Scioto Township (part 7 of 14)

The upper bench of coal is reported to vary from 2 to 3 feet in thickness. The clay lying directly below the coal is generally thin and siliceous, but that lying at the base of the interval is stated by Albert Steece to vary from 3 to 12 feet, and to be of good quality, in fact, much better than the clay found above it. Along Sugar Creek, south of the Marion Road, in the northeastern part of the township, the clay is reported to have exceptional volume. Thousands of tons have been piled on the dumps in the mining of the Ferriferous ore. The coal in this locaHty is reported to be somewhat below normal, but quite persistent. In places in this locality nearly the whole interval from the ore to the coal is reported to be made up of clays which have excellent quality. Near where the Marion Road crosses Sugar Creek both the Lower and Middle Kittanning coals are mined in a small way. A record obtained here is given below:

The field of Lower Kittanning coal, near Hecla Furnace, has not been worked, except in a small way for local needs. A section, taken near the furnace, follows:

The Lower Kittanning coal and clay were worked by the Orchard Knob Brick Company while the plant was in operation. It was located about one mile north of Ironton. A section secured at this place follows:

In the northeastern part of the township the Lower Kittanning coal is generally thin, and lies close to the Middle Kittanning member. Further, the underlying clay is diminished in volume, and is somewhat siliceous in character. In the northwestern part, however, both coal and clay are present in force, and the coal is largely exhausted, as it has been mined for many years. A section taken east of La Grange

Lawrence Township. - The Lower Kittanning coal is found above drainage along the courses of the streams that head in the western part of Lawrence Township. The coal is generally thin, somewhat shaly, and in places the bed is completely replaced by a thick sandstone. The clay underlying the coal is also poorly developed. The conditions of the members appear to indicate that this is 'the border of the Newcastle field.

Hamilton Township. - The areas of the Lower Kittanning members in Hamilton Township are relatively small as the beds are found near the summits of the main ridges. The clay has good continuity, but the coal is often partially or completely replaced by sandstones. In a part of the area, however, the coal is about 3 feet in thickness. As the member has not been mined, to any considerable extent, no jneasurements showing the character of the bed under heavy cover were obtained, but the section reported is as follows:

Elizabeth Township. - Passing northward from Hamilton and Upper townships, we come to Elizabeth, in which the Lower Kittanning members reach their maximum volume in Lawrence County. The thickness and quality of the beds in this field are scarcely surpassed elsewhere in Ohio. The coal has been extensively mined for the general market, but the thick deposit of clay has been but little attacked, although the conditions are very favorable for its utilization for ceramic products. Owing to the importance of these beds^ both specific and general sections of the interval will be given in order to present their extent and character in a definite way. The general character of the Lower Kittanning beds in the southern part of this township is illus-

The variations in the thickness of the Lower Kittanning coal and parting in this locality are shown by the following measurements furnished by The Ginn Company of the bed in its mine, which is located near the head of Little Storms Creek south of Vesuvius Station:

North of Royerville both the Lower Kittanning coal and clay have excellent volume and purity. These features are shown in the following record obtained at the limestone mines of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, which are located west of Etna Station:

At the mines of the Halley Coal Company at Etna Station, the upper bench of the Lower Kittanning coal varies from 2 feet to 2 feet 10 inches in thickness, the clay parting from 5 to 5 inches, and the lower coal bench from 6 to 12 inches. The average thickness of the two coal benches is about 3 feet. In this vicinity the Lower Kittanning clay has excellent volume, as it usually occupies nearly all of the interval from the coal to the underlying Ferriferous ore. A section of the coal , bed taken in a mine follows:

These measurements are practically duplicated at the mine of C. C. Smith north of Etna Station. Along the road north of Pedro or Etna Furnace the following record was obtained in a drift mine:

The clay in this vicinity is quite thick, but it was not well exposed for measurement. On Storms Creek in the vicinity of QlifTside, the Lower Kittanning coal is partially or completely replaced by the massive overlying sandstone. A section secured in a cave west of C'liflfside and given below shows the condition of the members:

Along Storms Creek north of Vesuvids Furnace the coal is usually present, but as a general thing the bed is somewhat thin and is often shaly. Near Lawrence Furnace the Lower Kittanning coal has furnished fuel for many years and the territory is not yet exhausted. A general section of the rocks on this horizon follows:

From Royerville and Lawrence FurHace west along Little Pine Creek the Lower Kittanning coal averages about 3 feet 4 inches in thickness and has only a thin stratum of clay intervening between the coal benches, but it is usually overlaid with about 1 foot of shaly coal or ^^nigger head" which is somewhat troublesome in mining. East of these places the good coal in the bed contracts and, as previously stated, it is thin and often bony on Storms Creek. On Cannons Creek the coal is below the normal w thickness, while the shaly coal or "nigger head'' which overlies the main coal bench thickens to as much as 2 or 3 feet. These features are shown in the following section taken near where the Johns Creek road crosses the stream:

One mile west of Lawrence Furnace, in Elizabeth Township, at the IT ire of W. R. Maxey, a good section of the Lower Kittanning interval was obtained and is given below:

The above section shows both benches of the Lower Kittanning clay to be well developed and to be separated by the thin coal bed, which is nearly always present .when the lower bench of clay is found. These with the Clarion clay, which also has excellent qualities, give a total thickness of over 25 feet of ceramic material. When coal, clays, limestone, and ores are considered, this interval is extremely valuable and is duplicated at few places in southern Ohio.

One-half mile north of Lawrence Furnace, on the Edward Kelly land, the following measurements of the Lower Kittanning coal were secured in a mine:

As this coal stratum extends northward to the vicinity of Superior, Bartles, and Dean it has slightly less volume than it has in the field near Lawrence Furnace and Royerville, but it has good continuity and quality. The bony coal which overlies the bed in the latter region is seldom present here, while the parting separating the two coal benches has about the same mean thickness. The upper bench of the Lower Kittanning clay as a general thing is somewhat thin, while the lower bench in most of the area is replaced by sandstone. At the mine of E. B. Willard near Bartles the rocks seen and reported are as follows:

Aid Township. - The Lower Kittaimiixg members are found along the courses of the main tributaries of Storms Creek that head in western Aid TowTiship. The 'area above drainage is very small, and the coal is poorly developed. The bed, which is thin and unsteady, lies close to the Ferriferous limestone. The clays also lack volume and quality. A section taken near the mouth of Paddle Creek is given below:

The character of the bed in this locality indicates that, as it passes eastward, the good coal thins and the impure shaly layers thicken. It appears to be on the border of the main field. Further this same tendency of the bed to contract or break up as it extends eastward is also denoted by a study of the records taken in Elizal>eth, Upper, Lawrence, and Perry townships.

Decatur Township.- The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in practically all of Decatur Township. The beds are found near the summits of the main ridges in the western, part, but owing to the dip eastward they pass below cover just west of the main ridge that extends northward along the eastern border. Decatur Township contains areas of thick coal and also areas of thin and broken coal. Some wan.ts are also found. The clay has good continuity and as a general thing fair volume. The lower bench of this clay, however, is seldom prcspPit in force. Mr. J. H. Moulton reports that the Lower Kittanning coal east of the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway from Painter Creek south to the tunnel is thin or wanting, but south of the tunnel in Texas Hollow it shows 3 feet 6 inches of clean coal. In the hills west of this railroad from Jep Station south along the railroad and pike to the divide about 2 miles south of Moulton, the Lower Kittanning coal is also thin, or wanting. In the northeastern part of the towT.ship it has good volume, while in the western part it is somewhat patchy. The following section taken east of Center Station shows the relation of the Lower Kittanning, Lost Seam, and Middle Kittanning coals and their positions with reference to the Ferriferous limestone:

Along the road that leads from Center Station to the Superior Portland Cement plant the relation of the Lower Kittanning members to other beds was secured as the rocks were well exposed for measurement. The record follows: p^

At the mines of the Superior Portland Cement Company the section is as follows, and shows the general condition of the Lower Kittanning members in this locality. p^ in

From Center Station and Bartles to north of Moulton the Lower Kittanning coal is wanting, thin, or patchy. Along the pike at the head of the hollow south of Moulton the section obtained shows the following condition of the coal and clay: pt. in.

In Branch Hollow southwest of Moulton the entire interval was not seen. The Lower Kittanning coal and Ferriferous ore were reported by David McFann:

Mr. McFann states that the parting between the two coal benches expands in places to as much as 1 foot 6 inches, and that the lower coal bench reaches 1 foot in thickness. A section made west of the above locality in Buckhom Hollow near the old furnace stack is as follows :

Near the mouth of the hollow another section taken in a mine is practically the same as the above. Along Youngs Branch no openings were s?er, but the coal on the outcrop shows about the same thickness as in Buckhom Hollow. Near the mouth of Painter Creek the outcrop sho^s about 3 feet of clean coal, but towards the head it is somewhat thinner. A combined section near the head of Painters Creek in the rortheastern quarter of Decatur Township follows: coal again appears in the bed of the stream on Buffalo and on Little Buffalo creeks at their junction and extends up each of these for a short distance. North of the Rehmer School on Little Buffalo the bed is represented by 1 foot 8 inches of bony coal. West of the Rehmer School on Buffalo 7 inches of Lower Kittanning coal was seen in the bed of the creek. It is found along Buffalo south to the first western tributary where about 2 feet of bony coal was exposed in the stream bed. The Lower Kittanning coal appears in the bed of CauUey Creek on the M. V. Thompson property. It outcrops for about three-fourths of a mile and is reported by Mr. Thompson approximately 3 feet thick under cover.

