Scioto Township (part 6 of 14)

The Tionesta coal resembles the two Mercer coals in many respects, but it is less pure than the highest member of Upper Mercer. The coal in the benches has a blocky structure, which allows the fuel to be mined in lumps, with only a small loss in fine material. It is a free-burning fuel, and is moderately low in ash, which is clay-like in character. The soot produced during the combustion of the coal is not troublesome; hence it is liked for domestic purposes. It contains more sulphur than the underlying Mercer coals, but much less than the Clarion coal of the Allegheny formation. The sulphur in the coal is in the form of iron disulphide, and is distributed irregularly along the bedding planes. When all properties are considered, the Tionesta coal is a very good domestic and general purpose fuel. The operators of Buckhom Furnace experimented with this coal for iron smelting, but their tests were not satisfactory.

The Tionesta clay lies directly below the Tionesta coal. When normally developed this clay is light colored, and quite free from fluxing impurities, but it is nearly everywhere siliceous in character. The thickness of the bed shown on the outcrop is 3 feet 6 inches at Lawrence Furnace, 3 feet near Olive Furnace; 5 feet in the northwestern part of Decatur Township; 5 feet on the Hansgen property, on Brady Creek, and 5 feet in the northwestern part of Washington Township. In Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships the average thickness of the clay is nearly 4 feet, while that of the overlying coal is about 1 foot 8 inches. Considered conjunctly, these beds are worthy of attention for ceramic purposes. The clay is well fitted for high-grade building brick, and it may be employed also in the manufacture of stone ware, paving block, and sewer pipe. In some localities this clay assumes the phase of a clay-bonded sandstone, which may be utilized for acid refractory ware. The Tionesta clay at present is not worked at any place in Lawrence County.

Many feet of shales of good quality for ceramic products are shown in the interval from the Tionesta coal to the Clarion clay. The shales in the upper part of this interval are in the Allegheny formation, but as there is no definite break in the deposits, and as the composition of the shales throughout the entire interval is much the same, they will be considered at this place. All the gradations can be found from a soft fine-grained gray shale, or a plastic clay to tough blue shale, dark fissile shale, carbonaceous shale, black band ore, bony coal, or sandstone.

Some of these varieties are unsuited for ceramic purposes. The tough thin-bedded blue or black shales often spall when subjected to heat. In burning ware made from such shales this action may completely disrupt it. Shales with high iron content fuse at low temperatures under reducing heat, as the iron oxides, which are reduced from the higher to the lower state, attack the silica to form low fusing silicates. Carbonaceous shales, with considerable iron oxide, cause trouble in burning, as they act much the same as the shales with the high iron content under reducing heat conditions. If the carbon is not oxidized at low red heat, it reduces the iron with the formation of iron silicates or slags, which, by flowing at moderate temperatures, deform the ware.

The varieties best suited for ceramic ware are the soft gray or ordinary shales, the arenaceous shales, and the clay shales. The drying and burning shrinkage coefficients of ware made from the different varieties of shales vary greatly. The total shrinkage in ware made from the fine-grained shales, or those high in fluxes, is generally sufficient to cause warping or checking of the ware. Coarse-grained arenaceous shales have low shrinkage usually, and make ware that retains its shape well through the drying and burning stages. The shrinkage of the clay shales is about intermediate between the fine-grained and the arenaceous shales. The fine-grained shales generally vitrify early to a dense mass. The arenaceous shales, where the proportion of sand is

The color developed in the ware made from the shales is also of importance, and is due largely to the quantity and disseminated condition of the iron, to the quantity of lime and clay substance, and to the state of oxidation and vitrification. For paving brick, color and texture are important, but texture is by far the most so. A dark color is usually wanted, as this seems to indicate a better state of vitrification. The texture must be such that the brick are tough, or will withstand long abrasive strains. Toughness in ware is secured where two classes of components are active; one class is made up of those materials that fuse and bond, and the other of those that remain rigid or unaffected. When these classes of components are properly adjusted, the texture of the ware is stony and dense. Ware of this character is very tough and durable. Where the mass vitrifies to a glass, the ware is brittle, and where no vitrification takes place, it is porous and fragile. Shales containing coarse sand are well suited for this grade of ware, as the finer parts vitrify, while the coarser particles remain unaffected. Such shales go to a good dense, tough mass, with low shrinkage, and generally with good color. Mixtures of shales and clays also give good results, as the shale vitrifies much earlier than the clay.

For sewer pipe the materials must have practically the same qualities as for paving brick. The ware must be tough to withstand shipping and handling; further, it must be vitrified to prevent absorption and abrasion. The color desired by the trade varies from dark red to brown or to nearly black.

Almost any shale may be used in making common brick, as color and shape are of little importance. For wire cut, or pressed building brick, shape, texture, and color are of value. The brick should have straight faces and edges. Warped, dished, or checked ware is very undesirable, as it does not lay up well in the wall. The trade at present prefers a partially or completely vitrified brick, on account of the low absorption. The color should be pleasing to the eye, but the shades desired vary with the individual taste.

Roofing tile should be strong and tough to withstand the strains. Both semi- and completely vitrified tile are found on the market. A good bright cherry red is the color most desired. Weathered shale is better fitted for this class of ware than the unweathered, for in the former the iron is oxidized principally to the ferric state, the fluxes are low from leaching, and the carbon has been largely removed by oxidation.

Each stratum of shale should be tested to find for what particular ware it is best fitted. Mixtures of the different shales found in the same interval should also be made and tested. In these tests the following points should be noted.

Ease of Grinding. - Most shales require grinding or long weathering to reduce them to the necessary state for working into ware. The dry pan is the most common machine employed for the reduction of the material, but chasers and wet pans are used in some places. For most shales the dry pan is the cheapest and most efficient method. A 9-foot dry pan will reduce from 50 to 100 tons per day of ordinary shale. The kind and amount of grinding machinery necessary for a certain capacity of plant depends on the ease of reduction.

Ease of Developing Plasticity. - The ease of developing plasticity determines the method to be followed in the preparation of the ground shale for its formation into w^are. In the dry processes a certain degree of steaming or aging is necessary, while in the stiff and soft mud process pugging only is required. The extent of this action depends on the ease of developing plasticity, which in most shales is readily produced.

Ease of Forming Into Ware. - The forming or manufacture of the materials into ware is accomplished in several ways. Hand molding for common brick is occasionally practiced. No difficulty is experienced, as the soft mud used is easily shaped into the desired forms. Soft mud machinery is also used to a limited extent. Stiff mud machinery is the common method used in the manufacture of brick, sewer pipe, and roofing tile. The main point is the behavior of the mud as it flows through the dies. When the column is formed by the auger machine, laminations, cracks, and unequal densities are to be observed. IjCSS lamination occurs when the plunger machine is used. In the dry process filling out the comers and bonding the mass are the main results to be accomplished.

Drying Behavior. - Checking and warping are vital points, as these defects make the ware unmarketable. They are produced by the strains set up in the ware due to drying, or to the manner of making, or to both. Auger machine-made ware shows these defects most. The drying shrinkage should be carefully measured. When this is high, checking and warping usually develop either during the drying or the burning of the ware. This defective ware may amount to several per cent of the total output. The rate and method of drying should be determined, as the kind and capacity of the drier used depend on these. As a general thing, ware made from the coal formation shales dries quickly and safely. The toughness of the dried ware should also be taken into account, as the breakage in handling, when the ware is fragile or tender, is an important item of loss.

Scumming. - This is important, only, where the color of the burned ware must be considered. In face brick and roofing tile it is a serious defect, as the discoloration is offensive to the eye. But little attention 's paid to it in sewer pipe and in paving brick. It is caused by the

Temperature and Range of Vitrification. - That temperature at which the fluxing or bonding components have combined, with those giving rigidity to the mass to form the strongest and best developed structure, is considered in clay working the vitrification temperature. The structure of the body, as previously stated, depends on the relative quantities of these two classes of components. When the fluxing components are low, the body Will be open and porous; when high, it will be stony or even vitreous. There is one temperature at which the structure of the body is best developed, and this temperature depends principally upon the composition of the ingredients.

The range of vitrification is that period in the burning which begins with incipient vitrification and extends to complete vitrification, or to where the ware softens and deforms. During this period the ware has a good structure, while below it the ware is soft and porous, and above it the product is vitreous and deformed. This range varies with the composition and with the texture of the different materials. If the range is long, little difficulty will be experienced in burning the ware, but if short, the danger of over or under burning is greatly increased.

Structure of Mature Body. - The structure of the body required varies somewhat for the different classes of ware, and also for different grades in some of the classes. For paving brick it should be dense and stony, as they must be hard, tough, and non-absorbent. Much the same structure is demanded for sewer pipe, and for roofing tile. For the better grades of building brick the trade at present requires a well vitrified body especially for outside work. The demand is for brick that absorbs but little if any Water, and that does not discolor easily. For filler brick an open porous structure is generally preferred.

