Lower Kittanning clay at Kittanning, Peimsylvania, although vast quantiti^ of the same clay equally as good are found in this region only 30 miles distant. It is a source of regret that the coal has been taken from above large areas of this clay, and especially in the region where the deposits are heaviest. These clays are now practically unavailable, owing to the condition of the roof. The analyses of this clay, reported by the Hanging Rock Iron Company from its Newcastle mines, are as follows:

In the southern part of the field the interval contains two benches or deposits of clay, the upper one just below the Lower Kittanning coal, and the lower one near the Ferriferous ore. They are usually separated by a thin coal, shale, or sandstone. In this region the lower bench is usually the best developed, and the clay is superior in quality to that in the upper bench. Near the timnel on the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railway, the two beds are merged into one, but are separated again near Lawrence Furnace. Near Bartles and Center Furnace the lower bench is replaced by sandstone, or by shale and sandstone, which continue north to near Olive Furnace, where the lower bench again appears. West of Olive Furnace, and on the head of Brushy Fork, heavy sandstones take the place of the lower bench, while farther north these are replaced by shales, which continue to the northern boundary of the coimty. The upper bench holds its thickness well throughout the whole area. The quality varies somewhat, but is generally good.

In the northern part of the field local deposits of clay are found above the Lower Kittanning coal. In Spencer Hollow, Washington Township, from 3 to 6 feet of this clay which may be either plastic or flint are found. It is called the Oak Hill clay owing to the fact that it is well developed in the region near Oak Hill, Jackson Coimty, where it is generally a flint clay, and where it has been used for years as the basis of the fire brick industry. It is generally separated from the Lower Kittanning coal by a shale varying from a few inches to several feet in thickness, and from the Middle Kittanning coal by 20 to 40 feet of clay, shales, and sandstones. It is here considered in the discussion of the Lower Kittanning coal and clay deposit. The economy in mining this lower bench of clay depends principally on the character of the roof, on the associated ore and on the underlying limestone. In some cases the three could be taken from the same entry as at the plant of the Irontoh Portland Cement Company where the roof of the clay is a thick sandstone:

Considering the clay to average 7J feet, the ore 1 foot, and limestone 5 feet in thickness, the entry would be 13J feet in height. The clay could be taken out first, then the ore, and lastly the stone. Posts would be of little value in such workings, but if 50 per cent were available the yield per acre would be as follows:

The clay should have a market value of 50 cents, ore $2.00, and stone 70 cents per net ton, so that the value of the raw products per acre would be:

The sandstone above forms a most excellent roof. Here both coal and clay were worked. Sixty per cent of the total should be available, and the yield per acre as follows:

At the mines of W. R. Maxey, near Lawrence Furnace in Elizabeth Township, the interval from the ore horizon to the Lower Kittanning coal is probably the most valuable in Lawrence County, and it is one that would be hard to duplicate elsewhere in Ohio. The clay below the Ferriferous limestone at this place is quite thick and is of f ai^ quality. A mixture of these different clay layers is well suited for the manufacture of sewer pipe. The clay shale is suitable also for this work. The kidney ore bands average 12 inches in thickness and these, with the 8 inches of ore below, give a total of 20 inches for ore. The limestone is of good quality also. The sandstone above the Lower Kittanning coal, if crushed, has some market value. Where the cover is not too heavy, it would pay to strip the overburden, thus making the materials available in the entire interval. The section is as follows:

The clays at this horizon vary somewhat in quality in different sections and often in different parts of the same bed. In the main they are excellent plastic clays with some flint clay in pockets in both the lower and upper benches. Free silicia is usually present in the clay, but this is detrimental in a few classes of ware only, while in others it is beneficial. It should be low in ware that is required to withstand basic slag action and high temperatures. Free silica in a clay lowers the fusion point to an appreciable extent. The fusion point of the best clay used in commercial work is about 1,830°^ C. or 3,326° F., but this is lowered by the addition of silica until the composition, 90 per cent silica and 10 per cent alumina, is reached, when it is slightly below 1,600° C. or 2,912° F. Further addition of silica causes it to rise slightly above 1,600° C Free silica is objectionable in ware subjected to the action of basic slags. Here the bases combine readily with the silica to form low fusing compounds which soon destroy the ware. Siliceous clay ware should be used only when the slags are acid, in which case both the compoaition of clay and slag should be considered. It is not a desirable component in ware required to withstand sudden extreme changes in temperature, as regenerator brick, etc. Here the quartz changes at 830° C. to tridymite with an increase in volume and with a glassy texture. Severe changes in temperatures cause checking which soon leads to disruption of the ware.