The Lower Kittanning coal appears above the waters of Symmes Creek south of McDaniel in the northeastern part of the township. The bed was mined to a small extent and is reported to be about 2 feet 6 inches in thickness.

Washington Township. - The Lower Kittanning members are above drainage in practically all of Washington Township. The beds lie well toward the summits of the hills in the western part and near the base of the hills in the eastern part. Both members are rather steady throughout the entire area. The coal is often thin, while the clay is occasionally replaced to a large extent by sandstone. On the whole there is a large quantity of valuable coal and clay yet available from these members in the field. The character of the rocks in the Lower Kittanning interval in the vicinity of Olive Station is shown in the following section taken along the road that leads to Indian Creek:

In the hills west of Olive Furnace the coal is generally thin, and in places is wanting, as it is replaced by sandstones. In the hills between Bushy Fork and Brady Creek the coal is in much the same condition and the clay is often restricted in volume and siliceous in

Along Brady Creek west of this the coal seldom expands to 2 feet 6 inches and in places it measures only about 1 foot. The clay, which is quite siliceous in the lower part, varies from 4 to 12 feet in thickness and averages- about 6 feet. Near the plant of the Portsmouth Refractories Company in Spencer Hollow, northwest comer of Washington Township, the section reported by John Hanes as characteristic is as follows:

Near the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company in Black Fork Hollow, the section reported by the mine foreman for the mean thickness of the Lower Kittanning beds is as follows:

A study of the sections shows the remarkable changes m the character of the strata that make up the interval. During their deposition the forces at work and the conditions in this old coal basin were shifting or changing continually. A plastic clay stratum in one section may be replaced by a flint clay, by a shale, or by a sandstone in the next. A coal bed may change in character, thin, or even go out completely in a short distance.

The economic value of any deposit depends not only on the value of the deposit itself, but also upon the ease with which it can be mined, and upon the value of the associated deposits. A coal bed may have good value alone, but, if a bed of clay can be worked with it, its value is increased. The success of the Oak Hill brick plants has been due largely to the fact that both coal and clay are taken from the same mine. Ih the Etna region, where both the Lower Kittanning coal and clay are well developed, the coal alone is mined. In a short time the mines are abandoned, and the roof left in such a condition that the clay is unavailable, or may be mined only with great difficulty. Millions of tons of clay in Lawrence County have thus been wasted.

The limestone is mined with difficulty where th^ overlying material is soft shale or clay, unless a part is left for the roof, but. where this is sandstone the entire stratum is obtained. The shale and clay partings in the coal beds also increase the cost of mining, and if these are not well removed they decrease the market value of the fuel. The^e points will be taken up more in detail as the separate deposits are discussed.

The next member in the series is the Lower Kittanning clays and shales, which are often partially replaced by sandstones. The clays, shales, and sandstones occupy the interval between the Ferriferous ore and the Lower Kittanning or No. 5 coal. The clay found directly above this coal in the northern part of the county should also be considered, for economic reasons, as part of this series, but geologically it is a separate member. The clays and shales of this horizon have a greater economic value than the materials from any other horizon in the county. In fact, they far surpass in value any of the coals, limestones, ores, and other clays and shales. There is a great wealth of clay material in this interval which is of most excellent quality. The thickiwss of the Lower Kittanning clay, shown by an average of the various sections taken throughout the region, is about 8 feet, and of the shale nearly 6 feet, or, in all, it is 14 feet. The clay is well developed in the region around Royerville and Pedro, in Elizabeth Township, where it is often 15 or more feet thick, and also at the mines of W. R. Maxey, on Little Pine Creek, where the section shows 16 feet of clay of good quality. Near Moulton and Olive Furnace the deposits are heavy, varying from

8 to 15 feet. In the northern part of the county the clays are often 12 feet in thickness, while here the shales are best developed, as they expand from 5 to 15 feet*

The importance of these vast clay deposits has not been fully recognized in this section. Clays from this horizon form the basis of the immense sewer pipe industry along the Ohio River from Steubenville to. East Liverpool. Large quantities of stoneware are made from it in the Zanesville district. The large stoneware pottery industry in Pennsylvania, at New Brighton, Beaver Falls, and vicinity, uses the Lower Kittanning clay principally. It is the basis also of the fire brick industry in the same region, which is of importance. The Oak Hill, Ohio, fire brick plants use this clay to a large extent. It is also an excellent clay for the manufacture of high-grade buff, iron clay, and gray building brick. The beautiful face brick used in the construction of the Portsmouth High School were made from Lower Kittanning clay at Kittanning, Peimsylvania, although vast quantiti^ of the same clay equally as good are found in this region only 30 miles distant. It is a source of regret that the coal has been taken from above large areas of this clay, and especially in the region where the deposits are heaviest. These clays are now practically unavailable, owing to the condition of the roof. The analyses of this clay, reported by the Hanging Rock Iron Company from its Newcastle mines, are as follows:

In the southern part of the field the interval contains two benches or deposits of clay, the upper one just below the Lower Kittanning coal, and the lower one near the Ferriferous ore. They are usually separated by a thin coal, shale, or sandstone. In this region the lower bench is usually the best developed, and the clay is superior in quality to that in the upper bench. Near the timnel on the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railway, the two beds are merged into one, but are separated again near Lawrence Furnace. Near Bartles and Center Furnace the lower bench is replaced by sandstone, or by shale and sandstone, which continue north to near Olive Furnace, where the lower bench again appears. West of Olive Furnace, and on the head of Brushy Fork, heavy sandstones take the place of the lower bench, while farther north these are replaced by shales, which continue to the northern boundary of the coimty. The upper bench holds its thickness well throughout the whole area. The quality varies somewhat, but is generally good.

In the northern part of the field local deposits of clay are found above the Lower Kittanning coal. In Spencer Hollow, Washington Township, from 3 to 6 feet of this clay which may be either plastic or flint are found. It is called the Oak Hill clay owing to the fact that it is well developed in the region near Oak Hill, Jackson Coimty, where it is generally a flint clay, and where it has been used for years as the basis of the fire brick industry. It is generally separated from the Lower Kittanning coal by a shale varying from a few inches to several feet in thickness, and from the Middle Kittanning coal by 20 to 40 feet of clay, shales, and sandstones. It is here considered in the discussion of the Lower Kittanning coal and clay deposit. The economy in mining this lower bench of clay depends principally on the character of the roof, on the associated ore and on the underlying limestone. In some cases the three could be taken from the same entry as at the plant of the Irontoh Portland Cement Company where the roof of the clay is a thick sandstone:

Considering the clay to average 7J feet, the ore 1 foot, and limestone 5 feet in thickness, the entry would be 13J feet in height. The clay could be taken out first, then the ore, and lastly the stone. Posts would be of little value in such workings, but if 50 per cent were available the yield per acre would be as follows:

The clay should have a market value of 50 cents, ore $2.00, and stone 70 cents per net ton, so that the value of the raw products per acre would be:

The sandstone above forms a most excellent roof. Here both coal and clay were worked. Sixty per cent of the total should be available, and the yield per acre as follows:

At the mines of W. R. Maxey, near Lawrence Furnace in Elizabeth Township, the interval from the ore horizon to the Lower Kittanning coal is probably the most valuable in Lawrence County, and it is one that would be hard to duplicate elsewhere in Ohio. The clay below the Ferriferous limestone at this place is quite thick and is of f ai^ quality. A mixture of these different clay layers is well suited for the manufacture of sewer pipe. The clay shale is suitable also for this work. The kidney ore bands average 12 inches in thickness and these, with the 8 inches of ore below, give a total of 20 inches for ore. The limestone is of good quality also. The sandstone above the Lower Kittanning coal, if crushed, has some market value. Where the cover is not too heavy, it would pay to strip the overburden, thus making the materials available in the entire interval. The section is as follows:

The clays at this horizon vary somewhat in quality in different sections and often in different parts of the same bed. In the main they are excellent plastic clays with some flint clay in pockets in both the lower and upper benches. Free silicia is usually present in the clay, but this is detrimental in a few classes of ware only, while in others it is beneficial. It should be low in ware that is required to withstand basic slag action and high temperatures. Free silica in a clay lowers the fusion point to an appreciable extent. The fusion point of the best clay used in commercial work is about 1,830°^ C. or 3,326° F., but this is lowered by the addition of silica until the composition, 90 per cent silica and 10 per cent alumina, is reached, when it is slightly below 1,600° C. or 2,912° F. Further addition of silica causes it to rise slightly above 1,600° C Free silica is objectionable in ware subjected to the action of basic slags. Here the bases combine readily with the silica to form low fusing compounds which soon destroy the ware. Siliceous clay ware should be used only when the slags are acid, in which case both the compoaition of clay and slag should be considered. It is not a desirable component in ware required to withstand sudden extreme changes in temperature, as regenerator brick, etc. Here the quartz changes at 830° C. to tridymite with an increase in volume and with a glassy texture. Severe changes in temperatures cause checking which soon leads to disruption of the ware.