Burning Behavior. - Warping, dishing, and checking, during the burning process, depend largely on the strains set up in the ware during the drying process, augmented by strains due to heat action. The kiln strains are softening during the water smoking and vitrification periods, and fire shrinkage. The total drying and fire shrinkage of shales is usually from 1 to 1| inches per foot. Shales contain more or less carbonaceous matter which may cause trouble during the burning, especially if the carbon content is high, or if the body is very dense. This carbon must be oxidized at low red heat, or it causes a reduction of the iron oxide from the higher to the lower state, which then attacks the silica to form low fusing slags. This chemical and physical action causes bloating and deformation of the ware.

earths present. The iron oxide in shales varies ordinarily between 5 and 10 per cent. Ferric oxides are red, while the ferrous oxides or their compounds are dark. The color of the ware depends on the state of oxidation, which may l)e varied by the method of firing. For the production of a red color an "open" fire with excess of air is required, and for that of the dark colors a '*tight" fire with insufficient air is necessarj'. The finish or dark glaze required for paving brick is produced by reducing conditions during the later part of the bum.

The various strata in the interval have not been tested bv the Siirvey; so definite information on them cannot be given. Deposits should be thoroughly tested to find for what particular wares they are best fitted before any development is undertaken. ^luch expense and labor can be avoided by so doing. Lawrence County has a wealth of clay well suited for the manufacture of high-grade building brick, and sewer pipe, and of shales which are superior for paving brick and roofing tile.

An analvsis of the shales below the Ferriferous limestone at the Superior Portland Cement Company's plant is reported by Mr. E. C. Switzer as follows:*

The ceramic industry is poorly represented in Lawrence County, although many conditions are quite favorable for the success of clay product enterprises. The quantity of the materials is large, and the quality good; further, the cheap coal, of which the county produces large quantities, could be used as fuel, thus affording the best possible market for this material. When properly selected or mixed large deposits of these shales are well fitted for the manufacture of paving and building brick, sewer pipe, and roofing tile. In the manufacture of paving brick the plants in this region would have to compete with the Portsmouth plants, which are well located, but have a costly fuel supply. For red brick, sewer pipe, or roofing tile, the competition would not be severe.

Allegheny Formation

The Allegheny formation is the most important division of rocks appearing at the surface in Lawrence Comity. It begins with the Brookville or No. 4 coal and ends with the Upper Freeport or No. 7 coal. Other well known members are the Clarion coal, Ferriferous limestone and ore, Lower Kittanning coal and clay, Middle Kittanning coal, and Lower Freeport coal. The rocks of this formation are best exposed in Upper, Hamilton, Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships, although they are present also in Perry, Fayette, Lawrence, Aid, Symmes, and Mason townships.

In Lawrence County the Brookville coal, locally known as the Conway, is generally wanting, or is represented only by a stain, but in a few localities in the southern part it thickens to 12 or 18 inches. This coal has been mined along the outcrop at a few places in Upper Township, north of Ironton, but the bed is of little importance at present. It is exposed in the road tunnel just north of Ironton, where the following section was taken: p^ j^

North of the tunnel the Brookville coal was observed on the outcrop at a few places, but the bed was thin and impure. In the northern part of the county the coal, in most of the area, is replaced by thick sandstones. As the coal is thin, and as the associated beds have no practical value, the member will not be traced in a detailed way. The thin ore bed at this horizon was mined to a very small extent for the charcoal furnaces. The deposits are very local, and the quality of the ore poor. The position of the Brookville coal is from 15 to 35 feet below the Ferriferous limestone.

Clarion Or Hecla Sandstone

The position of the Clarion or Hecla sandstone is between the Brookville and Clarion coals. The thickness of the member varies from place to place, but it is usually from 15 to 30 feet. This sandstone extends northward from the Ohio River across Upper, Hamilton, Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships into Jackson County. As many sections showing the position and thickness of the Clarion sandstone are given elsewhere in this bulletin they will not be repeated here.

From the Clarion or Hecla member most of the sandstone used in building and lining the charcoal furnaces in Lawrence County, and also in Jackson, was obtained. Jefferson Furnace, near Oak Hill, Jackson County, the only active charcoal furnace in Ohio at present, has been relined with this material for over 60 years. The rock has excellent, fire resisting qualities, and is chemically constituted to withstand the action of acid slags. In Lawrence County the deposit of Clarion sandstone near Coalgrove is worked for shipment by John Peters, and it is known locally as *'fire stone". This sandstone has a light yellow color, and is composed of quartz and feldspar sand of medium sized grains, with a small quantity of clay and iron oxides for the bonding component. In conjunction with a dense sandstone called a ganister, and found at the base of the Clarion clay, the Clarion sandstone is mined by stripping and prepared for the market. The material is sold to the trade both in a block form and in a crushed state. A small quantity of clay is usually added to the natural stone before it is ground in the dry pan.

An analysis of the sandstone, made by W. M. Barnett, shows that it contains about 88 per cent silica, while two analyses of the prepared material, also made by the same person, are compared below with that of a mica schist, which is used in steel works for the same purpose as the sandstone:

The material is used in lining cupolas, Bessemer converters, and ladles. The principal markets are the steel plants at Ashland, Kentucky, and at Columbus, Ohio. The output of both the prepared and natural sandstone and ganister is about 5,000 tons per year.

Canary Ore

The Canarj'' ore lies at the base of the Clarion clay, and is found at only a few places in Lawrence County. It is a kidney ore of a yellowish color, and is low in iron. The bed was worked, to a small extent, by stripping, during the active period of the charcoal furnaces. At present the Canary ore has no value worthy of consideration.

Clabion Coal And Clay

In Lawrence County the Clarion coal is found in good development only in Washington and in northern Decatur townships. From central Decatur Township south to the Ohio River, the position of the member is marked by a thin stain of rotten coal or carbonaceous olay« The underlying Clarion clay, however, in this county, reaches its maximum thickness in the area south of the coal field. In fact, the clay is usually thin and siliceous where it is overlaid by coal. The Clarion clay is found not only in Washington and Decatur townships, but also in Elizabeth, Hamilton, and Upper. The coal lies directly below the Ferriferous limestone, or about 30 feet above the base of the Allegheny formation. The normal position of the Clarion clay is directly below the coal, but owing to the absence of the coal bed in the southern part of the county it lies just below the Ferriferous limestone. See Map IV facing page 318.

Upper Township. - In Upper Township the Clarion coal is marked only by a stain, but the clay has normal development in most of the area. Further, at the base of the clay, there is present in local districts a hard siliceous material which is called ganister. A section taken on the John Peters property, near- Coalgrove, shows the relation of the Clarion clay and ganister to other members. The measurements follow:

This ganister is local in extent, but it is found also in small areas at other places in the county north of this. At the plant of the Ironton Portland Cement Company, A. C. Steece reports that the Clarion clay is from 6 to 10 feet in thickness, and is of good quality for briek making. On Hog Run the clay is about 8 feet in thickness, and the underlying ganister, which is locally developed, is from 1 to 2 feet. In the northern and western parts of the township the Clarion clay is very unsteady, and the ganister was not observed.

Perry Township. - The Clarion clay is present in places along the courses of Ice and Little Ice creeks, in the western part of Perry Township, but the coal is wanting. When the clay is present, it is from 3 to 8 feet in thickness, and quite siliceous in character. The ganister has been worked near Forestdale for the steel plants at Ashland, Kentucky. On Little Ice Creek north of the Bearing road, on the property of Charles Schaefer, the beds where exposed measured as follows:

Hamilton Toimship. - The Clarion coal is wantmg in all of Hamilton To^Tiship, while the clay is present only in isolated areas, and is seldom more than 3 or 4 feet in thickness. It is^ of the usual siliceous character, and gradates into sandstones. The position of the beds is well toward tKe summits of the main ridge.

Elizabeth Township. - The horizons of the Clarion coal and clay are above drainage in nearly all of Elizabeth Township. Their positions are near the summits of the high knobs on the main ridges in the western part, but owing to the descent of the rocks to the east and south they are at drainage level along the courses of the streams in the eastern part. The Clarion coal is marked only by a smut streak, but the Clarion clay is present in force in all the township except that part south of Little Pine Creek and west of Pine Grove Furnace. In the northern and eastern parts of this township the clay has excellent volume and continuity; in fact, it is better represented here than in any other part of Lawrence County. At Lawrence Furnace the Clarion clay is quite thick and is well fitted for ceramic uses. It is plastic, light colored, somewhat siliceous, and is low in iron and other fluxing compounds. A measurement obtained just east of the furnace is given below:

At the mines of W. R. Maxey, one mile west of Lawrence Furnace, the Clarion coal is represented by about 6 inches of black carbonaceous material, but the Clarion clay, the lower part of which is very siliceous, is 9 feet in thickness. Near the head of Darby Creek the clay was again well exposed for measurement, and the thickness is 7 feet. The following record was taken at the mines of E. B. Willard, near Bartles Station:

Decatur Township. - In a general way the Clarion coal has excellent volume and continuity in Decatur TowTiship north of a line drawn from east to west through Moulton, while south of this the member is marked only by a thin bed of decayed coal or by a smut streak. The Clarion clay, however, is best developed in the area in which the coal is wanting. The horizons of the beds are found well up on the hills in the western part of the township, and pass from view near the headwaters of the streams that rise on the main ridge, which extends along the eavStern border. At the mines of Michael Riley, near Center Station, the Clarion clay measures 5 feet in thickness, but the coal is scarcely represented. In the southwestern part of the township the following

Near the head of Bear Run, E. C. Switzer reports the Clarion coal to be.l foot 3 inches in thickness. Just across the main ridge north of this, at the head of Young's Branch, a heavy blossom of this coal is exposed in the bed of the stream. The coal was not sufficiently solid for measurement, but Luther Rankin stated that the bed under cover was 4 feet in thickness. The member is somewhat unsteady in this locality, but the blossom of the coal was observed at a few places on the hill west of this stream, near the mouth of which the record given below was obtained:

In the hills east of the creek the coal was not seen, although the member, Mr. Rankin states, has fair volume at a few places. At the head of Howard Run the Clarion coal has been mined, but, as the entries had fallen, no section could be obtained. William Clutts reports the total thickness of coal and partings to be nearly 7 feet. In Buckhorn Hollow the blossom was seen at several places, and the coal was formerly mined in the bed of the creek near the head of the hollow. A. J. Goody reports that the Clarion coal is well developed near the head of the hollow, but. that it is thin or wanting towards the mouth. Further, he states that it thins by replacement of the upper coal benches by sandstones. West of Moulton the sections show 3 feet of clay, but no coal below the limestone. In Branch Hollow, southwest of Moulton, the coal is wanting, but the clay is present. The section obtained near the mouth of Painter Creek. shows that the Clarion coal has normal volume, and that the clay, although somewhat siliceous, is 4 feet in thickness. The structure of the rocks is as follows:

On the north side of the hill, south of Painter Creek, the coal is reported by Frank Smith to be well developed, while on the south side of the hill the bed, he states, thins to 15 inches, or even less. It persists to near the center of the hill and then thins rapidly. In the hill north of Painter it has normal volume and excellent continuity. Mr. H. L. Moulton reports the Clarion coal in this region as follows:

It is well developed on Painter Creek. East of the railroad, south of Painter Creek, it b developed in Carmen Hollow, which is west of Jep Station, but is wanting in the hills south of this along the pike. The mines of the Hall Coal Company, which are idle at present (1912), are located east of Jep Station. The main entries are in the Painter Creek hill to the east, and the coal has practically the same volume as that found on Painter Creek. On the hill w^est of the railroad some mines have been worked. The coal has a normal thickness south of this to Caiinen Hollow. An east and west line through Moulton marks practically the southern limit of the Clarion coal in Lawrence County.

Up Nigger Creek a thick blossom was seen in several places, but the coal was not found opened. Near the head of the creek, Alfred M alone reports the total thickness of the coal and parting to be from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet. The following section was taken in the McGugin mine, near Olive Station, in northern Decatur Township:

Symmes Township. - The Clarion coal appears in the bed of Buffalo Creek near the Rehmer School, in Symmes Township, and this is its most eastern exposure in Lawrence County. John Rehmer states that the coal is 1 foot 6 inches in thickness, and that a small quantity of fuel has been obtained here by stripping. No drill records showing the character of the member imder cover in this area were obtained, but the continuity of the bed, where it passes from view in the northeastern part of Decatur Township, would indicate that there may be a small field of good coal in northwestern Symmes Township.

Washington Township. - -The Clarion members extend from Decatur Township northward across Washington into Jefferson Township, Jackson County. The beds are found near the summits of the main ridges in the western part, but, owing to the dip of the rocks at the east and south, they pass below cover west of the high ridge that extends along the eastern border. Both coal and clay are quite constant throughout the area, although at a few places they are replaced by sandstones. Further, in local areas, the upper bench of coal is wanting, or is in a decayed condition. The field of Clarion coal in Washington Township is an important asset to the mineral resources of Lawrence County. As the Clarion clay is usually thin and somewhat siliceous, and as it ranks far below the great overlying Lower Kittanning bed, its utilization is practical only where mined along with the coal, and where other conditions are favorable for the success of ceramic industries. Near the head of Olive Creek, in Section 35, the Clarion coal was seen in the road that leads from this stream to Indian Creek. At this place the coal is thin, as is shown by the following section:

About one mile further north, on Olive Creek, in Section 36, near the track of the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway, this coal is only 1 foot thick. James Donley reports the Clarion coal to be thin from Olive Station east along the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway to where it goes mider cover south of the timnel, but to have normal volume from Olive Furnace west to the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad. North of Olive Furnace, along the Ironton pike, the coal has been mined, and Mr. Donley reports it to be 3 feet 6 inches in thickness. Near the head of Brushy Fork, in Section 28, the structure of the coal is as given below:

Geology Of Southern Ohio

The coal is well developed on Brady Creek, and has been worked considerably for local use. Near the old stack of Pioneer Furnace several mines have been operated, but as they have fallen no measurement could be obtained, except on the outcrop, where the blossom of the coal was 3 feet thick. Near the head of the creek, at the Town House on the Ironton road, a section of a mine shows the structure of the bed as follows:

In Section 22, on the J. P. Hansgen property, about one mile east of Peach Orchard School, a record, taken on the outcrop, and given below, shows the thickness of the Clarion clay in this locality:

At the mines of the Bear Run Mining Company, east of Globe switch, in the northern part of Section 16, the structure of the Clarion coal, which is regularly mined in conjunction with the Ferriferoua limestone, is shown in the following record:

East of Eifort it has been mined for years for local use. No good section was obtained, but the coal is reported by John Haines to be well developed. A section in a mine of the Portsmouth Refractories Company, in Spencer Hollow, is as follows: p^ j^

Along the road that leads from Black Fork to Spencer, in the eastern part of Section 3, the Clarion clay was well exposed for measurement. The relation of this to other beds is shown in the following section:

Near the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company, in Black Fork Hollow, the Clarion coal is well developed, and the Clarion clay assumes a flinty phase. These features are shown in the record given below:

The Clarion coal has normal volume in Irish Hollow and on the main ridge south of this. The flinty phase of the Clarion clay was also observed, but the deposits are somewhat local in extent.

The clay on the Clarion horizon, as shown by the sections, is well developed, at least in parts of Lawrence County. In the southern portion of the coimty, as far north as Bartles Station, it has good thickness w^here the limestone is present, but farther north, where the coal overlies the clay, it is usually thin or siliceous. Near Spencer and Black Fork, in the northern part of Washington Township, a few feet of flint clay are found directly below the coal. The average thickness of clay in Elizabeth, Upper, and Hamilton townships is about 5 feet, with a maximum of 12 and a minimum of 2 feet. WTiere the deposit is thick the lower part is usually siliceous.

The clay is regularly mined and marketed at only one place in the county, and that is near Bartles Station, where E. B. Willard works it as a secondar>' product from the limestone mines. Crude clay is shipped from here to the fire brick works of the Charles Taylor & Sons Company, at Cincinnati, Ohio, and ground clay is also prepared for the iron and steel trade. A ^foot dr>' pan is used for grinding. The total output is about 3,000 tons per j'ear. A section of the mine shows the deposit to be 6 feet thick. Counting 60 per cent of the clay available in mining, the yield per acre would be 12,200 tons. The conditions for mining both clay and limestone are good, as the roof is a hea'V'A' sandstone. The analvsis of this clav, furnished bv E. B. Willard, is as foUow^s:

At Lawrence Furnace the clav is 8 feet and the limestone 7 feet thick. The materials above the limestone are shales and clays, which form a poor roof for mining. The best method would be to leave 2 feet of the limestone in place for a roof, which would give 5 feet of stone and 8 feet of clay to be taken from the same entry. The cost of drilling, shooting, loading, and hauling in this case, for both stone and claj', would be about 30 cents each per ton.

In the northern part of the county, where the coal appears, the clay is not well developed, as it is usually thin or siliceous, except in the extreme northern part where a few feet of flint clay are found. A section on Painter Creek, in the northern part of Elizabeth Township, show^s 4 feet of siliceous clay, and another on Olive Creek 3 feet. On Brady Creek, in Washington To\>'nship, the section on the Hansgen property givf s 5 feet of siliceous clay. Two feet of flint clay are found in places along Spencer Hollow and along Black Fork Creek. In this area clay, coal, and limestone may be taken from the same entry. The partings between the coal benches are usually plastic clays of fair quality, yet little of this would be available, for in mining the coal the clay would be mixed with fine coal, slate, and sulphur compounds. Mr. D. D. Davis, president of the Ohio Fire Brick Company, Oak Hill, Ohio, who has tested this clay, reports:

We have had no success with it in the making of fire brick. Its composition is fair, but the clay does not have the proper strength to withstand a high degree of heat; besides there is something in it that burns very brown, and discolors the brick. It is used by several fire brick producers as bonding clay, but we do not find it satisfactory'.

The uses of this clay may be summarized as follows: If is rot well fitted for the manufacture of high-grade refractory ware, and is inferior in quality to the Lower Kittanning clay found in the same region, or to the Sciotoville clay found farther west. At its best the ware made would be ratcel as low-grade, which woulel not compare with that made from either of the clays given above. The clay from the northern part of the area is considered by Mr. D. D. Davis to be not even a good bonding clay, while that from the southern area is of better quality, and is used for this purpose. The Clarion clay, however, is well fitted ^or the manufacture of building brick as it gives at maturity a good buff or iron mottled body, which is very resistant to weathering agencies and attractive to the eye. This use of the clay should be encouraged. Where the clay is quite siliceous in character, it has about the right composition for paving blocks. Such clays burn verjdense and have excellent toughness or abrasive resistance. Owing to the association of the Clarion clay with the Clarion coal and Ferriferous limestone, this bed offers good opportunities for increasing the industrial wealth of Lawrence County.

The ganister deposits in Lawrence County are confined to isolated patches in Perry, Upper, Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships. It is a dense light colored material very high in silica. It cortains root marks of lepidodendron and appears to have been formed at the beginning of the swamp period during which the Clarion clay anel coal were laid down. The composition of the material is showTi by the partial analysis of the dry ganister furnished by W. M. Barnett. The components determined are given below: Dried at

This material is prepared for the market by mixing three-fourths ganister with one-fourth clay, after which the batch is ground in a dry pan. The silica in the prepared material is shown by Barnctt to be 74.10 per cent. The ganister from the deposits near Coalgrove is being used, and is pronounced satisfactory; in fact, it compares favor- ably with the Pennsylvania ganisters, which are largely used. The stone is low in iron oxides and in clay and has a high fusion point. Its acid character well^ fits it for use in acid steel work, for which it is used at Ashland, Kentucky, and at Columbus, Ohio.

At present in Lawrence County the Clarion coal furnishes only a small part of the local fuel supply, but as the Lower Kittonning, which is of much better quality and the main reliance at present, becomes exhausted, this bed will become important, as the total area of the field is about 25 square miles, of which at least 15 square miles is productive territory, and as the mining conditions are fair. The relation of coal and limestone is also of interest, especially in mining, for by working the coal first an efiicient method of mining the stone ii opened. The Clarion coal is important and well developed in the northern part of Decatur Township and in the whole of Washington, where it is persistent and regular. The average structure shown by the 13 sections, not considering the bony bottom layers seen in a few places, is as follows:

This gives a thickness of 3 feet 1 inch for the coal, and of 8| inches for the clay and draw slate, or a total of 3 feet 9^ inches, which is sufficient height for ease in mining. If mule or electrical power is used in haulage, some material from the bottom may have to be removed in the entries. This bed, 3 feet 1 inch thick, will yield, if 60 per cent are available, 3,400 tons per acre. The specific gravity of the mine run coal is 1.35. >

The structure of the Clarion coal offers several obstacles to the successful mining and marketing of the fuel. The clay partings diminish the efifect of the explosives, and require additional shots to loosen the several benches. Further, removing the partings from the coal and getting them out of the way increases the expense. Some fine clay always remains with the coal, and of course this diminishes the value of the fuel. If the mine is very wet the clay forms a plastic mud, which sticks to or coats the coal, and which, on drying, has a light color. Such fuel has a bad appearance. Naturally, it also adds to the per cent of ash. The significance of thick partings is shown by the fact that the coal iTi the Clarion bed weighs 2,341 pounds and the partings 992 pounds side. Where the bed is cut by hand or by machine, these soft clay partings are an advantage, as they are much softer than the coal. Further, by cutting in the clay all the coal is saved. Most of the fuel mined from this member at present is "bunkered" or "shot off" the solid.

The roof of the Clarion coal is the Ferriferous limestone, which under heavy cover is of excellent character, as it is very solid, and as the joints, if developed, are thin. Along the outcrop and under thin cover it is generally blocky in structure from weathering along the joints. In this case mud partings from a few inches to a foot or more in thickness are found between the blocks, and these make the mining both difficult and dangerous. Further, the coal in such places is often weathered and worthless. Generally a few inches of "draw slate," which is taken down, separates the coal from the limestone. The lower surface of the limestone is quite uniform; hence but few small rolls are encountered. The floor materials vary in different sections. It may be either soft clay, clay shale, sandstone, or siliceous clay, but generally it is the latter. Soft clays are poor floor material ; for, where the pressure is great, the posts and coal blocks left for supports may be squeezed down into them. This tends to fill the entry ways with clay, the results of which require the tracks to be taken up and the clay to be removed. The area of coal left for ribs, stumps, and pillars must be much larger where floor materials are soft than where they are solid and firm. The sandstones and siliceous clays are excellent floor material. Where both a good roof and bottom are found a large per cent of the total coal in a bed is available. The Clarion coal in this region generally has both.

Soft clays are less expensive to remove from the entry ways for tracks and drains than the harder materials, but they are the source of more additional expense, because the tracks sink easily and require ballasting, and, also, the drains soon fill with material which must be removed. The floor of this coal is quite free from rolls or dips. Rolls cause wet places in the mine, or make expense in draining. The dip of the stratum should be considered, as ease of drainage and of haulage depends much on this gradient. The general dip is south of east; so the main entries should run in a northwesterly direction, which would allow the mine to drain without much experse. Further, under such conditions, the loaded cars will move down hill.

The associated materials are important. The Clarion coal has above it the Ferriferous limestone, which is well developed, and which is of good quality throughout the whole area, while the coal is underlaid by clays which are of fair grade and thickness in part of the territory. Coal, limestone, and clay may be taken from the same mine. The method followed is to mine the coal first, then remove the clay, and lastly "break down" the limestone, or a part of it. If the materials above the limestone make a poor roof, about two feet of limestone

Genemliv <"on^:d-r»^1. the oT^alrtv of the <>jal is rat«Ki low^ as the :?ulphiir and a.-h are ViOth hizh, and a? the latter clinkers freely. It s'houid be ciasr^^d a-» a fr*^ r.-iniin^ C'ltah ^ut ii* ^hi^ respH^-t it is inferior to the Lowf-r or Mid'ile Kit tannine fuels. It Kjttis fre^y as long as the volatile* niatt<^r is pa.-.^ii.e on, th«^n the residue of fixe»i carV«»>n bums slowly and with h«it litri<* Cam^. The c>al does not stand handling and 5hipp*r:g wf-l: as it is much joint^i, and as the lumj>5 are rather weak- Th*- Clanon is a coking otal. and the pr«>iuci is of good quality when stru'^tur*' al'>ne is cor rid^rvd. Th*=- c»-il strj«-t'jre is wt- U developed^ and the wall- ar»- thick and strong. The stricture is such that it would Yjf satisfactorv' for fuma*"^ us-^: for it WL»iild carrv a h»-av^' burden and have a iars*^ --urfa'-e of carr*>n expo^e«i to the gasfs. Cc»ke was made years ag«» from this c»>a] at Vinton Furnace in Welsh ovens for use in the charcixtl fumar**^-. ^»ut it proves! unsatisfactor>'. owing to the hi^ sulphiir conT#=-nt. Thf- remains of the ol«i ovens and a pile of the coke made may F^ >^n th^re at thiF^ present time. Mr. Wm. H. McGugin made a r^mall quantity of fi>ke from it at Olive Furnace. The physical prop^rti*s of this pr«>luct were go^^l.

Tut' suiph'ir in the Clarion cr»al occurs in thp forms of organic and iron «»ijphid*s. In th** pn»cf ss s of coking in us? at the present time only a^KiUt or.f-half the sulphur is eliminated, while the other half rf-mains in the coke. The av«^rage sulphur in four samples from hii^Tf 'Tif'*- CoJiTity, d^tf rmine<i by the Survey,^ is 4.S4 p»T cent, conse- CiJifri*iy. if only one-half were eiiminateil, and the yield in coke only *^Kj jf^T f'fvA, the sulphur in the pn>iuct would be 4.0^i per cent, which is far a hove the limit accepted at the present time for metallurgical jfirjfri r. Th'- avfriig^* ash in the four samples is 13.t» per cent, and if the er,Ke yii ]*{ w^re »iO per c^T.t the final product would contain 22.70 TfT f'^T* a-h. wr.i.-h \iMuI«i make it practically unmarketable. The -..Iphir cor*» i.y -f>< eifit d in coke is usually 1 pir cent or less, and the a-ri ur d* r 12 f>^r e^ vi. With the systen:s in use at prtsent in the wash- ;: g ar M e/.kjr ^ of ,oal it i> searc* ly possible that this cual could l>e purified * : o :z:i *ff u -ik^- a -Jiitu'r.l^- eok**.

Mine of McGugin & Company, section 7, Decatur Township, Lawrence County. The sample was cut from an old entry where the coal was weathered. Sampled in August, 1901, by Professor Edward Orton, Jr.

Mine of J. R. Edwards, section 23, Washijigton Township, Lawrence County. Sample cut 75 feet from entrance to mine where the coal was fresh. Sampled by Professor Edward Orton, Jr., in August, 1901.

Mine of McGugin & Company, Olive Station, Decatur Township, Lawrence County. Sample cut well under hill where coal was clean and bright. Sampled by Professor Edward Orton, Jr., in August, 1901.

Mine of Isaac Hall, section 15, Decatur Township, Lawrence County. Sample cut one-half mile from entrance. Surface of coal has been exposed two months. Sampled by Professor Edward Orton, Jr., in August, 1901.

The average calorific value for the four samples is 6,329 calories, which gives it a rating below the Lower or Middle Kittanning coals. For domestic use, coal with high sulphur content is objectionable, for in burning it gives off sulphur dioxide gas, which attacks the tissues of the throat and lungs. The average sulphur foimd in the Clarion Coal is about 4.50 per cent, which occurs principally in the form of iron pyrite and organic sulphides. During combustion, the latter, and part of the former, goes to sulphur dioxide gas, which, escaping with the other waste gases, produces the injurious effects. For steaming purposes the Clarion coal has some undesirable qualities, the most objectionable of which are the corrosive action of the sulphur on metal and the clinkering of the ash. The action of sulphur dioxide on metals is given by Somermeier as follows:

Upon the cooling of the flue gases the sulphuj^ dioxide, formed during the combustion of the coal, unites with water and forms sulphurous acid, which as such or upon further oxidation to sulphuric acid has a corrosive effect upon metallic structures. The corrosive action takes place after cooling and the popular idea that sulphur in coal causes corrosion of boiler tubes, etc., by action of sulphur dioxide is largely without real foundation.^

Where high temperature is carried in the furnace, the corrosive action on the metal grates is due largely to the sulphiu- held in the fused ash. During the combustion of the coal the oxidation of ferric sulphide is generally incomplete, and ferrous sulphide and oxide are formed. Ferrous sulphide fuses at a low red heat and this, with the low fusing compounds produced by the ferrous oxide combining with the silica and alumina of the ash, forms fluid slags which, coming in contact with the metal where the air supply is limited, causes the corrosive action on the grates which are soon eaten away or become brittle and break. The ash of this coal clinkers readily. An analysis of a sample of ash is as follows:

The iron shown in the above analysis was principally in the form of ferric sulphide in the coal, which under reducing conditions goes to either ferrous oxide or sulphide or both. Considering the iron present as ferrous oxide the bases present are as follows:

We have used this coal, hut it does not give as good results as the Lower Kittanning; for the Clarion clinkers freely and apparently contains more foreign matter.

The Clarion coal in burning makes much smoke and soot. Unless the draft is strong, this soon fills the flue system, which then requires cleaning by hand or by burning wood. The normal ash of the coal is high, and it decreases the value of the fuel as it lowers the carbon, content. The handlrag of this ash, both in the coal and when burned is also an added expense. A summary of the points for the Clarioni coal is as follows:

TLr F-rrif-rv'U^s or Vanport limf stone. an«l the Ferriferous or Baird «.»rv, the n^xT mriiJ^rs found in the Allegheny formation, have con- :r:'rute«i mu-'L to the prosperity and wealth of Lawrence County, and :h*-y l:i fair to a^id materially to its revenue for many years to come.

North of this along the lower course of Ice Creek the limestone and ore are somewhat steady. The Ironton Portland Cement Company used this limestone for several years in the manufactiu'e of their product, but at present they use the Maxvilie which has great thickness and high purity. A. C. Steece reports that in this locality the Ferriferous ore varies from 6 inches to 1 foot 6 inches in thickness, and that the limestone measures from 4 to 6 feet. Along Sugar Creek south of the Marion Road the limestone and ore are normally developed. Near the road tunnel just north of Ironton a small oulying patch of these rocks is found, while along Storms Creek both beds are unsteadJ^ The limestone is present in patches along the course of the stream in the northern part of the township, while the ore extends with some wants well towards its mouth. Much the same conditions as these are found along the course of Little Storms Creek, for both members are seldom present in force.

Hamilton Township. - The Ferriferous limestone is wanting in eastern Hamilton Township and in the western part it is represented more often by irregular masses of flint than by limestone. The ore, however, is somewhat more persistent than the limestone and has about normal volume. This bed varies in thickness from a few inches to 1 foot 6 inches, but in places it is admixed with irregular masses of flint.

Elizabeth Township. - As we pass from the river townships north- . ward into Elizabeth, both the Ferriferous members are present in force and with the characteristic development for which they are noted, also in Jackson and Vinton counties. The beds extend in nearly an unbroken sheet over all the township except that part west of Pine Creek, and that part south of Little Pine Creek and west of Pine Grove Furnace, in which areas the members are marked only by isolated patches of ore and flinty limestone. About one mile north of Royer Station at the limestone mines of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, the following measurements were made under favorable conditions:

In local areas in this vicinity the ore has exceptional volume as it expands to as much as 4 feet in thickness and appears to replace the entire bed of limestone. Analyses show that the ore is of exceptional quality also. In the vicinity of Pedro both limestone and ore are quite well developed, but in the extension of the members eastward to Storms Creek the limestone in many places is flinty and thin, while the ore holds normal thickness. Where measured, the ore varied from 6 to 12 inches in thickness, but the limestone seldom exceeded 5 feet. Near Lawrence Furnace the limestone, where examined, was from 5 to 8 feet in thickness, while the ore was from 2 to 10 inches.

One mile west of Lawrence Furnace, at the mines of W. R. Maxey, the limestone measured 7 feet 10 inches and the ore 8 inches. In this locality, also, two irregular layers of ore are pre^nt in the shale that overlies the regular deposit of Ferriferous ore. These upper beds each average about 5 inches in thickness. At the head of Darby Creek the rocks exposed measured ss follows: p^ j^

On Cannons Creek, east of Lawrence Furnace, the Ferriferous limestone is often flinty in character, but it has about normal volume. The ore varies in thickness from 1 inch to 1 foot. E. B. Willard mines the Ferriferous limestone by drifting near Bartles, where the following measurements were obtained: p^ j^^

Near Center Station both the Ferriferous members have good volume, and have been mined in a large way. The limestone is from 6 to 9 feet in thickness, while the ore varies from 4 to 12 inches. On the main ridge, south of Center Furnace, both members are generally present in force. In Elizabeth Township, west of Pine Creek, small patches of limestone and ore appear on the high knobs on the main ridge east of Irish Hollow.

Decatur Township. - The importance of the Ferriferous members in Decatur Township is attested by the fact that at least 6 charcoal furnaces drew all or a good part of their supply of ore and flux stone from the beds in this area. The volume and continuity of the members are excellent, and the direct association of the Clarion coal with them in the northern part of the township also increases their worth. The members will now be described in a more detailed way in order that the main features of these rocks may be rightly imderstood. At the mines of Michael Riley, near Center Station, the following record, which shows about normal volume of the members in this vicinity, was obtained in the mines:

In this locality the massive overlying sandstone forms an excellent roof for safety and ease in mining. These same general conditions also extend west of Center Furnace, where the following record was obtained at the mines of the Superior Portland Cement Company:

In Branch Hollow, southwest of Moulton, the Ferriferous limestone is somewhat patchy, and varies in thickness, when present, from 3 to 7 feet. The ore is quite steady, and is reported by David McFann to be about 1 foot in thickness. Further, the condition of the beds near Moulton is somewhat the same, while along the pike, near the head of Pine Creek, the limestone measured 6 feet. Near the mouth of Painter Creek, north of Moulton, the following record was obtained:

At the mines of the Buckhom Coal Company, near the mouth of Nigger Creek, the ore, limestone, and underlying coal all have excellent volxime. The record obtained follows: p^ j^

In Buckhom Hollow the limestone is usually thin, while in places it is wanting. The ore is rather steady, and in local areas is reported to expand to 2 feet or even more. The mean measurement of the bed, however, is from 8 to 10 inches. Along Youngs Branch, and along Willow Run also, the general features of the members are much the same as they are in Buckhom Hollow.

Symmes Township. - The Ferriferous members appear above drainage level in only one locality in Symmes Township, which is on Buffalo Creek, in the vicinity of the Rehmer School, where the following was measured: ^^ ,

Township since the erection of Olive Furnace in 1833. At present the ore is not regularly mined, but the limestone is worked in a large way for road ballast and for furnace flux. The members extend entirely across the township, and with few exceptions have normal volume and quality. Along Olive Creek, east of Olive Furnace, the Ferriferous limestone has an average thickness of about 6 feet, while the ore is reported to measure about 8 inches. At Ohve Station the following measurements were taken:

In the first hollow west of the furnace stack the limestone measured 6 feet and the ore 4 inches, while on Brushy Fork the ore in places is replaced by a thick sandstone, but the limestone is present in force. On the main ridge north of this both members are rather steady, but the limestone is often flinty in character, and the ore replaced in restricted areas by the thick overlying sandstone. On Brady Creek, near the Town House, on the Ironton Road in Section 23, the beds have the following volumes:

Other measurements taken west of this along Brady Creek show from 5 to 7 feet of limestone and from 1 to 10 inches of ore. In the central part of Section 16 the Bear Run Mining Company mines by drifting the Ferriferous limestone for flux stone at the Jackson furnaces, and the Clarion coal for the general market. Measurements taken at the mine follow:

Near the plant of the Portsmouth Refractories Company, in Section 10, the limestone measured 6 feet and the ore 6 inches. East of this, in Section 3, the measurements obtained follow: for road ballast and flux stone. This bed varies from 4 to 9 feet in thickness; while the ore usually measures from 2 to 10 inches. A section taken near the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company is given below:

During the days of the charcoal furnaces the Ferriferous limestone was used for flux stone, but at present it is extensively used not only for this purpose, but for cement, road ballast, concrete, and agricultural lime. Its value has steadily increased, and will probably continue to do so in the future, for increased quantities are required each j^ear, and other uses also arise. It is one of the most important beds found in Lawrence County.

The average thickness of the Ferriferous limestone shown by 56 sections is 6 feet 1 inch. In the southern part of the field the thickness seldom reaches 7 feet; while in the northern part it often measures from 8 to 9 fe^. The specific gravity is 2.68, so that the yield per acre where the rock is 6 feet 1 inch thick and 60 per cent is obtained would be 13,316 net tons. The total quantity available in the county is large and amply sufficient to supply the needs for many years.

Because the limestone is extensively mined by drifting, its roof is a matter of importance. Small areas in the region have sandstone above the limestone for roof materials. Nea^ the Ironton Portland Cement Company's plant, the sandstone lies close to the limestone. Another area, in which the relations are similar, is found from Lawrence Furnace north to Bartles and to Center Station, thence west to the Superior Cement Plant and also east from Lawrence Furnace to where the member passes below drainage on Cannons Creek. The sandstone also overlies the limestone from Olive Furnace west to the Lawrence County line, and also along the upper course of Brushy Fork. In the remainder of the region clay or shate forms the roof. The clays are soft and tender and contain many pressure cleavage planes, consequently mining under them is both expensive and dangerous. The shales form a better roof except where tender and much jointed. Where either clay or shale forms the roof, it is much safer and more economical to leave up part of the limestone.

The cost of mining depends largely on the structure and relation of the strata on the equipment and on the tonnage produced. Where part of the limestone is left for the roof, and the production is about 150 tons per day, John M. Hanes reports the cost for drilling, shooting, loading, and hauling to be about 30 cents per ton, but in large well- equipped mines this cost would be reduced sSmewhat. Where the limestone is mined by stripping, the cost depends on the thickness of the cover that must be removed and on the expense of shooting, loading, and hauling, all of wjiich Mr. Hanes reports to average about 25 cents per ton.

The Ferriferous limestone is much the same in character throughout the whole extent of the deposit with the exception that in some places flinty layers are foimd in the upper part. Near the head of Brushy Fork 3 feet of the upper part is cherty or flinty, and this condition was noted at other places. Generally these flint deposits are local in extent and are more abundant along the outcrop than imder heavy cover. The limestone is dense and hard, but rather brittle. The color varies from a light to a dark gray. The deposit is massive, but an irregular bedding plane is noticed about 1 foot 6 inches from the top. The quality of the stone is shown by the following analyses collected from various sources.

The analysis which is reported by the Belfont Iron Works Company, and which is representative of the stone from Lawrence Coimty used by them for furnace flux, is given below.

The analysis reported by the Globe Iron Company of Jackson, Ohio, of the limestone at the mines of the Bear Run Mining Company near Eifort is as follows:

The Superior Portland Cement Company reports the following analysis as representative of the limestone used by them in the manufacture of cement:

Analyses of samples taken from three carloads of limestone from the Morgan and Horton quarry near Eifort, Scioto County, which is close to the Lawrence County line, show the variation in the sulphur content. Analyses furnished by the Buckeye Steel Casting Company, Columbus, Ohio. Analyst, Downs Schaaf.

The normal calcium carbonate present in the limestone averages high. In some localities, however, the upper part of the stratum is flint, or it is flinty in character, and in a few places the entire deposit contains considerable siliceous material. Excluding these, the average for the deposit is about 93 per cent. Normally the magnesium carbonate present is low. In a few localities it runs to about 5 per cent; while in others it is below 1 per cent and on the average it is nearly 1.5 per cent. In this respect it is superior to the Trenton limestone in the Lehigh Valley cement district of eastern Pennsylvania. The silica or siliceous matter present, when the entire stratum is considered, varies between wide limits owing to the flinty or siliceous nature of the rock in certain regions. From what has been said the silica content will vary both with the locality, and with the part of the deposit considered. The range is from less than 1 to as much as 50 per cent silica.

The limestone also shows a wide variation in the iron content, which is due principally to the weathering of the overlj'ing Ferriferous ore. This ore was deposited as a blue ferrous carbonate in contact with the limestone, or with only a thin shale intervening. Percolating waters holding oxygen and carbon dioxide in solution attack the ferrous carbonate and change a part of it to ferric hydrate, which remains as an insoluble compound, but as ferrous carbonate is somewhat soluble they carry a small quantity of the Ferrous mineral down into the limestone below, where, with the aid of oxygen, ferrous carbonate reacts with the calcium carbonate, precipitating ferric hj'^drate and producing soluble calcium carbonate, which is thus carried away. This impregnation of the limestone by ferric oxide is seen only along the outcrop or under shallow cover where these agencies are active. Often the joints between the blocks of limestone are filled with this ore, and along the outcrop in some localities ferruginous clsLy masses occur below the deposit.

The alumina in the Ferriferous limestone varies from about .5 to 3 per cent, with an average of about 1.5 per cent. For the most part it is combined with silica and water in the form of kaolinite, but from some of the analyse/s, if correct, it is also a component of other minerals in which the content of alumina is greater. Most of the analyses given are really incomplete, as they fail to show the sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese. Sulphur and phosphorus are invariably present in appreciable quantities, and are important when the use of the stone is considered for metallurgical purposes. Most of the sulphur present in the limestone is found in the form of iron disulphide or pyrite, which can be detected usually by the eye. Occasionally small crystals of lead sulphide or galena are found. The amount of sulphur may run as high as .5 per cent. The phosphorus, which is normally from .05 to .30 per cent, and averages about .10 per cent, occurs principally in the form of calcium phosphate. Manganese is invariably present in small amounts, ordinarily in only a few hundredths of a per cent.

Cement. - This limestone is well suited for the manufacture of Portland cement, and compares favorably with the standard cement limestone used in the United States. Magnesia, sulphur, and alkalies are detrimental, and iron oxide, if high, is looked upon with disfavor. In composition it varies between the following limits:^

The silica and alumina in the Ferriferous limestone are in such proportions that shale or cl^,y is required to bring them to the proper ratio for cement. These are easily supplied, as shale or clay suitable for this purpose is found either with or close to the limestone deposit. The Superior Portland Cement Company uses either the shale that lies above the limestone, or the clay and shale that are found below it. In both cases the clay or shale and limestone are taken from the same entry. The York Portland Cement Company, now dismantled, of Portsmouth, Ohio, obtained its supply from the shale above the limestone. The magnesia is well below the limit demanded for this ingredient, as it seldom exceeds one per cent in the finished cement. The sulphur in the limestone, while objectionable, is not serious, although the quantities are from .1 to .5 per cent, as part of this passes off as gas during the clinkering. The high iron oxide in the limestone is looked upon with disfavor. In the cement the quantity usually demanded by the trade is not in excess of 5 per cent. The iron oxide in the limestone under heavy cover is low, but under thin cover or along the outcrop it may run to several per cent. This component is usually high in the shales, and additional iron oxide is introduced where coal is the fuel used in clinkering. The cement made at present from these materials is classed as high iron cement, but has a good reputation for quality, and is used by the United States Government for locks, dams, and public buildings. The iron oxide darkens the color of the cement, which is objectionable where light colored work is desired.

The Ferriferous limestone is used by the Superior Portland Cement Company in the manufacture of its product. A description of the plant furnished by its superintendent, J. B. John, follows:

The limestone is mined with Sullivan and Goodman mining machinery by undercutting the same as for coal. It is drilled with a Temple-Ingereoll drill. The limestone is gathered with a 5-ton electric locomotive and is taken to a tipple by a Goodman 12-ton electric locomotive.

The shale we use is the cuttings from under the limestone, which is also taken to the tipple by electric locomotives. The limestone is dumped by automatic crossover dumps into a No. 9 crusher, then passes through 2 No. 5's. The shale is run through a 9-foot dry pan and is taken to the mill on a conveyor belt; the limestone is treated likewise. The shale and limestone are then run through 60-foot dryers. After being thoroughly dried both are weighed and put through kominuters or ball mills, then the mixture goes to the tube mills where raw material is ground so that 95 per cent will pass through the lOO-mesh sieve. We have 3 kominuters and 5 tube mills in the raw department.

The ingredients are then taken to the kiln room where we have 4 kilns, 7^x125 feet long, in which they are burned to a clinker with coal previously pulverized in Fuller miUd. The clinker is then elevated to Mosser stationary coolers from which after cooling it is carried on a conveyor belt to the finishing department where it is ground. The preliminary grinding in the clinker mill is done with 2 Mosser crushers and 1 duplex Sturtevant, 6 Grifl5n mills, and 3 tube mills. After being ground in the finishing department it is carried to the stock house where it is stored in bins. The packing is done with 3 Bates valve bag machines.

Flux. - For fluxing purposes the value of a Ifanestone depends on the available bases present, and on the freedom of the stone from detrimental impurities. For blast furnace fluxes the active bases are lime, magnesia, and part of the manganese oxide, which in this limestone is usually low; hence it will not be considered further. The iron compounds are reduced, and the metal in them goes into the pig iron. The phosphorus, which also goes to the pig iron, if high, is detrimental in making a product for Bessemer steel. Sulphur is detrimental, as it decreases the available lime, and also saturates the slag, thus limiting the quantity of this element that can be taken from the molten iron in the furnace. Silica and alumina decrease the available lime, as they must be fluxed to form a slag.' Taking the limestone of about an average composition, the results will be as follows;

The average analysis of Piqua stone which is used mainly for the magnesia and phosphorus contents is reported by the Belfont Iron Works Company as follows:

The company used, during the time in blast in 1912, 19,000 tons of Piqua stone and 4,600 tons native stone. Also they are using Piqua stone exclusively at present on account of the high phosphonis in the native stone.

The limestone is of a very good grade for use as flux in a blast furnace. This company and one in Ironton, Ohio, use the limestone in their furnaces and obtain excellent results. This limestone is quarried both in the open and under ground. The stone from the open bed is obtained by stripping the upper surface, and that under ground by the usual method of drift mining. Our experience in the mining of this limestone has taught us that a much better grade of furnace flux is obtained from the under ground quiarry.

This company, in connection with the Star Furnace Company, has been opening up limestone territory in Lawrence County, abutting Jackson and Scioto counties, and has installed operations for the mining and handling of same. Approximately the two furnaces will use 50,000 tons limestone per year while in blast.

macadam roads, in this and the adjoining counties t^o the west, it id largely used, and has proved quite satisfactory. Mr. Charles Hutchinson, Commissioner of Lawrence County, regards the Ferriferous limestone superior to either the Cambridge or Brush Creek for road building. Mr. A. S. Rea, of the State Highway Department, states that tests made on the Columbus and Delaware limestones, which are used extensively for road building, and also tests on two samples of Ferriferous limestone from Lawrence County, show that the Ferriferous limestone is of good character for this purpose, and compares favorably with the two other limestones named.

Since most of the firms or private parties, operating mines or quarries, are producing both furnace flux and road material, they will be listed together. On the John Peters property, near Coalgrove, a small quantity of stone, mined by stripping, is quarried for furnace flux and road material. The Hanging Rock Iron Company operates mines near Royer Station for flux stone for its two furnaces. Lawrence Furnace, in Elizabeth Township, is using the Ferriferous limestone mainly for flux, which is obtained principally from two workings, that of E. L. Lambert, and that of Edward Kelley. Mr. Lambert mines by stripping, for the roof is shale and clay. At the mine of Mr. Kelley, less than one mile distant, the roof is sandstone; hence the limestone is worked by drifting. The total output amounts to about 20,000 tons per year.

E. B. Willard has well equipped mines near Bartles Station, in Elizabeth Township. The method of mining is by drifting, as the roof is a massive sandstone. About 45 men are employed, and approximately 60,000 tons per year are shipped for tumace flux, and about 2,000 tons, on the average, for road building.

The mines of Michael Rilev are situated near Center Station, on the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railroad. The roof is a massive sandstone, therefore the mining is done by drifting. The mine is equipped with air compressed drills, and the limestone is loosened with dynamite. The long wall system is used. On an average 20 men are employed, and the quantity of stone mined per year is about 25,000 tons. The Ironton furnaces are the principal market. Mr. W. R. Maxey ships some limestone from his workings, which are located on the Detroit, Toledo & Jronton Railroad, about one mile west of Lawrence Furnace. The deposit, which lies well up on the hills, has shale and clay for roof materials; hence it is mined by benching. At present he is installing an 80 h. p. engine and an 18-inch jaw crusher. Approximately 5,000 tons of stone per year are shipped for road ballast, furnace flux, and concrete work. Small amounts cf stone are shipped on the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway from the Hall mmes, near Jep Station, in Decatur Township, and from the McGugin mines, near Olive Station.

The Bear Run Mining Company, near Eifort, in Washington Township, mine the supply of stone used for furnace flux by the Globe and Star furnaces of Jackson, Ohio. A switch IJ miles long runs from the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad to the mines. Both coal and stone are shipped. The tipple is provided with four tracks for railroad cars, so that the different grades of coal and stone can be loaded at the same time. The tram road from the tipple to the mines is 1,200 feet long. The grade on the tram. is suflScient to allow the cars to run from the mines to the tipple by gravity. Mule power is used to haul the cars to the mines. Compressed air drills are used in mining the stone, which is crushed by a No. 5 Austin spindle crusher, with a capacity of 40 tons per hour. The power for the crusher is produced by a 45 h. p. engine, made by Houston-Stanwood & Gamble Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. The compressor, which is also provided with a 45 h. p. engine, is made by the Bury Compressor Company, Erie, Pa. The steam is supplied by a 75 h. p. boiler, made by the Gem City Boiler Works, Dayton, Ohio, The number of men employed for mining both coal and stone is from 100 to 120, and the output of stone is about 50,000 tons per year.

We are mining 4 feet of the Clarion coal which is overlaid with 7 feet of limestone. After the coal is mined the limestone is drilled and shot down to a height of 5 to 6 feet, leaving the balance of the stone for a roof. The limestone is used for blast furnace and macadam purposes.

For open hearth furnace flux magnesia is not desired; hence the fluxing value of a limestone is based on the available lime only. Sulphur, if high, is objectionable. The steel producers require a slag that will take up sulphur from the molten metal; consequently, as the quantity of this element that a slag can hold in solution is limited, all sulphur introduced with the flux lessens equivalently the quantity of this component taken from the metal. Silica, if high, is also undesirable, as it tends to throw the sulphur out of solution in the slag, or as it decreases the solubility. The quantity of sulphur eliminated from the metal depends to a considerable extent on the basicity of the slag. The quantity of phosphorus contained in the limestone, unless high, is unimportant. It is in fact beneficial rather than detrimental.

Lime. - For hydrated lime the high magnesian limestones are preferred. The Ferriferous limestone makes a hot, violent lime, which excludes its use for many purposes. There is a good field for hydrated lime for fertilizers in southern Ohio for much of the land, especially that where the soil has been derived largely from shales and sandstones of the Mississippian, and of the lower part of the Pennsylvanian series, is deficient in this ingredient. Plant life requires both lime and magnesia, but bv far more of the former. Lime made from this stone is well suited for this purpose, in fact it is much better than the dolomitic lime found largely on the market. There are no regular lime burning plants in the county, but small quantities are occasionally burned by the farmers. Th(*y make a pile on the ground of layers of stone and coal or wood, which is then fired and allowed to bum until the fuel is consumed. The calcination is imperfect, as the outer layers of stone are but little affected, and the larger lumps have unbumed cores. Some farmers prefer the raw limestone, ground very fine, to the hydrated lime, as it causes less trouble in drilling, and as its effects are more lasting.

Concrete. - The stone is well suited for concrete work. It is dense and firm, and it breaks into angular pieces with sharp edges and corners. It is not classed as a good building stone, for it does not cut well, but for foundation work it can be used to good advantage.

In conclusion, the Ferriferous limestone is well adapted for the manufacture of Portland cement, for blast furnace flux when basic, malleable, or foundry iron is made, for t^oncrete work, for road building, and for fertilizers.

During the day.« of the charcoal furnaces the Ferriferous ore was the most important bed in Lawrence County, but owing to the influence of the Lake ores, and to th^ increased demands of the modern furnaces, it has gradually decreased in influence from that time, so that at present the member is an asset ot small value. While the quality of the Ferriferous ore is inferior to the high-grade Lake ores, and while the stratum is thin and variable, yet its relation to the furnaces in this region is such that the bed is worthy of careful consideration. The ore lies directly above the Ferriferous limestone, which association is also of interest.

The Ferriferous ore is a persistent deposit, but varies considerably in thickness in different localities. In the shale or clav above this deposit one or more layers of kidney ore occur in parts of the region. These are of the same general origin as the ore below, and consequently they arc given as a part of the Ferriferous ore deposit. The section near Lawrence Furnace shows three rows of kidney ore which E. L. Lambert, who has had a very extended experience in the region, says will average 10 inches in thickness. At the mine of W. R. Maxey, west of Lawrence Furnace, two rows of these kidneys are found, but at the limestone mine of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, near Royer Station, only one layer is present.

The Ferriferous ore was seen in 23 places in Lawrence County and the average thickness of the bed is 7 inches. On the whole, the bed is somewhat thicker than this, as some of the exposures noted were on the outcrop where the bed was thin and was worked but little during the days of the charcoal furnaces. Where the ore was heaw it was benched to deep cover, so that at present it is seldom seen under favorable conditions. The average thickness of the ore is reported by various parties who formerly mined it to be about 12 inches. The average thickness given in the chapter on Lawrence County in the Report of Progress for 1870 for 15 sections is 10^ inches, which is probably near the true thickness. In places the ore is very thin, only an inch or two being present, while in a few localities it expands to 3 or 4 feet over small areas.

The ore is of swamp origin. It was deposited in quiet waters heavily charged with carbon dioxide, which precipitated the soluble ferrous salts brought in as ferrous carbonate. Under heavy cover the ore still exists as the carbonate, but along the outcrop or under light cover it has been oxidized more or less to ferric hydrates. The specific gravity of the limonite ore ^\ill average about 2.9; while that of the carbonate will run close to 3.5. Considering the ore 10 inches thick and 60 per cent available, the yield per acre wall be 1,974 net tons for the limonite and 2,382 net tons for the carbonate. For the charcoal furnaces the ore was mined mainly along the outcrop by stripping. Some small entries were worked, but these extended only short distances under cover. Carbonate ores were difficult to smelt in the short stack charcoal furnaces, so that only the oxidized or limonite ores were desired. Consequently the main body of ore is scarcely touched as the deposit was followed only along the outcrop.

This deposit is generally too thin to be worked for the ore alone with any economy. Too much material must be removed for eatry ways in order to get sufficient height. Ordinarily the roof is shale or clay, either of which is hard to hold. Where the deposit Avill average 15 inches or more in thickness, and where the roof is of good quality, it may be mined advantageously. If the associated materials have a value, then the ore may be mined with these. The ore and limestone are worked together in a few places. In some cases the clay above is of excellent quality and it may be mined with the ore At the present price of Lake ores, this deposit can be mined only in a secondary way, except in local areas where it is well above the normal thickness.

The quality of the Ferriferous ore varies between rather wide limits, yet the average composition compares favorably with that of the low grade Lake ores. The analyses given on Table II are instructive.

These analyses show the general quality of the ore. It is nonbesseraer and best suited for foundry, but it can be used to good advantage in making either basic or malleable iron.'

The figures for value of coke and stone delivered at Ironton, and for the over and above cost used, are these supplied by Col. H. A. Marting.

Prices of Negaunee and Clinton silica ores quoted by the Cleveland-ClifiEs Iron Company, delivered at Lower Lake ports are $3.57 per ton for the former and $2.22 for the latter.

The price of Adriatic ore quoted by PickandSy Mather & Co., delivered to Lower Lake porta is $3.28, which at Ironton, Ohio, would be $4.18 per ton.

It has been the common practice in southern Ohio not only to calcine the carbonate ores, but also the limonite or hydrate types. Where the ore is charged raw into the furnace the heat units used are as follows:

Considering the fuel 90 per cent carbon, the requirement for roasting 2,000 pounds of ore is 53 pounds. Radiation losses are not considered in the above, and the loss of heat due to air excess is neglected. The difference in fuel between calcining in the furnace, and in special kilns, is thus only 136 pounds per ton of ore. Thiis saving is far overbalanced in loss of material, labor, etc., during calcination.

The common practice with furnace operators at present is to carry an 8 per cent water burden. This means 8 per cent of the total weight of the stock is water. The main reason is to keep the top of the furnace cool, which holds the reduction zone in the proper position. The water carries out the heat from the top of the furnace, thus keeping down the temperature. It is not important whether this is the hydroscopic or combined water from the stock. When dry stock is charged this zone is too near the top, which results in abnormal working of the furnace. So raw ore should give better results than the calcined. W. M. Jeffreys, superintendent of The Hanging Rock Iron Company, reports: limestone ore. It is found in two grades, the red and the gray. In former years this ore wvLB calcined before using it in the furnace, but for the past year the Hanging Hock Iron Company has abandoned this method of treatment and is now using the ore in the natural state, and the results from same are excellent."

The calcined ore is less firmly bonded than the raw ore. It is fragile, consequently considerable ore is lost in the form of dust, owing to the extra handling involved in calcination. The cost of preparing the ore for roasting either in piles or kilns must be considered, and also the interest on the money invested. Considering the points both for and against calcination, the latter outweigh the former. The best economy is obtained by using the ore in the natural state.

Lower Kittanning Coal And Clay

and has afforded a good revenue from outside sources. The thick deposits of clay and shale on the Lower Kittanning horizon have scarcely been touched, although in Washington Township they are utilized for fire brick, building brick, and sewer pipe. Regarding these deposits Dr. Edward Orton says:

Under this head we came to the great clay horizon of the State. Its importance far outweighs that of any other clay seam of our scale. Indeed, it is probably equal in value to all other sources of clay in the Coal Measures combined. It belongs between the Ferriferous limestone and the Lower Kittanning coal. Often it fills the entire interval between these well-known beds. In some sections, however, where the interval is usually expanded, a sandstone occurs and the clay and shale are consequently reduced to some extent thereby. The Kittanning clay horizon proper is seen at its best where it enters the state from Pennsylvania, and where it leaves the state in its extension into Kentucky. In both of these localities of the Ohio Valley, viz., in Columbiana and Jefferson counties, on the one side, and on the other in Lawrence County, it shows large volume and excellent quality.*

The Lower Kittanning coal on the average lies about 23 feet above the Ferriferous members and about 40 feet below the Middle Kittanning coal. The member is well developed in Upper, Hamilton, , Elizabeth, Decatur, and Washington townships, where it has been worked for many years. The bed is also found above drainage in western Perry, Lawrence, and Aid townships; further it appears on Buffalo and Symmes creeks in the central part cf Symmes Township. But little information was obtained in regard to these members under heavy cover, as only a few drill records are available. Owing to the worth of these beds they will be treated at some length and traced across the county. See Map V facing page 354.

Perry Township. - The Lower Kittanning coal and clay are found along the courses of the streams in the western part of Perry Town- j ship. The coal is mined at a number of places, but so far the clay has not been utilized. Along the Ohio River the Lower Kittanning coal is present near the road level in the western part of the township, and passes below drainage on Lick Creek east of the village of Sheridan, where it is reported to be about 2 feet in thickness. Where the member is exposed west of this, it is somewhat unsteady as the coal is often partially or completely replaced by a thick sandstone that lies just above, the coal horizon. At places, however, the coal has fair volume as shown by the following record obtained on the land of Julia McCowan, about one mile west of Sheridan: ^ ,

On Little Ice Creek the Lower Kittanning members pass from view about one mile south of the village of Forestdale. The coal, although overlaid by a massive sandstone, usually has good volume. A section taken on the farm of Charles HoUey is given below:

Near Forestdale this coal has been mined for local consumption for many years, and the territory is not yet exhausted. In a mine operated by Frank Brammcr the average measurement of the bed is as follows: ^ i^

The clay in this locality is seldom exposed for observation, as it lies close to drainage level, but it is reported to be as a rule from 3 to 5 feet in thickness. West of this, on the farm of Oscar Willis, the coal has much the same structure as it has at the Brammer mine. Where measured, the upper coal bench was 2 feet in thickness, the clay parting 1 foot 1 inch, and the lower coal bench 8 inches. Along the Bearing Road near the township line, this coal is regularly mined by drifting on the property of David Laymond, where the following measurements were obtained: p^ j^

Here the upper bench of coal varies from 1 foot 3 inches to 2 feet, while the lower bench of coal and the clay parting remain fairly constant. North of the Bearing road, on Little Ice Creek, this coal is also mined on the property of Charles Shaefer, and has much the same structure as shown in the above section. Along Ice Creek the Lower Kittanning members are above drainage eastward along the course of the stream to near the mouth of Turkey Fork. The coal is not so well represented here as it is on Little Ice Creek, and the clay is lacking somewhat in its normal volume and quality. Moreover, the parting between the two coal benches in places expands to several feet, as is shown by the following section, taken along the road about one mile south of the mouth of Turkey Fork:

In the above section the Lower Kittanning clay member is divided by a thin carbonaceous shale into two divisions, which correlate wi4h the two well developed clay beds found on this horizon in the central part of the county. Here the clays are thin and siliceous, but near the mouth of Sugar Creek they are much better developed, and often occupy most of the interval from the Ferriferous ore to the Lower Kittanning coal.

Upper Township. - The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in all of Upper Township. The coal bed in this region has contributed a part of the factory and domestic fuel supply of Ironton for many years, and yet contains a large quantity of coal for future demands. The largest unworked fields are in the vicinity of Hecla Furnace. The stratum has excellent continuity throughout the township, but in some localities the bed is somewhat thin and impure. The volume of the clay deposits is usually large; while the quality is up to the standard for a plastic clay of coal formation origin. Near Coalgrove, on the John Peters property, a general section showing the character of the rocks in the Lower Kittanning interval was obtained, and is given below:

Here the upper bench of coal varies from 1 foot 3 inches to 2 feet, while the lower bench of coal and the clay parting remain fairly constant. North of the Bearing road, on Little Ice Creek, this coal is also mined on the property of Charles Shaefer, and has much the same structure as shown in the above section. Along Ice Creek the Lower Kittanning members are above drainage eastward along the course of the stream to near the mouth of Turkey Fork. The coal is not so well represented here as it is on Little Ice Creek, and the clay is lacking somewhat in its normal volume and quality. Moreover, the parting between the two coal benches in places expands to several feet, as is shown by the following section, taken along the road about one mile south of the mouth of Turkey Fork:

In the above section the Lower Kittanning clay member is divided by a thin carbonaceous shale into two divisions, which correlate wi4h the two well developed clay beds found on this horizon in the central part of the county. Here the clays are thin and siliceous, but near the mouth of Sugar Creek they are much better developed, and often occupy most of the interval from the Ferriferous ore to the Lower Kittanning coal.

Upper Township.^ - The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in all of Upper Township. The coal bed in this region has contributed a part of the factory and domestic fuel supply of Ironton for many years, and yet contains a large quantity of coal for future demands. The largest unworked fields are in the vicinity of Hecla Furnace. The stratum has excellent continuity throughout the to\TOship, but in some localities the bed is somewhat thin and impure. The volume of the clay deposits is usually large; while the quality is up to the standard for a plastic clay of coal formation origin. Near Coalgrove, on the John Peters property, a general section showing the character of the rocks in the Lower Kittanning interval was obtained, and is given below:

East of this, along the river hills, the coal thins somewhat, and often becomes erratic in structure. A section obtained along the road in the extreme southeastern part of the township illustrates the thinning of the bed from its normal volume. The measurements follow:

North of Coalgrove this bed has been mined regularly by drifting, for a part of the local supply, and is reported to have approximately the same structure as was shown for the bed on the land of John Peters. At the plant of the Ironton Portland Cement Company the following measurements were obtained :