For some classes of ware free silica is beneficial, as it is more resistant to the action of acid slags than that made from the purer clays. For arch work at moderate temperatures free quartz in the ware has a tightening efifect owing to the increase in volume as it changes to tridymite. The drying shrinkage of green ware is lowered by the presence of free silica unless this is very fine-grained. This component is especially beneficial in the manufacture of hollow ware such as sewer pipe, stoneware, terra cotta, fireproofing, etc., as the loss due to warping and checking is considerably lowered. The effect in burning is much the same as it lowers the fire shrinkage also. In building materials certain desirable color eflfects are also more pronounced when the clay is siliceous. So the effect of free silica, whether beneficial or detrimental, depends upon the uses of the ware.

There are two kinds of fluxing agents normally present in clajrs, acid arid basic fluxes. The acid fluxes are titanic acid, phosphorus anhydride, and free silica. The effects of the latter have been given. The phosphoric acid is usually too low to exert any marked influence. Titanic acid is invariably present in all clays. In quantity it varies from a trace to as much as 3 or 4 per cent and will average approximately 1 per cent. The effect of titanic oxide is not marked, as the fusion point ia lowered only about 15 degrees for each per cent present.

The basic fluxes are ferrous oxide, lime, magnesia, manganous oxide, and the alkalies, sodium, potassium, and, occasionally, lithium oxide. Ferrous oxide is an active flux. It forms two low fusing compounds with silica, fayalite, 2 FeO.SiOj, and grunerite, FeO.Si02. It, with other bases, also combines with alumina and silica to form complex compounds which fuse at moderate temperatures. The color imparted to the ware by ferrous oxide, when dilute, is a bluish tint, but, as the quantities present increase, the color darkens, until a bluish-black is reached. The coloring power of the oxide depends upon the amount present, the state of fusion, and the dissemination.

The fluxing power of lime or magnesia exceeds that of ferrous oxide. With silica they react in much the same way as ferrous oxide, as they form the 2 RO.SiOj and R0.Si02 compounds. There are four definite combinations of lime and alumina, 3 CaO. AI2O3, 5 CaO.3 AljOj, CaO. AljOs and 3 CaO.5 AI2O3, but only one between magnesia and alumina, which is MgO.Al203. The eutectic between silica and calcium metasilicate melts at 1,426° C. (2,585° F.), and between the meteisilicate and orthosilicate at 1,440° C. (2,610° F.). The eutectic between 3CaO.Al20s and SCaO.SAUOs, and SCaO.SAUOs and CaO.AljOj melts at about 1,387° C. (2,515° F.). The eutectic between MgO.AlgOs and MgO occurs at 1,950° C.^ High magnesia is detrimental, as it gives a short vitrification range, thus making these clays very hard to bum safely. With lime, alumina, and silica there are two compounds, 2 CaO.AUOj.SiOj, whose melting point is not determined, and CaO.Al20i.2Si02, whose melting point is 1,532° C. (2,776° F.). The compounds formed from magnesia, alumina, and silica have not been definitely determined.'

Sodium and potassium oxides are very active fluxes, as they form at red heat aluminates and silicates. Their fluxing action is about twice as great as that of lime or magnesia. Manganous oxide acts in much the same way as ferrous oxide- With silica it reacts to form two dark-colored silicates, MnO.SiOj, rhodonite; and MnO.SiOj, tephroite. The quantity present in most clays is small, but in the manufacture of gray brick manganese dioxide, which partially reduces to the lower oxide, is added. The best effects from the dioxide are obtained by adding it to siliceous clays, which, under reducing conditions, form the dark-colored silicates.