For some classes of ware free silica is beneficial, as it is more resistant to the action of acid slags than that made from the purer clays. For arch work at moderate temperatures free quartz in the ware has a tightening efifect owing to the increase in volume as it changes to tridymite. The drying shrinkage of green ware is lowered by the presence of free silica unless this is very fine-grained. This component is especially beneficial in the manufacture of hollow ware such as sewer pipe, stoneware, terra cotta, fireproofing, etc., as the loss due to warping and checking is considerably lowered. The effect in burning is much the same as it lowers the fire shrinkage also. In building materials certain desirable color eflfects are also more pronounced when the clay is siliceous. So the effect of free silica, whether beneficial or detrimental, depends upon the uses of the ware.

There are two kinds of fluxing agents normally present in clajrs, acid arid basic fluxes. The acid fluxes are titanic acid, phosphorus anhydride, and free silica. The effects of the latter have been given. The phosphoric acid is usually too low to exert any marked influence. Titanic acid is invariably present in all clays. In quantity it varies from a trace to as much as 3 or 4 per cent and will average approximately 1 per cent. The effect of titanic oxide is not marked, as the fusion point ia lowered only about 15 degrees for each per cent present.

The basic fluxes are ferrous oxide, lime, magnesia, manganous oxide, and the alkalies, sodium, potassium, and, occasionally, lithium oxide. Ferrous oxide is an active flux. It forms two low fusing compounds with silica, fayalite, 2 FeO.SiOj, and grunerite, FeO.Si02. It, with other bases, also combines with alumina and silica to form complex compounds which fuse at moderate temperatures. The color imparted to the ware by ferrous oxide, when dilute, is a bluish tint, but, as the quantities present increase, the color darkens, until a bluish-black is reached. The coloring power of the oxide depends upon the amount present, the state of fusion, and the dissemination.

The fluxing power of lime or magnesia exceeds that of ferrous oxide. With silica they react in much the same way as ferrous oxide, as they form the 2 RO.SiOj and R0.Si02 compounds. There are four definite combinations of lime and alumina, 3 CaO. AI2O3, 5 CaO.3 AljOj, CaO. AljOs and 3 CaO.5 AI2O3, but only one between magnesia and alumina, which is MgO.Al203. The eutectic between silica and calcium metasilicate melts at 1,426° C. (2,585° F.), and between the meteisilicate and orthosilicate at 1,440° C. (2,610° F.). The eutectic between 3CaO.Al20s and SCaO.SAUOs, and SCaO.SAUOs and CaO.AljOj melts at about 1,387° C. (2,515° F.). The eutectic between MgO.AlgOs and MgO occurs at 1,950° C.^ High magnesia is detrimental, as it gives a short vitrification range, thus making these clays very hard to bum safely. With lime, alumina, and silica there are two compounds, 2 CaO.AUOj.SiOj, whose melting point is not determined, and CaO.Al20i.2Si02, whose melting point is 1,532° C. (2,776° F.). The compounds formed from magnesia, alumina, and silica have not been definitely determined.'

Sodium and potassium oxides are very active fluxes, as they form at red heat aluminates and silicates. Their fluxing action is about twice as great as that of lime or magnesia. Manganous oxide acts in much the same way as ferrous oxide- With silica it reacts to form two dark-colored silicates, MnO.SiOj, rhodonite; and MnO.SiOj, tephroite. The quantity present in most clays is small, but in the manufacture of gray brick manganese dioxide, which partially reduces to the lower oxide, is added. The best effects from the dioxide are obtained by adding it to siliceous clays, which, under reducing conditions, form the dark-colored silicates.

The effect on the fusion point of mixtures of these various components is complicated, but in a general way it depends on the following factors: The lowering of the fusion point increases with the number of components present, and with the quantity of each to the eutectic mixture. It also depends on the mineral components formed, and on their quantities to the eutectic mixtures. For refractory ware the total amount of bases present should be small, for in combining with the acid components the quantity of the minerals formed is considerable, for example: 1 per cent of lime combining with alumina and silica forms 4.96 per cent of the mineral anorthite. As a general rule the limit of the fluxes should be somewhere near the following; basic fluxes 4 per cent, acid fluxes 3 per cent, and total fluxes 7 per cent. Under normal conditions ferric oxide is not a flux, but a coloring agent only. A small quantity produces yellow, while increased additions deepen the color until a dark red is reached. Where considerable lime is present, dirty buffs are formed. The coloring power of the oxide is influenced, to a large extent, by the state of dissemination.

For the non-refractory grades of ware the quantity of the fluxes present is less restricted. In moderate amounts they act beneficially, as they lower the bonding temperatiu-e, thus saving fuel. In vitrified ware the quantity present should be sufficient to give a complete cementing of the mass when fused, but not enough to destroy the rigidity. The texture of the mass should be dense and stony. For common

'Shepherd and Rankin, Am. Jour. Sci., No. 166, Oct., 1909. 'Shepherd and Rankin, Preliminary Report on the Ternary System, CaO-Al:Oi- SiOt, Jour. Ind. & Eng. Chem., Vol. 3, No. 4, April, 1911.

ware the kinds and quantities present should be such that the temperature range from incipient fusion to deformation is greater than that in various parts of the kibi, for if it is shorter there will be a constant loss, either to overbumed or underbumed ware. Each clay should be tested separately, as the effects produced by the fluxes depend on the physical and on the chemical properties of both fluxes and clays. Most claj'^s contain small quantities of organic matter in the form of carbon or coal. The quantity is usually small, and under proper oxidizing conditions in burning it exerts no apparent effect.

The clay at this horizon is well suited for the manufacture of several leading ceramic products. For the manufacture of refractory ware it cannot be rated as high as the Sciotoville flint clay of Ohio and Kenr tucky, or as high as the Mercer and Brookville flint clays of Pennsylvania. It is, however, an excellent second-grade clay, well fitted for the manufacture of' general purpose ware, such as regenerator, coke oven, mill, boiler setting brick, etc. It is used to some extent, also, as blast and steel furnace linings. The Oak Hill plants have run for many years on this grade of ware, and are very successful. The few analyses given are incomplete, as they fail to show all the fluxes present. Normally, the clay is siliceous, but this is detrimental only in a few classes of ware. Heat tests, under highly reducing conditions, in the Deville furnace, on two samples from Blackfork, show Cone 32 or 3,218° F.

The working qualities of this clay are excellent. It makes plastic muds which work easily in molding, or which flow readily through the dies of the machines. The ware dries safely under ordinary conditions, either on the dry floor or in tunnel driers. The kiln loss is low when the proper attention has been given in firing. The clay contains some carbonaceous matter, which, if not properly oxidized before the fluxes begin to combine with the clay, reduces the ferric oxide to ferrous oxide, which then forms slags with silica at low temperatures. This gives dark or black cored brick. If the brick are dry when set, and if the fire is held when the brick are at a low red heat until the dark core is completely gone, then this reduction of the ferric oxide will not take place, and the brick will come out of the kiln in good condition. The total shrinkage is about 1 J inches to the foot, but it varies somewhat with the quantity of free silica present. Grog is used in most fire brick to correct the shrinkage. Mr. D. D. Davis, president of the Ohio Fire Brick Company of Oak Hill, who has used these clays for years, says of them:

The whole of southern Ohio, embracing Jackson , a part of Gallia and Lawrence counties, carries the Lower Kittanning bed of bituminous coal with which are found two beds of fire clay. The best deposit is the flint clay which overlies the Lower Kittanning coal, and which in some places lies directly on the coal, but almost always from 15 to 30 inches above it. The best clay in this bed carries alumina about 38 to 39 per cent, silica about 54 to 56 per cent, and iron oxide about .75 per cent. This bed is about 3 feet in thickness and is very good for fire brick, which for many uses is equal to any brick made in Pennsylvania or Kentucky, when mixed with suitable bonding clay to give the brick the proper texture. The bed of fire clay underlying the Lower Kittanning coal directly is about 12 feet in thickness. The clay carries about 31 to 33 per cent alumina, and about 58 per cent sihca. It is low in iron oxide and is one of the best second-grade plastic clays that I know^. The analysis of this clay is not as good on the outcrop as given above, but will run as shown when taken from under heavy covering.

There is only one fire brick plant in Lawrence County at present in active operation. This is the plant of the Portsmouth Refractories Company at Firebrick. It is situated about one mile east of the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad in Spencer Hollow, near the western edge of Washington Township. Mr. Wm. Hitchcock, president and general manager, reports the equipment as follows:

The Lower Kittanning clay is used exclusively in the manufacture of our product. We use about 15,000 tons of clay, per year and about 7,000 tons of coal, which is mined along with the clay. The coal provides the power necessary for the manufacture of the cJay into ware and for the burning of the product. Both clay and coal are mined by hand work and conveyed to the plant on a tram road with mule power.

The power plant consists of two lOO-H. P. boilers, one 150-H. P. Atlas engine, and one 25-H. P. engine which is used for running the electric generator for lighting the entire plant and also the company houses. The clays are reduced in two 9-foot dry pans and one O-foot wet pan. For tempering the clays one lO-foot and one 9-foot pug mill are used. One brick machine with an automatic rotary cutter and with a capacity of 60,000 brick per day is used for shaping some grades of ware. The machine brick are pressed in power presses. For the hand molded ware the mud is carried to the molding tables on lx>th the first and second floors by conveyor belts. High grade hand-made brick are made on the ower floor, which is heated by exhaust steam from the engine. The same grade of shape brick are made on the second floor, which is heated by a waste heat overhead drying system.

This company has nine rectangular kilns of S5,000 to 90,000 capacity each and one round kiln of 100,000 capacity. All runways are covered so that it is possible to convey brick to the kilns or to the sheds in any kind of weather. All the storage sheds are placed near the loading tracks which will hold 15 cars. This arrangement makes the cost of loading ware low. The company also has a clay mill adjoining the main factory with a capacity of four cars ground clay per day. The supply of water for the plant is secured from a large storage reservoir located near the plant. From this the water is pumped to supply tanks at the boiler room. The water in one of these tanks is heated by steam, after which it is used in tempering the clay in the wet pan and in the pug mills. All the clay is dumped on the clay yard at the place where it is to be used, and the coal is dumped from the mine cars into chutes that convey it directly to the boiler roo.m or to the kilns. This arrangement saves much labor and loss in fuel.

The capacity of the plant is 20,000 brick per day. Our ware is used for blast fur, nace linings, stoves, regenerators, annealing ovens, locomotive linings, cement kilnsrolling mill work, cupolas, coke ovens, lime kilns, and for other purposes where refractory wares are used.

The Lower Kittanning clay has good refractory qualities, as this point has been proved by practical tests where very severe strains are imposed. Mr. W. N. Jeffreys, superintendent of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, says of the fire brick which were used in relining its furnace, and which were made of the Lower Kittanning clay by the Portsmouth Refractories Company:

This clay ranks as one of the best in the United States for the manufacture of high grade clay building brick. The deposits are thick and can be worked with the coal above. The working qualities of the clay are excellent and the shades produced are attractive and pleasing. The section at the Cambria Clay Products Company plant on Black Fork in Washington Township is as follows: , j^ j^

The working qualities pf this clay are all that could be desired. The usual procedure in the manufacture of stiff mud brick is as follows: The clay is crushed in dry pans. Because of its soft brittle nature one 9-foot dry pan will crush readily 80 or more tons per day. The ground clay is elevated from the pan to a bin from which it goes to the pug mill where water is added, and where the pugging process develops the desired plasticity. The following experiments to determine the relative plasticity of clays were made by Downs Schaaf :

If the plasticity of clays is mainly due to a proper ratio of granular materials and active (that is, not set) colloid gels, any means of establishing the relative or absolute amount of colloids in a clay should supply a measure of its plasticity.^ As colloids absorb dyes, this principle may be used in measuring the plasticity of clays.

Three grams of malachite green for each determination were used in the following experiment. The clays were tested as received or with only enough work on them so that they would all go through a 20-me6h sieve, no grinding being done on them at all. Figured by Ashley, the relative colloid value of Tennessee ball clay is 100 colloids. Comparisons of the colloidal value of the Lower Kittanning clay from Lawrence County and of the Middle Kittanning from Nelsonville with that of Tennessee ball clay which is used as the standard are given below:

These experiments .show the superiority of the Lower Kittanning clay oyer the Middle Kittanning, or when ground fine over even the Tennessee ball clay. They also show the effects of fine grinding in the development of plasticity.

The clay which has been thoroughly worked into a plastic mud in the pug mill goes to the brick machine, where it is forced out into a column which is cut into brick by hand or by automatic cut-ofiFs. If the plasticity of the clay is too highly developed, some trouble may be experienced at this stage from lamination of the column. The best grades of brick are repressed, which develops both shape and finish. The wire-cut and repressed brick are loaded on steel cars for drying, which is done in tunnel driers using either waste heat from the kilns or steam from the boilers. These driers may be either periodic or continuous. In the periodic a tunnel is filled with cars of green brick, which are allowed to remain there until they are dry. In the continuous the cars of dry brick are taken from one end and cars of green brick are put in at the other. This clay dries safely under ordinary conditions in any type of drier. If air too highly heated is turned on the green brick, center checks or strains, which in burning develop into cracks, are produced. Most of the defects found in the burned ware originated in the drying and not in the burning. Ware made from this clay when highly plastic is subject to this defect; hence precautions should be taken in the drying.

Scumming is another common defect caused in drying. If the circulation of air in the tunnels is sluggish, moisture which is dravm from the interior of the brick, and which holds salts in solution such as sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, etc., collects on the surface. Then the evaporation of this water leaves the salts on the brick in fine beads which on burning show as a white or dirty scum. The salts, especially objectionable, are sulphates of lime, magnesia, and iron. The iron salt is derived from the weathering of the ferric sulphide present in the clay. This defect is usually remedied by the addition of barium carbonate.

Here the barium sulphate and carbonates formed are insoluble or only sparingly soluble, so that they are fixed in the body of the clay. The burning behavior of this clay when proper attention is given to the stages or periods in burning is excellent. Prof. Edward Orton, Jr., recognizes four periods as follows:

!- Water Smoking Period. - It begins at the temperature of the green ware set in the kiln and lasts to 100° C. During this period the final hydroscopic water or water of plasticity is expelled.

are oxidized; the combined water from most hj'^drates and miscellian water from colloids are given off; ferric sulphide or pyrite is broken up into ferrous sulphide and one-half the sulphur evolved; magnesium and ferrous carbonates are broken up into oxides and carbon dioxide evolved, also the magnesium oxide begins to act chemically; dolomite is broken up into the oxides and the gas carbon dioxide evolved; further the oxides begin to exert their fluxing influence; and both the molecules of water are driven off from the kaolin.

3* Oxidation Period. - This begins at 700° C. and lasts to 900° C. Here ferrous sulphide is oxidized to ferric oxide and sulphur evolved as gas; fossil carbon such as the jBxed carbon in coal, etc., is oxidized; ferrous oxide is oxidized to ferric oxide, and during the latter part of the period the bases, lime, magnesia, and alkalies begin to exert their fluxing action to a considerable extent.

4. Vitrification Period. - This begirs at 900° C. and lasts to complete fusion. It begins when the mass first hardens, which is shown by the beginning of the fire shrinkage, and it lasts to the point where the old mineral forms are united into a dense more or less homogeneous mass. It is a series of combinations and solutions of the various mineral components present.

These periods should be given special attention in the burning of all clay ware. The black cores frequently fomid in ware made from the Lower Kittanning clay are due to lack of care or knowledge in burning. If the heat in the kiln is raised too quickly, which crowds the water smoking period into the dehydration, which in turn is crowded into the oxidation, the oxidation period is then incomplete when vitrification begins, which retards further oxidation. The ferrous compounds produced form dark-colored fluid slags, which, in the presence of liberated gases, bloat and destroy the structure of the ware.

The fine glazed finish on ware made from this clay is obtained by proper care during the oxidation and vitrification periods. The ware should be completely oxidized, then during the vitrification period the flame should be so regulated that periods of oxidation are followed by short periods of reduction. This oxidation and reduction of the iron salts produce the segregation and the glazing, which give the ware a beautifully mottled and polished finish.

There is one plant in Lawrence County manufacturing high-grade building brick, the plant of the Cambria Clay Products Company, at Blackfork. Concerning this, Mr. S. P. Reitz, the secretary and treasurer, reports as follows:

We are mining from 4 to 5 feet of fire clay, which is overlaid with Lower Kittanning coal, the thickness of which is 2 feet 10 inches. After we mine the clay the coal is taken down and is used at the brick plant. This land also contains shale, but up to the present time we have not used this class of material.

The brick plant consists of one 9-foot Stevenson dry pan, one combination pug and auger machine, one automatic cut-off, made by E. M. Freese & Co., C5alion, O., one Victor repress, manufactured by Raymond Bros. Co., Dayton, O., two 72 x 17 tubular boilers, one 125-H. P. slide-valve, Houston, Stanwood-Gamble engine, and one IngersoU-Rand air compressor, which is used for drilling in the limestone mines, and which also furnishes air to the mine pumps. We have 8 dry tunnels w'ith a capacity of 48,000 brick, one fan taking heat from the kilns and driving it into the tunnels, and another fan located on the opposite side taking off the moisture of the brick. We have 7 kilns with a capacity of 70,000 brick each. Clay and coal are delivered to the plant by overhead tramway. The Lower Kittanning coal is used for burning brick, and the Clarion coal for steam purposes. We employ 40 men at the brick plant, and 50 in the mines. We manufacture face brick and machine made fire brick, making both grades out of fire clay. The building brick come out in buff shades, running from light to dark.

The building brick manufactured by this firm are very handsome buffs and iron clay mottles, the equal of any made in the State. The shades run from solid buffs to light buffs, with small iron spots, and to very dark buffs virith the iron drawn out in large black blotches. The brick are vitrified; hence they are impervious to water, which qualification is in demand at present for all high grade work. These brick do not stain and weather as porous partially vitrified brick do, and they may be cleaned if necessary. The Lower Kittanning clay is used largely by the stoneware potters of this State.