The effect on the fusion point of mixtures of these various components is complicated, but in a general way it depends on the following factors: The lowering of the fusion point increases with the number of components present, and with the quantity of each to the eutectic mixture. It also depends on the mineral components formed, and on their quantities to the eutectic mixtures. For refractory ware the total amount of bases present should be small, for in combining with the acid components the quantity of the minerals formed is considerable, for example: 1 per cent of lime combining with alumina and silica forms 4.96 per cent of the mineral anorthite. As a general rule the limit of the fluxes should be somewhere near the following; basic fluxes 4 per cent, acid fluxes 3 per cent, and total fluxes 7 per cent. Under normal conditions ferric oxide is not a flux, but a coloring agent only. A small quantity produces yellow, while increased additions deepen the color until a dark red is reached. Where considerable lime is present, dirty buffs are formed. The coloring power of the oxide is influenced, to a large extent, by the state of dissemination.

For the non-refractory grades of ware the quantity of the fluxes present is less restricted. In moderate amounts they act beneficially, as they lower the bonding temperatiu-e, thus saving fuel. In vitrified ware the quantity present should be sufficient to give a complete cementing of the mass when fused, but not enough to destroy the rigidity. The texture of the mass should be dense and stony. For common

'Shepherd and Rankin, Am. Jour. Sci., No. 166, Oct., 1909. 'Shepherd and Rankin, Preliminary Report on the Ternary System, CaO-Al:Oi- SiOt, Jour. Ind. & Eng. Chem., Vol. 3, No. 4, April, 1911.

ware the kinds and quantities present should be such that the temperature range from incipient fusion to deformation is greater than that in various parts of the kibi, for if it is shorter there will be a constant loss, either to overbumed or underbumed ware. Each clay should be tested separately, as the effects produced by the fluxes depend on the physical and on the chemical properties of both fluxes and clays. Most claj'^s contain small quantities of organic matter in the form of carbon or coal. The quantity is usually small, and under proper oxidizing conditions in burning it exerts no apparent effect.

The clay at this horizon is well suited for the manufacture of several leading ceramic products. For the manufacture of refractory ware it cannot be rated as high as the Sciotoville flint clay of Ohio and Kenr tucky, or as high as the Mercer and Brookville flint clays of Pennsylvania. It is, however, an excellent second-grade clay, well fitted for the manufacture of' general purpose ware, such as regenerator, coke oven, mill, boiler setting brick, etc. It is used to some extent, also, as blast and steel furnace linings. The Oak Hill plants have run for many years on this grade of ware, and are very successful. The few analyses given are incomplete, as they fail to show all the fluxes present. Normally, the clay is siliceous, but this is detrimental only in a few classes of ware. Heat tests, under highly reducing conditions, in the Deville furnace, on two samples from Blackfork, show Cone 32 or 3,218° F.

The working qualities of this clay are excellent. It makes plastic muds which work easily in molding, or which flow readily through the dies of the machines. The ware dries safely under ordinary conditions, either on the dry floor or in tunnel driers. The kiln loss is low when the proper attention has been given in firing. The clay contains some carbonaceous matter, which, if not properly oxidized before the fluxes begin to combine with the clay, reduces the ferric oxide to ferrous oxide, which then forms slags with silica at low temperatures. This gives dark or black cored brick. If the brick are dry when set, and if the fire is held when the brick are at a low red heat until the dark core is completely gone, then this reduction of the ferric oxide will not take place, and the brick will come out of the kiln in good condition. The total shrinkage is about 1 J inches to the foot, but it varies somewhat with the quantity of free silica present. Grog is used in most fire brick to correct the shrinkage. Mr. D. D. Davis, president of the Ohio Fire Brick Company of Oak Hill, who has used these clays for years, says of them:

The whole of southern Ohio, embracing Jackson , a part of Gallia and Lawrence counties, carries the Lower Kittanning bed of bituminous coal with which are found two beds of fire clay. The best deposit is the flint clay which overlies the Lower Kittanning coal, and which in some places lies directly on the coal, but almost always from 15 to 30 inches above it. The best clay in this bed carries alumina about 38 to 39 per cent, silica about 54 to 56 per cent, and iron oxide about .75 per cent. This bed is about 3 feet in thickness and is very good for fire brick, which for many uses is equal to any brick made in Pennsylvania or Kentucky, when mixed with suitable bonding clay to give the brick the proper texture. The bed of fire clay underlying the Lower Kittanning coal directly is about 12 feet in thickness. The clay carries about 31 to 33 per cent alumina, and about 58 per cent sihca. It is low in iron oxide and is one of the best second-grade plastic clays that I know^. The analysis of this clay is not as good on the outcrop as given above, but will run as shown when taken from under heavy covering.

There is only one fire brick plant in Lawrence County at present in active operation. This is the plant of the Portsmouth Refractories Company at Firebrick. It is situated about one mile east of the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad in Spencer Hollow, near the western edge of Washington Township. Mr. Wm. Hitchcock, president and general manager, reports the equipment as follows:

The Lower Kittanning clay is used exclusively in the manufacture of our product. We use about 15,000 tons of clay, per year and about 7,000 tons of coal, which is mined along with the clay. The coal provides the power necessary for the manufacture of the cJay into ware and for the burning of the product. Both clay and coal are mined by hand work and conveyed to the plant on a tram road with mule power.

The power plant consists of two lOO-H. P. boilers, one 150-H. P. Atlas engine, and one 25-H. P. engine which is used for running the electric generator for lighting the entire plant and also the company houses. The clays are reduced in two 9-foot dry pans and one O-foot wet pan. For tempering the clays one lO-foot and one 9-foot pug mill are used. One brick machine with an automatic rotary cutter and with a capacity of 60,000 brick per day is used for shaping some grades of ware. The machine brick are pressed in power presses. For the hand molded ware the mud is carried to the molding tables on lx>th the first and second floors by conveyor belts. High grade hand-made brick are made on the ower floor, which is heated by exhaust steam from the engine. The same grade of shape brick are made on the second floor, which is heated by a waste heat overhead drying system.

This company has nine rectangular kilns of S5,000 to 90,000 capacity each and one round kiln of 100,000 capacity. All runways are covered so that it is possible to convey brick to the kilns or to the sheds in any kind of weather. All the storage sheds are placed near the loading tracks which will hold 15 cars. This arrangement makes the cost of loading ware low. The company also has a clay mill adjoining the main factory with a capacity of four cars ground clay per day. The supply of water for the plant is secured from a large storage reservoir located near the plant. From this the water is pumped to supply tanks at the boiler room. The water in one of these tanks is heated by steam, after which it is used in tempering the clay in the wet pan and in the pug mills. All the clay is dumped on the clay yard at the place where it is to be used, and the coal is dumped from the mine cars into chutes that convey it directly to the boiler roo.m or to the kilns. This arrangement saves much labor and loss in fuel.

The capacity of the plant is 20,000 brick per day. Our ware is used for blast fur, nace linings, stoves, regenerators, annealing ovens, locomotive linings, cement kilnsrolling mill work, cupolas, coke ovens, lime kilns, and for other purposes where refractory wares are used.

The Lower Kittanning clay has good refractory qualities, as this point has been proved by practical tests where very severe strains are imposed. Mr. W. N. Jeffreys, superintendent of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, says of the fire brick which were used in relining its furnace, and which were made of the Lower Kittanning clay by the Portsmouth Refractories Company:

This clay ranks as one of the best in the United States for the manufacture of high grade clay building brick. The deposits are thick and can be worked with the coal above. The working qualities of the clay are excellent and the shades produced are attractive and pleasing. The section at the Cambria Clay Products Company plant on Black Fork in Washington Township is as follows: , j^ j^

The working qualities pf this clay are all that could be desired. The usual procedure in the manufacture of stiff mud brick is as follows: The clay is crushed in dry pans. Because of its soft brittle nature one 9-foot dry pan will crush readily 80 or more tons per day. The ground clay is elevated from the pan to a bin from which it goes to the pug mill where water is added, and where the pugging process develops the desired plasticity. The following experiments to determine the relative plasticity of clays were made by Downs Schaaf :

If the plasticity of clays is mainly due to a proper ratio of granular materials and active (that is, not set) colloid gels, any means of establishing the relative or absolute amount of colloids in a clay should supply a measure of its plasticity.^ As colloids absorb dyes, this principle may be used in measuring the plasticity of clays.