1. It must be plastic, so that it can be spun and molded into any desired shape, without the expenditure of any excessive power in preparation or the use of excessive strength in turning. There is a great difference in clays in this respect, which in others meet equally well the demands of the business.

2. It must be refractory enough to stand up well and keep its shape at a heat sufficient to melt the clays used for glazes, or to take a good salt glaze on its surface. This condition is of the utmost importance; a fusible clay will cause the manufacturer a regular percentage of loss in every kiln, which can be avoided entirely by using a stronger clay.

3. While keeping its shape at this heat, it ought to be undergoing a process of vitrification which, while not being sufficiently marked to make the ware brittle or glassy, still makes the body practically impervious to water. Much stoneware is now made that does not fill this condition, as it is not vitrified at all and depends upon its glaze to make it impervious.

4. When l)urnt with a continuously clear fire or oxidizing atmosphere, it ought to present a clear and uniform tint, varying from light straw yellow or buff when rather soft burnt, to a clear stone gray or blue color when hard. If the clay shows, on short exposure to a smoky flame, a brown tint or scum, it will be undesirable, as it is always likely and almost sure to be exposed to reducing influences in a 40-hours burn, and a brown color is unpopular in the market.

5. Blotches, pimplesi blisters, or any other eruption on the surface of the ware which are due to impurities in the clay and not to faults of burning, will rule the clay out, no matter if all other qualities are correct.^

The Lower Kittaiming clay in Lawrence County has not been tested for this purpose, but undoubtedly large quantities suitable for stoneware exist as it varies from clay high in alumina to that high in silica. It is quite free from iron nodules, pyrite, and sand concretions. It is plastic and refractory, but vitrifies to a good dense body.

The Lower Kittanning coal is of good quality for burning this class of ware, and in some localities, where the clay is suitable, both coal and clay could be taken from the same entry, thus making the mining of both economical. Conditions are favorable for the establishment of this industry, as stoneware clays of excellent quality can be mined at a low cost, as the coal associated with the clay is of good quality and may be utilized for burning the ware, as the shipping facilities by rail and river are good, and as the local and western markets are open.

Another large and important branch of the clay industry is the manufacture of hollow ware, such as sewer pipe, fireproofing, and flue linings. These are made from both shales and fire clays. The three classes of ware will be considered together, as they are often made by the same machines. The main qualifications for this class of ware are the following:

1. The drying and burning shrinkage should be low in order that the strains thus produced will not crack the ware. Much ware is lost through this defect. In fireproofing the shrinkage is important also, as the limit in the size of the ware is usually very narrow.

2. They should form plastic muds in order to flow readily through the dies; but the mud should not be too plastic, as this produces lamination of the column, which later causes defects in the ware.

3. The clays should be free from hard concretionary matter, as this causes trouble in the dies, and as it generally slags during the burning, producing blisters or blotches.

4. Sewer pipe clays should be such that they vitrify to a good dense body which still retains its shape. Fireproofing and flue linings are not burned to vitrification, so but little trouble is experienced.

5. Sewer pipe clays in burning should go to a good smooth natural finish, or should take a salt glaze to produce that required. With the other classes of ware this finish is not essential.

Siliceous shales and clays usually meet these requirements, and both are found in large quantities at the Lower Kittanning horizon. At present (1913) there are no sewer pipe plants in the region, but the Cambria Clay Products Company is contemplating building a plant in the near future. The conditions for the success of a sewer pipe plant are favorable, as large quantities of available clays and shales of excellent quality for this ware are found in the region; coal of excellent quality for fuel is associated with the clays and shales; the competition is not severe, as the closest plants are near Steuben ville; and the shipping facilities to the westel-n markets are good.

The shales at this horizon are of good quality for the manufacture of paving, sewer, and building brick, of tile, etc. They have been used at one plant only to any considerable extent. The Petersburg Fire Brick & Tile Company, at Coalgrove, are using these shales in the manufacture of building and paving brick and of drain tile. They also manufacture fire brick from the flint and plastic clay of the Lower Kattanning horizon, and prepare gtoister for the market, Mr. John Peters reports as follows:

We have about 7 feet of plastic fire clay and about 20 feet of shale. This shale makes paving brick of the very best quality. JWe also have some fUnt fire clay. Here the Lower Kittanning coal ia 40 inches thick and the Sheridan coal 38. Our brick plant has a capacity of 10,000 per day. We have a ISO-horse power engine and boiler. Grinding and mixing the materials are done in one wet and one dry pan. The ware is dried on two floors and burned in 4 kilns. The company owns 275 acres of land on which are found clay, coal, and ganister.

Lower Kittanning Coal

The next member is the Lower Kittanning coal which outcrops in the entire western part of the county. This bed is by far the most important coal stratum in Lawrence County, and has been the main source of the local fuel supply for many years. Notwithstanding this, only a small part of the field is exhausted. The region along the Ohio River has been the most largely worked.

In Perry Township, which fronts on the Ohio River, the bed averages about 3 feet of clean coal with a clay parting of 6 to 10 inches between the lower and upper bench. On Ice Creek, below the mouth of Turkey Fork, the parting thickens locally and in one place shows 8 feet. Along the lower part of the Storms Creek Valley in Upper Township the coal has good thickness, but it thins farther up the valley or in the northern part of the township where in places only a few inches were seen. In the western part of Lawrence Township also it is thin and bony, while in Hamilton and in the western part of Upper Township, as a geneml thing, the bed is well developed. It reaches its maximum development in Lawrence County, in Elizabeth Township, and it has fair volume in most of Decatur and Washington townships.

The prospects of the Lower Kittanning coal holding good thickness as it extends eastward under heavy cover are not encouraging in the northern part of the field. In this region west of Symmes Creek it is easily within shafting distance. The bed in its most eastern exposure on Buffalo Creek, in the region near the Rehmer School, is bony and of little importance. On the headwaters of Pine Creek southeast of Moulton it is thin and in places is represented only by finger coal in the sandstone. On the headwaters of Little Pine and

Cannons creeks it has good thickness, but on the headwaters of Storms Creek where the coal goes under cover it is thin and bony. This condition holds southward on Storms Creek to below Cliffside. The Middle Kittanning coal comes to the surface on Buffalo and south on Symmes Creek for some distance. It goes under cover just above Waterloo. The Middle Kittanning coal is also seen on Johns Creek and its tributaries and on Aaron Creek, and it just appears in the bed of the stream on Elkins Creek. The interval from the Lower Kittanning to the Middle Kittanning coal averages about 40 feet, so that in this region the bed could easily be obtained by shafting. The Upper Freeport coal is found along the Symmes Creek Valley from the northern boundary of the county to Marion. The interval from Ijie Lower Kittanning to the Upper Freeport coal averages about 120 feet, consequently the Lower Kittanning coal in this whole northern area from the Symmes Valley west would be available, but the indications are that it is poorly developed, especially along its eastern exposure. No drill records Were obtained, but part of the territory has been prospected by the Symmes Valley Coal Company.

In the southern part of the field the prospects for the Lower Kittanning coal to hold its thickness eastward imder heavy cover are slightly better. Wl^ere the Lower Kittanning coal goes under cover on Sugar Creek near the Ironton road, on Ice Creek near the mouth of Turkey Fork, and on Little Ice Creek near Forestdale, it has good thickness. On Dog and Ned forks and on Ice Creek to Rock Camp the Upper Freeport coal is above drainage, so the Lower Kittanning coal which is about 120 feet below is easily within shafting distance. No drill records were obtained. The conditions are such that this territory east of its eastern outcrop in the southern part of the county well warrants thorough prospecting.

The best part of the Lower Kittanning coal fields has been worked for many years, but large tracts of good coal are yet available. Ironton, Coalgrove, and Hanging Rock have drawn most of their fuel supply from the mines in the southern part of the field. Much of the local domestic supply is furnished by small wagon mines. The railroad mines on the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton, on the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and on the Newcastle & Ohio River railroads furnish part of the local supply, and also ship to outside points. The most important mines in the southern part of the field are listed below.

Scherer and Hughes operate small mines at Madyville. The coal is delivered from the mines to the consumer by wagon only. They use about 9 men in mining. B. F. Lynd has wagon mines on the front hill east of Ironton and employs 6 men. The Petersbiu-g Fire Brick and Tile Company operates mines near Coalgrove for fuel for the brick plant, and also sells some for domestic use.

front hills east of Ironton, and the coal is taken from the mines to the works on a tram road. There are a number of small mines on Little Ice Creek, which deliver coal by wagon to Coalgrove and Ironton. Near Hecla Furnace and on Sugar Creek a few small wagon mines are operated. The Hanging Rock Iron Company works extensive mines near Newcastle, which have been in operation for many years. It mines coal, limestone, and clay, and has its own railroad, Newcastle & Ohio River, for delivering the coal from the mines to the furnaces or market. The mining along the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railway is the most extensive carried on in Lawrence County. The Ginn Company's mines, south of Vesuvius Station, are well up on the hill, so that the coal is taken by an incline from the mouth of the mines to the tipple at the railroad. Mr. L. W. Ault, secretary of the company, describes the equipment as follows:

For power in hauling we are using a Davis storage battery mine locomotive which is only 28 inches high and which does most of the gathering. The large haul from lay oflf to top of incline is still done by mules. Our coal is let down from the top of the hill to tipple by means of a drum and wire rope; the load going down polls the empty up. We have a 20-hor8e power generator run by a gasoline engine, which operates the fan also, for recharging the battery in our locomotive. When running full we employ about 50 men.

Mr. C. C. Smith, who operates mines north of Etna Station, hauls the coal in wagons to the cars at the Etna switch. He works about 20 miners and 5 men with teams. The Halley Coal Company has operated shipping mines in the vicinity of Etna Station for many years. The mines are level-free, and the hauling is done by mule power. The capacity, under normal conditions, is reported to be about 200 tons per day. W. R. Maxey mines the lower Kittanning coal, near Lawrence Furnace, along with limestone and clay. The equipment is described under Ferriferous limestone mines. The total men employed in mining by him is 30. A few^ small wagon mines are also in operation near Lawrence Furnace. E. B. Willard mines some coal at Bartles. The equipment has been given, and the output is about 400 car? per year. A few small mines are being worked for local use near Center Station. The Superior Portland Cement Company mines the Lower Kittanning coal for steaming purposes and for local domestic use. Its mines near the plant are electrically equipped with power for hauling and cutting, and are also lighted by electricity. It also works a few wagon mines south of the plant. There are a few mines in the northern part of the field east of the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad in Washington Township, the most important of which are given below. The Portsmouth Refractories Company mines the Lower Kittanning coal and its associated clay. The coal is used for fuel in burning the fire brick, and for local domestic use. The clay and coal are brought from .the mines to the plant by a tram road. The York Portland Cement Company formerly operated mines in Spencer Hollow.

The Cambria Clay Products Company works the Lower Kittanning coal and the associated clay. The coal is used for burning brick and for local domestic purposes. Formerly these mines were operated on a large scale, and were electrically equipped. The hauling was done with motors and the cutting with machines, but at present the mining is done by hand and the hauling by mules.

At present the equipment in most of these mines is comparatively simple. The ventilation is produced by shafts, furnaces, or fans in the larger mines, but in the smaller ones the only ventilation is through old works. The drainage is natural or by ditches in most cases, although a few are drained by means of pumps. The mining in general has been unsystematic and wasteful, owing to the haphazard method of driving entries and working rooms. A few of the larger mines have been worked with more economy, as they have been properly surveyed and plotted. The usual method pursued by the small operator is to drive an entry until he can turn two rooms, which are worked almost any width and length as long as the air is good, and as long as the distance to "buggy" the coal is not too great; then the entry is driven until he can turn two more rooms, which are worked in the same manner. The result is the coal along the outcrop is worked out, while good blocks, which are imavailable, or can be mined only with considerable dead expense, are left farther in the hill.

The roof material of the Lower Kittanning coal in the entire southern part of the field is a massive sandstone, but in the northern part this is replaced by clays and shales. In general the roof is excellent and the mining conditions fair.

The character of the bed is such that the coal mines more or less dirty. Normally it is made up of two coal benches with a clay parting intervening, the thickness of which varies greatly. In that part of the field around Royerville, Etna, and Lawrence Furnace this parting is often less than one inch thick, but in the northern part of the field, around Blackfork, it thickens in places from 1 to 2 feet. The maximum is found on Ice Creek, where the parting is 8 feet. The average is about 5 or 6 inches. In places a thin bony band is found about the middle of the upper bench, but this seldom reaches over 1 inch in thickness. The "nigger head" or shaly coal found above the upper bench is a part of the member. In that part of the field on Little Pine Creek, where the coal is best developed, this shaly coal is also quite thick, often reaching IS inches. It is made up of coal interstratified with bands of carbonaceous shale. It does not have the tough nature of a shale, but is blocky and brittle much like coal. In Spencer Hollow a heavy plastic or flint clay is found above the coal. This makes a very poor roof, owing to the crumbly and brittle nature of the clay.

exercised. At present but little coal is cut by the pick. The usual method is to "shoot off the solid," which requires much harder shooting than where bearing-ins have been made. This not only breaks up the coal severely, but also breaks up the clay and "nigger head" which come down with the fuel. The larger pieces of clay and "nigger head" are picked out, but the finer pieces are loaded. The lump coal that passes over the screen is fairly clean, but the nut and slack coal contains all this fine deleterious material which makes the quality poor, and consequently makes the market value low. In many of the mines, after picking out the large pieces of clay and "nigger head," the coal is forked, which leaves considerable nut and slack coal, and fine impurities in the mine. This method is wasteful, as much good fuel that should be utilized for some purpose is allowed to remain in the works. The quality of the Lower Kittanning coal is shown by the following analyses:

Lower Kittanning coal from the mine of John Peters, Coalgrove, Lawrence County. This is one of the southernmost mines of the state. The coal is used in burning brick and two or three mines are kept regularly at work. The sample was taken about one mile from the entrance where there was a vertical cover of 100 feet. While considerable water was in the mine, the sample was cut in a dry place and measured 5 by 3 inches. Sampled by D. D. Condit in November, 1907. Chemical analysis and calorific value of sample:

Sample from mine No. 2 of the Halley Coal Company, £2tna Station, Lawrence Coimty. Sample taken about 1,500 feet from entrance and where there was a vertical cover of 50 feet. The sample was cut from a fresh face and measured 5 by 3 inches. Taken by D. D. Condit in November, 1907. Chemical analysis and calorific valuie of sample:

Analyses of the top and bottom benches were made by the Belfont Iron CJompany and of the full bed by the Ashland Coal & Iron Company, Ashland, Ky. The latter company also took a car of our coal and washed it in its plant at Ashland. Then it was pulverized and made into coke, with the result that we got as nice looking a product as is on the market. The analysis of the coke is as follows:^

It is an excellent steam coal. The bed is 42 inches thick, and we have our mine in operation. The tests that have been made with this coal show that by a mixture of a small percentage of Pocahontas coal an excellent grade of coke can be produced.

The Lower Kittanning coal has been coked for years by the Ashland Coal & Iron Company at Ashland, Ky. The coke produced is of fair quality, but the yield is low. Since the introduction of the retort oven, many coals that made poor coke, or gave low yields in the beehive ovens, are now important. Either alone or mixed with other coals they make good coke, and valuable by-products are saved.

This coal has a good reputation for steam purposes. It is a freeburning long-flamed coal, and the ash clinkers but little. It is also an excellent coal for burning clay products, especially building brick, sewer pipe, or tile, as the color is developed mainly by the impinging of the flame on the ware. The calorific value compares favorably with that of other coals of the State. The Lower Kittanning coal has a fair reputation as a gas coal, but has not been extensively used for this purpose. The shipping qualities are rather poor, as the coal is soft and breaks up easily in handling.

the most important coal bed in Lawrence Comity, as the area available is large, as the quality is equal or superior to other coals in the county, as the mining conditions are fair, as the associated clays are of excellent quality, and as it has possibilities in the manufacture of retort coke and valuable by-products.

This coal is locally known as the '^Lost Seam," owing to the fact that it is found only in one region, and that covers but a few square miles of territory. The bed is best developed in the region near Center Station, in Decatur Township, where it reaches a thickness of 3 feet. ' SoHth of this area it is replaced by heavy sandstone, and north by sandstone as far as the northern part of Washington Township where the shales appear. Its position is from 1 to 6 feet above the Lower Kittanning coal, from which it is separated by shale or clay. In the hill south of Center Station the following section, which shows its relation to the Lower and Middle Kittanning coals, was taken:

This bed was traced eastward to the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway, but was not seen beyond this. Along the road on the divide from Center Station to Center Furnace the following section was taken:

This section shows that the "Lost Seam" is wanting, as it has been replaced by sandstone. It disappears in about one-half mile, and is not found farther north. A section was taken near the head of the first hollow east and north of the Superior Cement plant which shows the "Lost Seam." This section is as follows:

The "Lost Seam" was not foimd either north or west of this hollow. It is confined to a few square miles only. It is not a part of the Lower Kittanning member, but distinctly a separate deposit.

This "Lost Seam" is of small importance. In part of the territory, especially around Center Station, it lies near enough to the Lower Kittanning coal to be mined with the latter. Where the shale thickens to several feet, this cannot be done. The coal is of poor quality. It has man^'' plant markings in which thin pyrite bands are found, and the ash is reported high.

The only area in Lawrence County in which the Oak Hill clay was seen is in Spencer Hollow, where it lies close to the Lower Kittanning coal, as shown by the section taken at the mine of the Portsmouth Refractories Company, which is as follows:

In this locality a few feet of shale often separate the Oak Hill clay from the underlying Lower Kittanning coal. This is the case also in the northern part of Jackson County, but near Oak Hill it often lies directly on the coal.. The deposits of this clay in Lawrence County are very local, and have not been utilized as yet. For a more complete description of this member the reader is referred to this subject in the report on Jackson County, where the Oak Hill clay is treated at some length.