Three grams of malachite green for each determination were used in the following experiment. The clays were tested as received or with only enough work on them so that they would all go through a 20-me6h sieve, no grinding being done on them at all. Figured by Ashley, the relative colloid value of Tennessee ball clay is 100 colloids. Comparisons of the colloidal value of the Lower Kittanning clay from Lawrence County and of the Middle Kittanning from Nelsonville with that of Tennessee ball clay which is used as the standard are given below:

These experiments .show the superiority of the Lower Kittanning clay oyer the Middle Kittanning, or when ground fine over even the Tennessee ball clay. They also show the effects of fine grinding in the development of plasticity.

The clay which has been thoroughly worked into a plastic mud in the pug mill goes to the brick machine, where it is forced out into a column which is cut into brick by hand or by automatic cut-ofiFs. If the plasticity of the clay is too highly developed, some trouble may be experienced at this stage from lamination of the column. The best grades of brick are repressed, which develops both shape and finish. The wire-cut and repressed brick are loaded on steel cars for drying, which is done in tunnel driers using either waste heat from the kilns or steam from the boilers. These driers may be either periodic or continuous. In the periodic a tunnel is filled with cars of green brick, which are allowed to remain there until they are dry. In the continuous the cars of dry brick are taken from one end and cars of green brick are put in at the other. This clay dries safely under ordinary conditions in any type of drier. If air too highly heated is turned on the green brick, center checks or strains, which in burning develop into cracks, are produced. Most of the defects found in the burned ware originated in the drying and not in the burning. Ware made from this clay when highly plastic is subject to this defect; hence precautions should be taken in the drying.

Scumming is another common defect caused in drying. If the circulation of air in the tunnels is sluggish, moisture which is dravm from the interior of the brick, and which holds salts in solution such as sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, etc., collects on the surface. Then the evaporation of this water leaves the salts on the brick in fine beads which on burning show as a white or dirty scum. The salts, especially objectionable, are sulphates of lime, magnesia, and iron. The iron salt is derived from the weathering of the ferric sulphide present in the clay. This defect is usually remedied by the addition of barium carbonate.

Here the barium sulphate and carbonates formed are insoluble or only sparingly soluble, so that they are fixed in the body of the clay. The burning behavior of this clay when proper attention is given to the stages or periods in burning is excellent. Prof. Edward Orton, Jr., recognizes four periods as follows:

!- Water Smoking Period. - It begins at the temperature of the green ware set in the kiln and lasts to 100° C. During this period the final hydroscopic water or water of plasticity is expelled.

are oxidized; the combined water from most hj'^drates and miscellian water from colloids are given off; ferric sulphide or pyrite is broken up into ferrous sulphide and one-half the sulphur evolved; magnesium and ferrous carbonates are broken up into oxides and carbon dioxide evolved, also the magnesium oxide begins to act chemically; dolomite is broken up into the oxides and the gas carbon dioxide evolved; further the oxides begin to exert their fluxing influence; and both the molecules of water are driven off from the kaolin.

3* Oxidation Period. - This begins at 700° C. and lasts to 900° C. Here ferrous sulphide is oxidized to ferric oxide and sulphur evolved as gas; fossil carbon such as the jBxed carbon in coal, etc., is oxidized; ferrous oxide is oxidized to ferric oxide, and during the latter part of the period the bases, lime, magnesia, and alkalies begin to exert their fluxing action to a considerable extent.

4. Vitrification Period. - This begirs at 900° C. and lasts to complete fusion. It begins when the mass first hardens, which is shown by the beginning of the fire shrinkage, and it lasts to the point where the old mineral forms are united into a dense more or less homogeneous mass. It is a series of combinations and solutions of the various mineral components present.

These periods should be given special attention in the burning of all clay ware. The black cores frequently fomid in ware made from the Lower Kittanning clay are due to lack of care or knowledge in burning. If the heat in the kiln is raised too quickly, which crowds the water smoking period into the dehydration, which in turn is crowded into the oxidation, the oxidation period is then incomplete when vitrification begins, which retards further oxidation. The ferrous compounds produced form dark-colored fluid slags, which, in the presence of liberated gases, bloat and destroy the structure of the ware.

The fine glazed finish on ware made from this clay is obtained by proper care during the oxidation and vitrification periods. The ware should be completely oxidized, then during the vitrification period the flame should be so regulated that periods of oxidation are followed by short periods of reduction. This oxidation and reduction of the iron salts produce the segregation and the glazing, which give the ware a beautifully mottled and polished finish.

There is one plant in Lawrence County manufacturing high-grade building brick, the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company, at Blackfork. Concerning this, Mr. S. P. Reitz, the secretary and treasurer, reports as follows:

We are mining from 4 to 5 feet of fire clay, which is overlaid with Lower Kittanning coal, the thickness of which is 2 feet 10 inches. After we mine the clay the coal is taken down and is used at the brick plant. This land also contains shale, but up to the present time we have not used this class of material.

The brick plant consists of one 9-foot Stevenson dry pan, one combination pug and auger machine, one automatic cut-off, made by E. M. Freese & Co., C5alion, O., one Victor repress, manufactured by Raymond Bros. Co., Dayton, O., two 72 x 17 tubular boilers, one 125-H. P. slide-valve, Houston, Stanwood-Gamble engine, and one IngersoU-Rand air compressor, which is used for drilling in the limestone mines, and which also furnishes air to the mine pumps. We have 8 dry tunnels w'ith a capacity of 48,000 brick, one fan taking heat from the kilns and driving it into the tunnels, and another fan located on the opposite side taking off the moisture of the brick. We have 7 kilns with a capacity of 70,000 brick each. Clay and coal are delivered to the plant by overhead tramway. The Lower Kittanning coal is used for burning brick, and the Clarion coal for steam purposes. We employ 40 men at the brick plant, and 50 in the mines. We manufacture face brick and machine made fire brick, making both grades out of fire clay. The building brick come out in buff shades, running from light to dark.

The building brick manufactured by this firm are very handsome buffs and iron clay mottles, the equal of any made in the State. The shades run from solid buffs to light buffs, with small iron spots, and to very dark buffs virith the iron drawn out in large black blotches. The brick are vitrified; hence they are impervious to water, which qualification is in demand at present for all high grade work. These brick do not stain and weather as porous partially vitrified brick do, and they may be cleaned if necessary. The Lower Kittanning clay is used largely by the stoneware potters of this State.

1. It must be plastic, so that it can be spun and molded into any desired shape, without the expenditure of any excessive power in preparation or the use of excessive strength in turning. There is a great difference in clays in this respect, which in others meet equally well the demands of the business.

2. It must be refractory enough to stand up well and keep its shape at a heat sufficient to melt the clays used for glazes, or to take a good salt glaze on its surface. This condition is of the utmost importance; a fusible clay will cause the manufacturer a regular percentage of loss in every kiln, which can be avoided entirely by using a stronger clay.

3. While keeping its shape at this heat, it ought to be undergoing a process of vitrification which, while not being sufficiently marked to make the ware brittle or glassy, still makes the body practically impervious to water. Much stoneware is now made that does not fill this condition, as it is not vitrified at all and depends upon its glaze to make it impervious.

4. When l)urnt with a continuously clear fire or oxidizing atmosphere, it ought to present a clear and uniform tint, varying from light straw yellow or buff when rather soft burnt, to a clear stone gray or blue color when hard. If the clay shows, on short exposure to a smoky flame, a brown tint or scum, it will be undesirable, as it is always likely and almost sure to be exposed to reducing influences in a 40-hours burn, and a brown color is unpopular in the market.

5. Blotches, pimplesi blisters, or any other eruption on the surface of the ware which are due to impurities in the clay and not to faults of burning, will rule the clay out, no matter if all other qualities are correct.^

The Lower Kittaiming clay in Lawrence County has not been tested for this purpose, but undoubtedly large quantities suitable for stoneware exist as it varies from clay high in alumina to that high in silica. It is quite free from iron nodules, pyrite, and sand concretions. It is plastic and refractory, but vitrifies to a good dense body.

The Lower Kittanning coal is of good quality for burning this class of ware, and in some localities, where the clay is suitable, both coal and clay could be taken from the same entry, thus making the mining of both economical. Conditions are favorable for the establishment of this industry, as stoneware clays of excellent quality can be mined at a low cost, as the coal associated with the clay is of good quality and may be utilized for burning the ware, as the shipping facilities by rail and river are good, and as the local and western markets are open.

Another large and important branch of the clay industry is the manufacture of hollow ware, such as sewer pipe, fireproofing, and flue linings. These are made from both shales and fire clays. The three classes of ware will be considered together, as they are often made by the same machines. The main qualifications for this class of ware are the following:

1. The drying and burning shrinkage should be low in order that the strains thus produced will not crack the ware. Much ware is lost through this defect. In fireproofing the shrinkage is important also, as the limit in the size of the ware is usually very narrow.

2. They should form plastic muds in order to flow readily through the dies; but the mud should not be too plastic, as this produces lamination of the column, which later causes defects in the ware.

3. The clays should be free from hard concretionary matter, as this causes trouble in the dies, and as it generally slags during the burning, producing blisters or blotches.

4. Sewer pipe clays should be such that they vitrify to a good dense body which still retains its shape. Fireproofing and flue linings are not burned to vitrification, so but little trouble is experienced.

5. Sewer pipe clays in burning should go to a good smooth natural finish, or should take a salt glaze to produce that required. With the other classes of ware this finish is not essential.

Siliceous shales and clays usually meet these requirements, and both are found in large quantities at the Lower Kittanning horizon. At present (1913) there are no sewer pipe plants in the region, but the Cambria Clay Products Company is contemplating building a plant in the near future. The conditions for the success of a sewer pipe plant are favorable, as large quantities of available clays and shales of excellent quality for this ware are found in the region; coal of excellent quality for fuel is associated with the clays and shales; the competition is not severe, as the closest plants are near Steuben ville; and the shipping facilities to the westel-n markets are good.

The shales at this horizon are of good quality for the manufacture of paving, sewer, and building brick, of tile, etc. They have been used at one plant only to any considerable extent. The Petersburg Fire Brick & Tile Company, at Coalgrove, are using these shales in the manufacture of building and paving brick and of drain tile. They also manufacture fire brick from the flint and plastic clay of the Lower Kattanning horizon, and prepare gtoister for the market, Mr. John Peters reports as follows:

We have about 7 feet of plastic fire clay and about 20 feet of shale. This shale makes paving brick of the very best quality. JWe also have some fUnt fire clay. Here the Lower Kittanning coal ia 40 inches thick and the Sheridan coal 38. Our brick plant has a capacity of 10,000 per day. We have a ISO-horse power engine and boiler. Grinding and mixing the materials are done in one wet and one dry pan. The ware is dried on two floors and burned in 4 kilns. The company owns 275 acres of land on which are found clay, coal, and ganister.

Lower Kittanning Coal

The next member is the Lower Kittanning coal which outcrops in the entire western part of the county. This bed is by far the most important coal stratum in Lawrence County, and has been the main source of the local fuel supply for many years. Notwithstanding this, only a small part of the field is exhausted. The region along the Ohio River has been the most largely worked.

In Perry Township, which fronts on the Ohio River, the bed averages about 3 feet of clean coal with a clay parting of 6 to 10 inches between the lower and upper bench. On Ice Creek, below the mouth of Turkey Fork, the parting thickens locally and in one place shows 8 feet. Along the lower part of the Storms Creek Valley in Upper Township the coal has good thickness, but it thins farther up the valley or in the northern part of the township where in places only a few inches were seen. In the western part of Lawrence Township also it is thin and bony, while in Hamilton and in the western part of Upper Township, as a geneml thing, the bed is well developed. It reaches its maximum development in Lawrence County, in Elizabeth Township, and it has fair volume in most of Decatur and Washington townships.

The prospects of the Lower Kittanning coal holding good thickness as it extends eastward under heavy cover are not encouraging in the northern part of the field. In this region west of Symmes Creek it is easily within shafting distance. The bed in its most eastern exposure on Buffalo Creek, in the region near the Rehmer School, is bony and of little importance. On the headwaters of Pine Creek southeast of Moulton it is thin and in places is represented only by finger coal in the sandstone. On the headwaters of Little Pine and

Cannons creeks it has good thickness, but on the headwaters of Storms Creek where the coal goes under cover it is thin and bony. This condition holds southward on Storms Creek to below Cliffside. The Middle Kittanning coal comes to the surface on Buffalo and south on Symmes Creek for some distance. It goes under cover just above Waterloo. The Middle Kittanning coal is also seen on Johns Creek and its tributaries and on Aaron Creek, and it just appears in the bed of the stream on Elkins Creek. The interval from the Lower Kittanning to the Middle Kittanning coal averages about 40 feet, so that in this region the bed could easily be obtained by shafting. The Upper Freeport coal is found along the Symmes Creek Valley from the northern boundary of the county to Marion. The interval from Ijie Lower Kittanning to the Upper Freeport coal averages about 120 feet, consequently the Lower Kittanning coal in this whole northern area from the Symmes Valley west would be available, but the indications are that it is poorly developed, especially along its eastern exposure. No drill records Were obtained, but part of the territory has been prospected by the Symmes Valley Coal Company.

In the southern part of the field the prospects for the Lower Kittanning coal to hold its thickness eastward imder heavy cover are slightly better. Wl^ere the Lower Kittanning coal goes under cover on Sugar Creek near the Ironton road, on Ice Creek near the mouth of Turkey Fork, and on Little Ice Creek near Forestdale, it has good thickness. On Dog and Ned forks and on Ice Creek to Rock Camp the Upper Freeport coal is above drainage, so the Lower Kittanning coal which is about 120 feet below is easily within shafting distance. No drill records were obtained. The conditions are such that this territory east of its eastern outcrop in the southern part of the county well warrants thorough prospecting.

The best part of the Lower Kittanning coal fields has been worked for many years, but large tracts of good coal are yet available. Ironton, Coalgrove, and Hanging Rock have drawn most of their fuel supply from the mines in the southern part of the field. Much of the local domestic supply is furnished by small wagon mines. The railroad mines on the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton, on the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and on the Newcastle & Ohio River railroads furnish part of the local supply, and also ship to outside points. The most important mines in the southern part of the field are listed below.

Scherer and Hughes operate small mines at Madyville. The coal is delivered from the mines to the consumer by wagon only. They use about 9 men in mining. B. F. Lynd has wagon mines on the front hill east of Ironton and employs 6 men. The Petersbiu-g Fire Brick and Tile Company operates mines near Coalgrove for fuel for the brick plant, and also sells some for domestic use.

front hills east of Ironton, and the coal is taken from the mines to the works on a tram road. There are a number of small mines on Little Ice Creek, which deliver coal by wagon to Coalgrove and Ironton. Near Hecla Furnace and on Sugar Creek a few small wagon mines are operated. The Hanging Rock Iron Company works extensive mines near Newcastle, which have been in operation for many years. It mines coal, limestone, and clay, and has its own railroad, Newcastle & Ohio River, for delivering the coal from the mines to the furnaces or market. The mining along the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railway is the most extensive carried on in Lawrence County. The Ginn Company's mines, south of Vesuvius Station, are well up on the hill, so that the coal is taken by an incline from the mouth of the mines to the tipple at the railroad. Mr. L. W. Ault, secretary of the company, describes the equipment as follows:

For power in hauling we are using a Davis storage battery mine locomotive which is only 28 inches high and which does most of the gathering. The large haul from lay oflf to top of incline is still done by mules. Our coal is let down from the top of the hill to tipple by means of a drum and wire rope; the load going down polls the empty up. We have a 20-hor8e power generator run by a gasoline engine, which operates the fan also, for recharging the battery in our locomotive. When running full we employ about 50 men.