The Middle Kittanning is one of the most important coal members in Ohio. This bed, which has notable thickness in the Hocking Valley region in its extension southward, thins so that it becomes of far kss value. Small areas of good coal are foimd, however, in Vinton, Gallia, and Lawrence counties. In its extension southward from Lawrence County into Kentucky it appears again in force. In Lawrence County the Middle Kittanning coal is best developed in the Sheridan District, in Perry Township, while isolated pockets of coal are also found in Upper, Elizabeth, Decatur, Washington, Symmes, and Aid townships. The Middle Kittanning coal is found generally from 35 to 40 feet above the Lower Kittanning coal, and from 65 to 90 feet below the Upper Freeport. See Map VI facing page 390.

Perry Township. - The Middle Kittanning coal has good volume in the Sheridan District, in Perry Township, where it was formerly mined in a large way for coaling steamboats on the Ohio River anel for river shipment. At present only small mines are operated to supply local domestic needs, although large areas of coal are yet available. Owing to the value of the bed in this district it will be traced with some care.

On the Hecla property, along Pancake Branch of Ice Creek, the Middle Kittanning coal was opened and worked at one time, and is reported by Mr. Charles Campbell to be 42 inches thick. On the property of Josephine Ball this bed has been worked in a small way. No mines are open at present, but Mr. Edward Cannon reports it from 20 to 42 inches in thickness. It has been worked in a few places near the mouth of Turkey Fork, but appears thin and irregular. Along the lower course of Little Ice Creek the Middle Kittanning coal is thin, and in places is represented only by the clay. Towards the headwaters, however, the coal is present in force. Just east of Forestdale, on the property, of John Pancake, the following record was obtained, where the coal was well exposed for measurement: , and east of this, on Little Ice Creek, to where the bed falls below drainage, it is reported to be somewhat patchy. Near where it passes below drainage, however, it again expands to about the normal volume for this coal in the Sheridan District. This is shown by the record given below, which was taken on the farm of G. W. Graham*

Mr. Graham reports that the coal in this locality averages al^out 3 feet 6 inches in thickness. East of this the Middle Kittanning coal has .been mined by stripping on the property of Edward Crabtree who reports the bed to be 4 feet 5 inches in thickness. This member has good volume on Little Ice Creek, where it passes under cover. Along th« Ohio River, north of the village of Sheridan on the land of the Sheridan Coal Company, this coal was mined for a number of years, but the territory is not yet exhausted. No good exposures were found, but the bed is reported to average about 3 feet 6 inches in thickness. This statement is borne out by the measurements of the member obtained at mines on the land of Charles Chatfield, on the branch of Lick Creek north of Sheridan. The record follows:

In this locality the shale below the sandstone is stated to vary from 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feet, while the clay above the coal varies from 2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches. The coal bench expands from 3 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 11 inches and is not separated by clay or bony coal partings. In this hollow small wagon mines are operated for the local fuel supply. The clay above the coal makes a rather unsatisfactory roof, but it may be held up by careful posting and by driving narrow works. On Lick Creek, the Middle Kittanning bed passes below drainage about one mile east of the flood plain of the Ohio River. The bed is quite persistent and has good volume along this stream. On the farm of Henderson Rickman the following measurements were obtained in a drift mine:

In this locality north of Lick Creek, the coal is reported to average about 3 feet 6 inches in thickness, and to vary from 3 feet 3 inches to 3 feet 11 inches, while south of the stream, the bed is stated to average 2 feet 10 inches and to vary from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 4 inches. There is quite a gooel area of Middle Kittanning coal above drainage, in the Sheridan District, that is undeveloped. From surface indications the coal appears to be rather steady and to have good volume. Furthermore, as the bed is present in force, where it passes below drainage on Little Ice and Lick creeks, it is reasonable to expect the coal to extend with the same volume under cover for at least a short distance. Drill records east of this appear to indicate that it extends eastward across the county, but the tests are too scattered to obtain an opinion on the continuity of the member.

Upper Township. - In Upper Township there are only small pockets of Middle Kittanning coal that have sufficient thickness for regular drift mining. In the greater part of the area the bed, if present at all, is marked only by a thin layer of impure coal. The best pockets of coal will be described.

Near Coalgrove, on the property of the Petersburg Fire Brick and Tile Company, the Middle Kittanning coal is reported by John Peters to be well developed. The mines had all fallen in, so that the coal was not seen. The section reported is as follows:

The Middle Kittanning coal is worked at present in Upper Township on the Sailor property on Sugar Creek near the Ironton road, where the section is as follows:

This is only a local pocket and the bed thins west on Storms Creek. Near the road on the divide from Storms Creek to Lagrange Furnace, the Middle Kittanning coal has been opened and mined on the John Lane property, but the area of workable coal is small. The section is as follows: *

Lawrence Township. - North of the Sailor pocket on the headwaters of the tributary of Storms Creek in Lawrence Township, the Middle Kittanning has been opened in a few places, where J. H. Keys reports the coal to be 1 foot 3 inches thick.

Elizabeth Township. - North of the above, it is generally thin and of little value as far as Center Station in Elizabeth Township, where there is another small pocket of Middle Kittanning coal, which

Washiimton Township. - The Middle Kittanninp coal in Washington To'A7i>hip, althoujrh sr/rnr-what thin, has been minr-d at many places in ^\l*' r-o^tJl^^l part of the an-a, while in the southern part it is quite \.\\\u afd oft^n wantiij^f. (hi Olive Creek the blossom of this member ffOf/i I itftti to I foot 0 infhf .s in thiekn«^ss was noted in a number of \thu'(Hf whil" or> Brady Oe^^k the outcrop of the bed indicates that jf I* «<r" rally thin and often replaced by thick sandstones. Xo mines working thJH coal wc-re H"en on the creek. In Spencer Hollow it is alno tKin arfrj of ro importance. On Black Fork, east of the plant of th<' f larnbria Clay Products C'ompany, it has been mined. The entries w/ r" fallen ip, Wi the coal was not seen, but Henry Watson, who worked ir» t^Mm* miri'H, n ports the bed as follows:

He also reports that the quaUty of the coal is good, but that it thins down to 6 inches or less in places. It has also been worked some for local use near the head of Black Fork, where the thickness is practically the same as in Irish Hollow.

Aid Township. - The Middle Kittanning coal is above drainage in the northern part of the basin of Symmes Creek. On Elkins Creek, in Aid Township, above Oak Ridge Furnace, the coal is found in the creek bed for a short distance. Mr. John Waugh reports that it is 1 foot 6 inches thick. On Aaron Creek it may be seen above drainage for a short distance. On the property of S. D. Griffith it has been opened in the bed of the stream, where he reports it 2 feet thick and of good quality. A small mine was worked about one-half mile farther down the creek. Here Mr. Griffith states that the coal on the outcrop is about 2 feet thick, but that it thins to a few inches as the bed is followed into the hill.

Symmes Township. - On Johns Creek, in Symmes Township, the Middle Kittanning coal is above drainage from Sherritts to near its headwaters, and it is found on the northern tributaries. Buckeye, North, and Slab forks, well up their courses. It has been opened in a few places on Johns Creek, but as all the workings have fallen the coal was not exposed for measurement. It was worked some for local use on the property of Mr. Alfred Keller, near the head of the creek. He reports the bed to have a maximum thickness of 4 feet, but to lie in pockets which thin to a few inches. A section in one of his mines is reported as follows :

He reports the coal to lie between two sandstones, which, in places in whole or in part, replace the coal. Near the head of Slab Fork one foot of coal was seen in the bed of the creek. ^ Farther down it has been opened and worked in a small way for local use. A section in a mine shows the following:

The Middle Kittanning coal has also been opened and worked on the property of A. Neal, who reports that it lies in pockets, which vary in thickness from a few inches to 31 feet. On North Fork, in Symmes Township, it has been mined in a small way for local use. On the property of W. H. Boggs, along this stream, a section was taken in a mine south of his residence, which is as follows: «^

Near the head of the creek it has been mined in the bed of the stream, where Oliver Dennin reports about 3 feet of coal. On Buckeye Creek the bed, only a few inches in thickness, was observed at a number of places. Near the head of the creek in the bed of the stream it is as follows:

In the Symmes Creek Valley the Middle Kittanning coal is found near the Ixd of the stream about one mile north of Waterloo. Here it is rtpns rted by only a few inches of coal, which condition is maintained to near the mouth of Buffalo Creek, where it thickens locally. On the property of T. H. Neal it and the Upper Freeport coal have been opened. The section is as follows:

Economic Valine Excepting the small area near Sheridan the Middle Kittanning or No. 6 coal in Lawrence County is of small importance, as it is developed to a workable thickness in pockets only. The quantity of coal in this bed, however, if properly worked, is sufficient to furnish the local fuel supply for many years in the central part of the county. The coal is of fair quality. An analysis of a sample from the mine of G. L.

The quality of the coal is excellent for domestic and steam purposes. It is a free burning fuel with a moderate amount of ash, which does not clinker in the grates. A^ shown by the sections, the root in part of the field is ver>' poor, as it is either a soft joints shale, or a soft clay, or a draw slate bettv^een the coal and sandstone above. In some places, however, the roof is good as it is a sandstone or a tough shale. All the mines working this bed at present are small and the coal is hauled by wagons. Formerly a few railroad mines were operated on Black Fork in Washington Township. The mines were electrically equipped and the coal loaded from a well built tipple into the railroad cars, but as the coal is too thin and broken for successful mining in this manner, the operations were abandoned.

The clay associated with the coal in some parts of the field is of fair quality, but this, like the coal, is uncertain in extent. No works of importance should be based on this clay and coal without thorough testing and prospecting. "^

Yellow Kidney Ore

Between the Middle Kittanning and Lower Freeport coals there occurs in places in Lawrence Coimty a bastard limestone bed, which is often very ferruginous. In fact, along the outcrop it is often an iron ore and is characterized by a high content of phosphorus, which makes it valuable for some grades of iron. This deposit is best seen in small areas in Hamilton, Upper, and Elizabeth townships. The thickest deposit of ore noted on this horizon was in Mile Hollow, on Osborn Run on the property of the Hanging Rock Iron Company, where the follo^^ing record was obtained:

The Yellow Kidney is a calcareous, high phosphorus ore with sufficient iron to make it worth while for furnace use. As a general thing it is more than self-fluxing, which adds materially to its value. There are two benches of the ore, the upper one of which carries the largest percentage of iron. This ore was used to a small extent by the charcoal furnaces, and has also been used occasionally by the present furnaces. An analysis of the ore furnished by the Hanging Rock Iron Company follows:

Lawrence Qounty 397

Usually the Lower Freeport coal is found about 40 feet above the Middle Kittanning coal, and about the same distance below the Upper Freeport. These intervals, however, vary from 30 to 50 feet. In Lawrence County, the Lower Freeport coal is best developed in Perry Township, although it is represented in southwestern Fayette, eastern Upper, Lawrence, eastern Elizabeth, Aid, Symmes, eastern Decatur, and eastern Washington. A few sections are given to show the structure of the bed and to show the general character of the materials in the interval from the Middle Kittanning to the Upper Freeport coals. A section taken in Decatur Township, on the divide from Center Station to Center Furnace, is as follows: .

In the western part of Lawrence Township, near the head of the stream that rises near Kitts Hill, the Lower and Middle Kittanning and the Lower and Upper Freeport coals are represented. The section is as follows:

In Perry Township, small quantities of Lower Freeport coal are mined to supply local needs. The bed here often has sufficient thickness for regular drift mining, but the coal is very hard and is difficult to work. On Little Ice Creek, north of Sheridan on the property of W. J. Graham, the bed has the following structure:

Under heavy cover at this place, the coal is reported to be 2 feet 9 inches in thickness, and to be in one block without a parting. On this stream, near the road that leads to Sheridan this coal has been mined by stripping, and is reported to be 3 feet in thickness. On Lick Creek, 1^ miles east of Sheridan, the Lower Freeport coal is mined by drifting on the land of Fred Wineka, where the following record was secured:

In Fayette Township, the Lower Freeport coal has furnished a small quantity of house fuel. The productive areas are small and confined to the southwestern part of the township. Near the head of Williams Run this coal is exposed at places along the banks of the stream, and is from 1 foot to 1 foot 6 inches in thickness. On Salliday

Creek, on the property of D. H. Davidson, the bed has been mined in a small way and is reported to be about 4 feet in thickness. East of the Kenova bridge, on the property of Benjamin Davidson, the Lower Freeport coal is regularly mined by drifting. The following record was taken well under cover:

The bed is somewhat variable in thickness and in composition. In places in the mine it is reported to expand to 3 feet in jthickness. Just west of the bridge this coal has also been worked and is reported to measure from 2 to 4 feet.

The Lower Freeport coal adds but little to the mineral resources of Lawrence County, but it has a value, however, for supplying domestic needs in a few localities, especially in Perry and Fayette townships. It is a hard, dense, oily coal often approaching a true cannel coal in appearance. It bums with a long flame and has fair heating value. The ash and sulphur are not excessive, but the former clinkers at high temperatures. Its main importance is for local use. The associated clay is usually thin and siliceous; hence it increases the value of the coal but little. However, the shales above the coal in many places have ceramic value.

Usually the Upper Freeport coal is found from 35 to 45 feet above the Lower Freeport coal, or from 70 to 90 feet above the Middle Kittanning or Sheridan bed. Its position is below the Mahoning sandstone, which is not persistent in Lawrence County. In some localities the coal lies directly below this member, while in other places shales intervene between the coal and sandstone. In a few localities the sandstone replaces the coal completely. On the Ohio River the horizon of the Upper Freeport coal passes below cover east of North Kenova, on Little Ice Creek, near the eastern line of Perry Township, and on l^ce Creek, near the village of Rock Camp. The bed, however, is above cover on Dog Fork, well towards its headwaters. North of this the Upper Freeport coal disappears east of Symmes Creek from Marion to the northern boundary of the county. On the west, small outliers are found on the tops of the hills close to the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railway from Ironton to Center Station, and from there north the western boundaries of Decatur and Washington townships are practically the western boundary of the outcrop of the Upper Freeport coal. The Upper Freeport coal is above drainage in practically all of Symmes and Aid townships, in southern Fayette, in western Perry and Lawrence, in eastern Upper, Elizabeth, Decatiu*, and Washington, and in northwestern Mason. The Upper Freeport coal is not persistent, but is developed only in pockets, the best of which are in the Symmes Creek basin. It has been mined for years for local use near Waterloo; consequently it is generally known in Lawrence County as the Waterloo coal. The best of these pockets that have been worked or prospected will be given. See Map VII.

Fayette Township. - The horizon of the Upper . Freeport coal is marked by red clays with a smut streak, or by a thin impure layer of coal in places along Salliday Creek and along the base of the Ohio River hills near North Kenova, in Fayette Township. No coal of value was observed.

Perry Township. - The Upper Freeport coal expands so that it is mined in local areas in Perry Township. The deposits are somewhat thin, but the coal is of good quality. On Little Ice Creek the Upper Freeport coal seldom thickens to over 1 foot, and the usual measurement is less than this. North of this stream, on Ice Creek, near the mouth of Turkey Fork, the bed has sufficient volume in a small area for drift mining. The record obtained follows :

On Ice Creek, one mile west of Rock Camp, the Upper Freeport coal has been opened and worked, but no mines were in operation when the locality was visited in 1912. J. R. Bowman reports that the bed varies in thickness from 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feet 6 inches, and in some places carries a bony parting. A characteristic section reported by him is as follows:

In the vicinity of Rock Camp the Upper Freeport coal was worked for years, although not mined at present. H. S. Brammer reports that the coal is in a solid block about 2 feet thick, and has a clay or shale between it and the overlying sandstone. There is a considerable area of unworked coal in this vicinity.

Lawrence Township. - In Lawrence Township the Upper Freeport coal is above drainage along Dog Fork, along the headwaters of Turkey Fork, and along the tributarie's of Storms Creek, that rise in the western part of the area. The workable coal is confined to small pockets, the beet of which will be considered. The Upper Freeport coal has been opened and worked near the head of Turkey Fork just south of Kitts Hill, in Lawrence Township. The section is as follows:

Not far from the head of the stream, one-half mile north of Kitts Hill, near the western edge of Lawrence Township, where the Upper Freeport coal goes under cover, it has been benched in the creek bottom. Pleasant Webb reports the coal as follows:

On the next stream north of this the coal has been worked to a small extent, and near the head of the stream the following section was taken in a cave:

It has also been mined by benching from the bed of the stream. The Upper Freeport coal is above drainage for one and one-half miles up Ned Fork, in Perry and Lawrence townships, but where seen it is only a few inches in thickness. No mines have been opened on this creek. On Dog Fork, however, near the Marion Road, in Lawrence Township, it is worked at present. On the property of E. L. Willis the following section was taken: feet 8 inches in thickness. Mr. Willis reports that the bed holds its thickness well as far as it has been tested. One-half mile north of this it is being mined at the level of the Marion road, where the section is as follows:

Upper, Elizabeth, and Decatur Townships. - The horizon of the* Upper Freeport coal is found in the eastern parts of all these townships, but the member is not represented by coal in any considerable thickness. No deposits that may be mined by drifting were noted.

Aid Township. - In local areas in Aid Township the Upper Freeport coal has excellent volume, and regularly contributes most of the local fuel supply. The best of the coal areas are located on Sharps Creek near Cherryville, on Symmes Creek near Marion, and on Elkins Creek near Oak Ridge Furnace. Near Manker the Upper Freeport coal was seen in the bed of the creek, and was represented by a thin stain and 4 feet of clay. About one-half mile north of here, on the property of

On the east side of Symmes Creek in Aid Township, one mile north of Marion, it has been opened and worked on the Edward Russel farm. The banks had fallen, but Mr. Russel reports the section as below:

The upper bench is usually left for a roof. Near the bridge over Symmes Creek, north of Marion, on the property of Charles Russel, the following section was taken:

On the west side of Symmes Creek, just south of the bridge, the coal has been mined for years. A section measured in the mine of Calvin Haskins is as follows:

Mr. Haskins reports that the lower bench holds its thickness well and averages about 3 feet 2 inches. The upper 5 inches of coal is somewhat bony, so that it is left to form a roof. The coal is used for local domestic purposes. On Sharps Creek, near Cherryville, there is a well developed pocket of Upper Freeport coal. It has been mined for local use, but no mines were open in 1912. Wm. M. Nance reports the section as follows: