Youngstown City (part 1 of 33)

Post Office And Central School And Representative Citizens

more valid than that of Connecticut, the company's grantor. They were also greatly in need of a regular and adequate form of government. They found themselves too far away from Connecticut for the laws of that State to be put into successful operation; and to profit by the Ordinance of 1787, which had been passed by Congress for the government of the Northwest Territory, it would have been necessary for them to admit the validity of the General Government's claim, and, as a consequence the insufficiency of their own title, which depended upon that of Connecticut. In January, 1797, the company resolved that they would apply to the legislature of Connecticut to erect the Western Reser^'e mto a county, under a temporary government and suitable laws, to be administered at the sole expense of the proprietors. At the same meeting they appointed Daniel Holbrook, W^illiam Shepperd, Jr., Moses Warren, Jr., Seth Pease and Amos Spafford, a committee to divide such part of the lands as were free from Indian claims, in accordance with the mode of partition that had been previously agreed upon. At the October meeting in the same year the directors and trustees were given power to pursue such measures as they should deem calculated to procure legal and practical government over the territory belonging to the company. Nothing effectual, however, was done in consequence of these resolutions, and the State of Connecticut did not attempt to exercise any jurisdiction over the territo^\^ Connecticut was then urged to obtain from the United States a release of the Governmental claim. "The result was that Congress, on the 28th day of April, 1800, authorized the President to execute and deliver on the part of the United States, letters patent to the g-overnment of Connecticut, releasing all right and title to the soil of the Reserve, upon condition that Connecticut should, on liier part, forever renounce and release to the United States entire and complete civil jurisdiction over the Reser\-e. Thus Connecticut obtained from the United States her claim to the soil, and transmitted and confirmed it to the Connecticut Eand Company and to those who had purchased from it, and jurisdiction for the purposes of government vested in the United States."' The inhabitants of the Reserve thus found themselves provided with a wise and equitable form of government in the Ordinance of 1787, to which brief allusion will here be made.

Ordinance Of I787

A temporary plan of government for the Western territory had been reported by Mr. Jefferson and adopted by Congress in April, 1784; but being found ineffective, it was repealed by the Ordinance of 1787, which created a practical machinery of government for immediate use, provided for the creation of the long-promised new States, and defined those high principles of civil polity which have continued in successful operation down to the present day. They included religious liberty, the right of habeas corpus, trial by jury, proportional representation in the legislature, and the privileges of the common law. Article III contained these words : "Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessarry to good government, and to the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." It was also provided that the navigable waters should be free to all the inhabitants of the territory and of the United States, without tax, impost, or duty. Slavery was prohibited, and it was declared "that the said territory and the States which may be formed therein shall forever remain a part of this Confederacy of the United States of America, subject to the Articles of Confederation, and to such, alterations therein as might be made, and to the laws enacted by Congress." With this Ordinance,- which was, in fact, a model constitution, the settlers in the Northwest were provided with a solid foundation upon which thev might proceed to build a stable and enduring society, .secure from au)- future danger of radical alterations on the assumption of Statehood, or from the needs of a larger and more complex population.

of Commissioners for that purpose in 1784. These officials, however, instead of seeking peace and friendship through the Great Council of the Northwestern Confederacy, which now held annual meetings near the Rapids of the Maumee, adopted a policy of dealing with the tribes separately. Thus the treaties of Fort Stanwix, in October, 1784; Fort Mcintosh, in January, 1785; Fort Finney, in January, 1786, and Fort Harmar, in January, 1789, had been made only with gatherings of unauthorized and irresponsible savages. The error of the commissioners was pointed out in a memorable remonstrance sent to Congress by the Council of the Confederates, in December, 1786, and bore fruits in numerous raids and murders perpetrated upon the settlers of the Government lands by the very tribes who were ignorantly reported and supposed to have ceded the territory. It led later to more general and widespread hostilities, involving the defeat of General Harmar's expedition in 1790, and the more disastrous defeat of St. Clair, in November, 1 79 1, after which no white man's life was safe on the frontier until Wayne's great victory over the Indians at tbe battle of the Fallen Timber, August 20, 1794. The thoroughness of Wayne's methods so impressed the savages that they concluded with him the treaty of Greenville, which brought peace and security to the settlers. It was never violated by any of the Indian tribes who were parties to it. By it the Indians yielded their claims to the lands east of the Cuyahoga, and thereafter the Cuyahoga river and the portage between it and the Tuscarawas constituted the boundary between the United States and the Indians upon the Reserve until July 4, 1805. "On that day a treaty was made at Fort Industry, by which the Indian title to all the Reserve west of the Cuyahoga was purchased. Tlius the Indian title to the soil of the Reserve was forever set at rest, and no flaw now existed in the Connecticut Land Company's claim to the ownership of the lands of the Reserve."

Survey Of The Reserve

portion of the Reserve lying east of the Cuyahoga river. This party consisted of about fifty persons, including General Moses Cleaveland, superintendent ; Augustus Porter, principal surveyor and deputy superintendent; Seth Pease, astronomer and surveyor; Amos Spafford, John Milton Holley, Richard M. Stoddard and Moses Warren, surveyors ; Joshua Stow, commissary, and Theodore Sheppard, physician. There were thirty-seven employees who had been engaged as chainman, axemen and boatmen, and whose names were respectively, Joseph Tinker (principal boatman), George Proudfoot, Samuel Forbes, Stephen Benton, .Samuel Hungerford, Samuel Davenport, Amzi Atwater, Elisha Ayres, Norman Wilcox, George Gooding, Samuel Agnew, David Beard, Titus V. Munson, Charles Parker, Nathaniel Doan, James Halket, Olnet F. Rice, Samuel Barnes, Daniel Shulay, Joseph Mclntyre, Francis Gray, Amos Sawtel, Amos Barber, William B. Hall, Asa Mason, Michael Coffin, Thomas Harris, Timothy Dunham, Shadrach Benham, Wareham Shepard, John Briant, Joseph Landon, Ezekiel Morly, Luke Hanchet, James Hamilton, John Lock, and Stephen Burbank. There were also Elijah Gun and his wife, Anna, who came with the surveyors and took charge of Stow's castle at Conneaut; Job P. Stiles and his wife Tabitha, who took charge of the Company's stores at Cleveland, and two men - Chapman and Perry - \\'ho furnished the sur\-eyors with fresh beef and traded with the Indians. There were also one or more children.

The party proceeded in flat-bottomed boats up the Mohawk river, and Wood Creek, towards Lake Ontario. At Oswego there was a British fort, which they were obliged to pass by a strategem, permission to do so having been refused by the officer in charge, in the absence of the regular commandant. Once on the waters of Lake Ontario they proceeded by way of Niag-ara and Oueenstown to Bufifalo. Flere on June 2,^d they attended a council of tlie Six Nations, made presents to the Indians, and exchanged speeches with Red Jacket, Captain Brandt and others. Several of the chiefs took dinner with the commissioners. On this occasion Red Jacket delivered himself of some remarks on the subject of religion, which, as they probably embodied the sentiments of many, if not most, of the Indians, are here reproduced in substance. "You white people make a great parade about religion. You say you have a book of laws and rules which was given you by the Great Spirit; but is this true? Was it written by his own hand and gWen to you ? No, it was written by your own people. They do it for deception. Their whole wishes center in their pockets : all they want is money. White people tell us they wish to come and live among us as brothers, and teach us agriculture. So they bring implements of industry and presents, tell us good stories, and all seems honest. But when they are gone all appears as a dream. Our land is taken from us, and still we don't know how to farm it."

From Buffalo the party journeyed by way of Lake Erie to the mouth of Conneaut creek, where they landed on July 4, 1796. As these pioneers of the Western Reserve, and the advance-guard of civilization, thus first touched soil on Independence Day. the birth-day of the Nation, it was doubly fitting that the occasion should be properly celebrated. This they accordinglv proceeded to do with such means as they had at hand. In the Journal of General ]\Ioses Cleaveland is found the following reference to the occasion :

"On this Creek (Conneaut) in New Connecticut land, July 4, 1796, under , General Moses Cleaveland, the surveyors and men sent by the Connecticut Land Compan}' to sur\'ey and settle the Connecticut Reserve, were the first English jieople who took possession of it. The day. memorable as the birthday of American Independence and freedom from British tyranny, and commemorated by all good freeborn sons of America, and memorable as the dav on which the settlement of this new country was commenced, and in time may raise her head amongst the most enli,ghtejied and improved States. And after many difficulties, perplexities, and hardships were surmounted, and we were on the good and promised land, felt that a just tribute of respect to the day ought to be paid. There were in all, including men, women, and children, fifty in number. The men, under Captain Tinker, ranged themselves on the beach, and fired a Federal salute of fifteen rounds, and then the sixteenth in honor of New Connecticut. Wt gave ' three cheers and christened the place Fort Independence. Drank several toasts, viz :

On the next day two boats were dispatched under the direction of Tinker to Fort Erie to fetch the remainder of the stores. On the 7tli an interview was had with a deputation of the Massasagoes Indians, under chief Paqua, who wished to ascertain the settlers' intentions with respect to themseh'es, they being the occupants of the land in the vicinity of Conneaut. General Cleaveland reassured them as to the intentions of the party, and gave them some presents, including the inevitable whisky, at the same time warning them against indolence and drunkeness, "which checked their l:)egging for more whisky."

The surveyors then began the main work of the- expedition. Proceeding to the south line of the Reser\-e, they first "ascertained the point where the forty-first degree of north lattude intersects the western line of Pennsylvania, and from this line of latitude as a base, meridian lines five miles apart were run north to the lake. Lines of latitude were then run five miles apart, tlius dividing the Reser\-e into townships five miles square. .As the lands lying west of the Cuyahoga remained in possession of the Indians until the treaty of Fort Industry, in 1805 the Reserve was not sur- \eved at this time further west tiian to the

Cuyahoga and the portage between it and the Tuscarawas, a distance west from the western hue of Pennsylvania of iifty-six miles. The remainder of the Reserve was surveyed in 1806. The sur\-eyors began, as we have seen, at the southeast corner of the Resen'e, and ran parallel lines north from the base line and parallel lines west from the Pennsylvania line five miles apart. The meridian lines formed the ranges, and the lines of latitude the townships."

Quantity Of Land In The Reserve

Land east of the Cuyahoga, exclusive of the Parsons tract in acres 2,002,970 Land west of the Cuyahoga, exclusive of surplus land, islands, and

The Equalizing Committee

The method in which the land was divided is SO' clearly and succinctly described in the History of Trumbull and Mahoning Counties (Cleveland, 1882), that we shall close this chapter with a partial transcription of the account of that work.

"After this survey was completed the Land Company, in order that the share holders might share equitably as nearly as possible the lands of the Reserve, or to avoid the likelihood of a part of the shareholders drawing the best, and others the medium, and again others the poorest of the lands, appointed an equalizing- committee, whose duties we shall explain.

one share, therefore, had one four-hundredth undivided interest in the whole tract, and he who held four or five or twenty shares had four or five or twenty times as much interest undivided in the whole Reserve as he who held but one. As some townships would bemorevaluable than others, the company adopted, at a meeting of shareholders, at Hartford, Conn., in April, 1796, a mode of making partition, and appointed a committee of equalization to divide the Reserve in accordance with the Company's plan. The committee appointed were Daniel Holbrook, William Sheppard, Jr., Moses Warren, Jr., Seth Pease, and Amos Spafiford.

"The Directors of the Company * * * selected six townships to be offered for sale to actual settlers alone, and in which the first improvements were designed to be made. The townships thus selected were numbers eleven in the sixth' range; ten, in the ninth range; nine in the tenth range; eight, in the eleventh range; seven, in the twelfth range; and two, in the second range. These townships are now known as Madison, Mentor, and Willoughby, in Lake County; Euclid and Newburg, in Cuyahoga County ; and Youngstown, in Mahoning. Number three, in the third range, or Weathersfield, in Trumbull County, was omitted from the first draft made l3y the company, owing to the uncertainty of the boundaries of Mr. Parsons' claim. This township has sometimes been called the Salt Spring township. The six townships above named were offered for sale before partition was made and parts of them were sold. Excepting the Parsons claim and the seven townships above named, the remainder of the Reserve east of Cuyahoga was divided among the members of the company as follows :

Mode Of Partition

"The four best townships in the eastern part of the Reserve were selected and surveyed into lots, an average of one hundred lots to the township. As there were four hundred shares, the four townships would yield one lot for each liolder or holders of one or more shares every share. When these lots were drawn, participated in the draft. The committee selected township eleven in range seven, and townships five, six, and seven, in range eleven, for the four best townships. These are Perry, in Lake County, Northfield, in Summit County, Bedford and Warrenville, in Cuyahoga County.

"Then the committee proceeded to select from the remaining townships certain other townships that should be next in value to the four already selected, which were to be used for equalizing purposes. The tracts thus selected, being whole townships and parts of townships * * * ^j-e now known as Auburn, Newbury, Munson, Cardon, Bainbridge, Russell and Chester townships, in Geauga County; Concord and Kirtland, in Lake County; Springfield and Twinsburg, in Summit County; Solon, Orange and Ma\dield, in Cuyahoga County. The fractional townships are Conneaut gore, Ashtabula gore, Saybrook gore, Geneva, Madison gore, Painesville, Willoughby gore. Independence, Coventry and Portage.

"After this selection had l^een made they selected the average townships, to the value of each of which each of the others should be brought by the equalizing process of annexation. The eight best of the remaining townships were taken. * * * They are now known as Poland, in Mahoning County; Hartford, in Trumbull County; Pierpont, Monroe, Conneaut, Saybrook and Harpersfield, in Ashtabula Count}' ; and Parkman, in Geagua County. These were the standard townships, and all the other townships of inferior value to these eight, which would include all the others not mentioned above, were to be raised to the standard value of the average townships by annexations from the equalizing townships. These last named were cut up into parcels of various sizes and values, and annexed to the inferior townships in such a way as to make them all of equal value, in the opinion of the committee. Wlieji the committee had performed this task it was found that, with the exception of the four townships first selected, the Parsons tract, and the townships that had been previously set aside to be sold, the whole tract would amount to an equivalent of ninetythree shares. Tliere were, therefore, ninetythree equalized townships or parcels to JDe drawn for east of the Cuyahoga.

The Drafts

"To entitle a shareholder to the ownership of an equalized township, it was necessary for him to be the proprietor of $12,903.23 of the original purchase of the company, or, in other words, he must possess about three and threetenth shares of the original purchase. The division by draft took place on the 29th of January, 1798. The townships were numbered from one to ninety-three, and the numbers, on slips of paper, placed in a box. The names of shareholders were arranged alphabetically, and in those instances in which an original investment was insufficient to entitle such investor to an equalized township, he formed a combination with others, in like situation, and the name of that person of this combination that took alphabetic precedence was used in the draft. If the small proprietors were, from disagreement among themselves, unable to unite, a committee was appointed to select and classify them, and those selected were compelled to submit to this arrangement. If, after they had drawn a township, they could not agree in dividing it between them, this committee, or another one appointed for that purpose, divided it for them. That township designated bv the first number drawn belonged to the first man on the list, and the second drawn belonged to the second man, and so on until all were drawn. Thus was the ownership in common sen-ed, and each individual secured his interest in severalty. John INIorgan, John Caldwell, and Jonathn Brace, the trustees, as rapidlv as partition was effected, conveyed by deed to tiie several purchasers the land they had drawn.

"The second draft was made in 1802, and was for such portions of the seven townships omitted in the first draft as remained at that time unsold. This draft was divided into

"The third draft was made in 1807, and was for the lands lying west of the Cuyahoga, and was divided into forty-six parts, each representing $26,687.

"The fourth draft was made in 1809, at which time the surplus land, so-called, was divided, including sundry notes and claims arising from sales that had been effected of the seven townships omitted in the first drawing."

Source changes here: from Twentieth Century History of Youngstown and Mahoning County, Ohio and Representative Citizens, by Sanderson, Thomas W, published 1907; 518,749 words in this source stream.

Biographical Publishing Company

1 1 1*1 aim of the publishers of this volume and the author of the history has been to secure for the historical portion thereof full and accurate data respecting the history of the county from the earliest times, ana to condense it into a clear and interesting narrative. All topics and occurrences have been included that were essential to this object. Although the original purpose was to limit the narrative to the close of 1906, it was found expedient to touch on many matters relating to the year 1907.

It is impossible for the editor to enumerate all those to whom he feel? that thanks are due for assistance rendered and kindly interest taken in this work. He would, however, mention the names of \Y. H. Mcdinnis, Rev. A. L. Frazer of Youugslown, and Capt. J. C. Hartzell, of Sebring, as of those to whom he feels under special obligations.

In the preparation of the history reference has been made to ami in some cases extracts taken from standard historical and other works 011 different subjects herein treated of, the titles of which will be found mentioned in the body of the work, in connection with said extracts. Much information has also been obtained from manuscript records not heretofore published.

The reviews of resolute and strenuous lives which make up the biographical department of this volume, and whose authorship is for the most part independent of that of the history, are admirably calculated to foster local ties, to inculcate patriotism, and to emphasize the rewards of industry dominated by intelligent purpose. They constitute a most appropriate medium of perpetuating personal annals and will be of incalculable value to the descendants of those commemorated. These sketches, replete with stirring incidents and intense experiences, are flavored with a strong human interest that will naturally prove to a large portion of the readers of this book its most attractive feature.

In the aggregate of personal memoirs thus collated will be found a vivid epitome of the growth of Mahoning county, which will fitly supplement the historical statement, for the development is identified with that of the men and women to whom it is attributable. The publishers have endeavored to pass over no feature of the work slightingly, but to fittingly supplement the editor's

"All the biographical sketches published in this volume were submitted to their respective subjects or to the subscribers, from whom the facts were primarily obtained, for their approval or correction before going to press: and a reasonable time was allowed in each case for the return of the type-written copies. Most of them were returned to us within the time allotted, or before the work was printed, after being corrected or revised: and these may therefore l>e regarded as reasonably accurate.

"A few, however, were not returned to us: and, as we have no means of knowing whether they contain errors or not. we cannot vouch for their accuracy. In justice to our readers, and to render this work more valuable for reference purposes, we have indicated these uncorrected sketches by a small asterisk ( *>, placed immediately after the name of the subject. They will all be found on the last pages of the book."

Biographical Publishing Co

Cen'mical Siniruiff of ihe suit- The (.eoUtc-il 1-oanilations .if Ohio ol Marine Origin I'rehisi. iir ri.nditiuu* First Land l'ijn»-> < Jri^jp of Coal Fields I irst Petniancnt L'ry Land \ge of Keptilrs 1 "i'si Mammal- The Glacial Period Kneel ol Glacial Aciian on tin- Landscape Surface Features of Mahoning Cnuntv - Gct-ltmical Structure of Mahoning County - -Conglomerate - Fossil Nut?* and FreitaoF the Carboniferous Age Found in Mahon-

The Irotpiois - Their l-autuus League Habits and Costumes The Algon-.piius, Their Commerce, IVuitv-Wriiini: ami Keligiaii Indian Warfare Innicii Cnpifis I- si. rnv.naticn I Tie Fries - The Cnalna Mu^oH M«'»,

Erroneous Ideas .1 Karl) Njvi,;,\Cts -itii C.e ^rapher- Attempt* to Keach the South S.-a Overland Vnmita s Charters Massachusetts Charier-, The fjtani to Venn Overlapping ilaHndaries -Dispute with Vitsmia Cue necticut's Claims -Conflict with Per.o-v Ivaoia Conned oi Trenton - Western Kr serve.

Chapt1K Vi

American Hilary Influenced by the lT.-tp.KMs Irnlian l r-sir-n. English Setters Crass tile. Mountains- The Trench Precipitate the War - Potsti.v'.- Ci.n»pit«ev Hoqwet's I-.ttpeilitino

Clark s Protest Capture ol Forts K.i-kaskia. Cahokia and Vincrnor, The Uriiish Try in Ker-n-r the Finn Project Against Drtruit Aliand.mrd Pisappearance ni the French Population The Ptitish Kelaia the M'-.ttlisst stern i . r--. ,'Ai*". J>e.t:% uf i'aii-

Contents

The County Funny'iy ap I mpnrunl ("ml Mining ftmet - Lcicnsivr, Opr-raiir.ni Thr Mamilarturf ni Iron an Old L-ttal*Ii.-.hcd and Leading Industry of the Mahoning Yallrv A Large Avv-um ^.1 rapiial Invr-tcd to These Twu Ind-j-.tnc in Mahoning I'nuntv ruuim lotirmirv Vntinsvtuwn Fre* Public Library - YuuoyMo«.u City Hoajntal - Mahoning Valley Hospital - tilgimnoil ct-.iUlren Hn;ne Flon-tu rritiemirn llwnc

Geology

<*«*'£'<«t -V?n" '"'v --( ""' State - The Uealognal Foundations of Ohio of Marine Origin - Prehistoric Conations-First /W*: f!n.;iN Coal Helds-First Permanent >"y J.,t>!d - ,lge AV/-fi7.-..; -77i,- GVjcm,' Period - Effect of Glacial tienlogy is the science th;it investigate- the successive changes that have taken place in the organic and inorganic Kingdom- of Nature. Iti order ti> render intelligible the statements tl;;'t ;tre >>< follow, a brief account v. lil here In' Riven of the .geologic;-.! series of the State, an. I its geological structure. The geological structure i .f ( )hio in a- simple as that of almost any other 40.0.x i -.|iiare miles of the earth's snrface. So far as its exposed rock series is concerned, Ohio is built throughout its whole extent of -t rat trie. I .leposits: or. in other words, of heels of sand, clay and Iim. q..;ie. m all their various gradations, that were deposit eel or that grew in water. There are m the Ohio series no igneous u.»r metamorphic rocks whatever: that is. there are no rocks that have assumed their )>;e-eiu form and condition fr. -m a molten state, or that sMh-e«|ucnt to their . t:gi:ia! form detived from the igneous and metamorphic rocks that are found around the stores "i Lakes Superior and Hut..,,. Hut these Ix.wN ders are recognized \yy all, even hv the least 0|,. servant, as foreign to the Ohio scale They are familiarly known as "lost r.jcks" or '-erratics." If we should descend deep enough !H-Uv the surface, we should rcnch the limit r»f these stratified deposits and come to the ureal foundations of the continent which are 'he s,trface rocks in parts , ,f Canada. New England and the \\ est. The granite of PI Vinoutl. Rock underlies the comment [lW the drill has never vet hewed its wax down to these missive

Tiif Geological Koinmations Of Ohio Of Marine Origin

The rocks that constitute the present surface of Ohio were formed in water and none of them have been modified or masked by the action of high temperatures. They remain in substantially the same condition in which they were formed. With the exceptions of the coal seams and a few beds associated with them, and of the drift dq*>sits. all the formations of Ohio grew in the sea. There are no lake or river de]x>sits among them; but by countless and infallible signs they testify to a marine origin. The remnants of life which they contain, often in the greatest abundance, are decisive as to this point. The sea in which or around which they grew was the former extension of the Gulf of Mexico. When the rocks of Ohio were in process of formation, the waters and genial climate of the Gulf extended without interruption to the Imrders of the Great Lakes. All of these rocks had their origin under such conditions. The rocks of Ohio constitute an orderly series. They occur it) wide-spread sheets, the lowermost of which are co-extensive with the limits of the State. As we ascend in the scale, the strata constantly occupy smaller areas, but the last dqxxits. vi/ : those of the Carl* >ni tenuis peri-wl are still found to cover at least one-fourth of the entire area of the State. Some of these formations can be followed into and across adjacent States in apparent unbroken continuity. The edges of the successive deposits in the Ohio series are exjxtsed in innumerable natural sections, so that their true order cm generally lie determined with certainty and ease. For the accumulation and growth of this great series of deposits, vast periods of time are required. Many millions of years must be used in any rational explanation of their origin and history. All of the stages of this history have practically unlimited amounts of past time upon which to draw. They have nil gone forward on >o large a scale, so far as time is concerned, that the few thousand years of human history would not make an appreciable factor in any of them. In other words, live thousand years, or ten thousand years, were too small a period to l>c counted in the formation of coal, for example, or in the accumulation of petroleum, or the shaping of the surface of the State by the agency of erosion. The time that has passed since man has been in the world has l>een computed by some geologists as less than half of one per cent, of the entire time occupied by geological history. It is true of geological history as it is of human history, that it liegins far this side of the beginning of things. Geology shows us that the existing system of things had a beginning with a time very long ago as measured in years when this section was in the IxMtom of a great sea of wide area but not of very great depth, - a time when the waters of the Gulf of Mexico covered all the l«asin of the Mississippi and the place now occupied by the lower of the great lakes, and sent one broad arm through northeastern Canada to join the Arctic and another across Mexico to join the Pacific.

Prehistoric Conditions

There were then no Appalachian mountains, but to the east of their present jxisition. and to the north of the Great there lay a large continent on whose shores played ; the waves of this great sea. and over whose surface rivers were flowing, lxearing their sediments into its waters. In the depths of this sea. at alxurt north latitude 41 degrees and west longitude Hi degrees, were being dqxisited layer u]»>n layer, the massive rock foundations of that structure which, when it shall rise 4.000 or 5.000 feet high, shall bear ujx>n its top. as a modern skyscraper I tears a roof <pp!cn. the little area familiar to us as Mahoning county. The nearest land was several hundred miles to the nortlxnst. and but little clay and sand can drift so far from shore. The climate was of a tropical warmth. Winter had not yet come to cast his mantle of snow and ice each half year over nature. Life was swarming, but how different from the life of today

There were w fishes in that ancient sea but the waters were rich in lime winch thev had dissolved from the rocks, and those forms of life uliieh needed this material to lmiid themselves shells for protection or structures to support their soft tissues, were m their element. Corals grew all over the sea Mtoin and -tone lillies sank their mots into the soft seabed and sent their stems upward with their hud-like lK>dies at the summit. Molluscs, animals similar to cuttle fishes-, each ensconced in the end oi a tapering chambered shell, preyed u|x>u whatever was unlucky enough to come witlun reach of their long sucker- tippe<! arms: microscopic forms r.f life were there in abundance, and their tiny shells of lime contributed no small part to the massive foundation layers; swimming animals called trilobites, each looking much like a huge sowhug. two feet long, and covered with a horny shell whose segments were so jointed as to permit the animal to roll itself into a ball like the armadillo, were present in immense mimlxTs Nor was vegetable life entirely wanting, for there were traces of seaweeds in those carlv r ... ks.

For long ages the cast-off shells of all these forms of life accumulated on the lied, crumbled to pieces and har<lenc<l into limestone hundreds of feet in thickness. It was then that the famous Trenton limestone was formed, which in the western part of our State yields such a copious How of gas and when penetrated bv the drill. It has ue\ er liven reached here, for it probably lies nearly 4.000 feet below the surface. It is extremely doubtful, however, whether it would yield returns if we were to reach it.

Hut by this time the continent of N'orth America was sieadily but -lowly rising the sea which covered its interior was gelling shallower, and the shores of the continent to the east and north-east were getting nearer and nearer to the area we are now considering. Occasionally, when the waves and current were strongest, some clav or -and fr. .in tinshore would drift over it. Thus some U'ds of shale and sandstone were sandwiched in among the heavier layer- of limestone S. -me dry laud had now appeared to the southwest . near the Itituie site of Cincinnati, and the .sediment came from that direction also. At length the amount i sediment drifting in from the surrounding land areas V-came s. , great a- to fairly exceed the deposits resulting from the accuniulation of the remains of corals and shellfish, and there succeeded a long peril*] in which, while there were still some limestones, clay and sand were swept in so abundantly that shales and sandstones became the prevailing r. -eks.

There ap|>eared at this time the first of the hacklxmcd animals in the form of fishes, but very unlike the fishes of today. There were shark whose mouths were literally lull of teeth, set like cobble-stones in a pavement, j There were ii-h with the long conical teeth I of reptiles, and with bodies covered all over I with great plates, like those of the alligator, j except that they were heavier and more lx>ny ; j they were the iroi.eL.d- of those seas, and were giants of their k:rd. for some ,,f them are r M - 1 . 1 - 1 1 1 to have 1 t in. 00 - 1 1 : 1 - 1 thirtv fe. i '11 length. The long leathery stems of sea-weed grew luxuriantly, intertwining to form veritable Sargasso seas on the surface of the water. Steadily during all this time the continent 1 was emerging from the sea; steadily the land ( area to the notth?ast had lieen extended i toward us. From the area of dry land which [ had appeared alx.nt Cincinnati, a long low ' arch extending northward through the west- ern part of the State had risen alxuc the water At length when another two thousand feet I of the ample foundation ttp'ii which Mahoni ing county rests had lx-en laid down, consi-t- , ing of great lied- of shaie. some black with the abundant organic matter buried in them from which oil and gas may be generated to -erve man in -111c far-distant future, otherred with iron, others blue and clav like, all in terspersed with an occasional lied of lime-tone t or sandstone, ihi- long aire came to an end A new era was dawning. The sea had now become- so shallow that occasionally the waves disturbed it to -A- bottom, and tin:- e. >:ir<e materia! was transported a long way from -bore \ bluish grev sandstone 50 to tor, fert in thickness was spread above the shales. This the upper stories oi our skyscraper-is the Bcrca sandstone so extensively quarried for building purpases in northern Ohio. It lies near the present surface in the northeastern part of the county, hut is several hundred feet l>cl<<\v it in t fie southern part.

The condition changed attain, and material was eleposited winch hardened int.-. shale* and shnley sandstones and flagst, .mi'v Once itiore the transporting pv.er of the water was increase. I and ag immense sheet of coarse sand and crawl. I -,o fix-; in thickness, was graduallv sj>read over this re-ion. Tins is kia-wn as the conglomerate, because il is fnll ,.f |*-hb1es; it f.-rms the f. .undati. -u tip us which the productive coal measures rest; above it coal may he. below it never

F.re Ions,', here am! there in the shallowing sea. some low ami swatupv areas In-gaii to show themselves aUwc the surface. The n»»f of - ur structure is heidiming I. - apfrcar. f )ver swampy areas si-. >wly crept the vegetalion, w hich h::d pre\ i. n:s|\- i>n.mi upon the nearest land, and for the lir.-t tune laud plants look root within the limits of our Mahoning countv. The swamp areas extended an.l the plants, stitnnlated bv a climate of tr-.pical warmth and abundant uioisnire. spread and grew ranker until tie entire surface of the county was one continuous marsh Covered with a dense and tanked vegetation «.f nv.st luxuriant growth Tins is the opeuip.tr "f the Car !h -nifcrous period - that period in the liistorv

U hat a >t range scene would haw been pre s.-ntri! to view could we have been pt-tvitted to 'ja/e u|-.u the vegetation of f.ur county then. Feni< were everywhere - ferns which sen I their straight and leaf scarred trunks twenty and thirty feet into the air. while up>u their summits were majestic and jrntceo.il crowns of spreading fronds t!,at would make the p>s*essor of the finest botanical garden of today green with envy. Strange and mighty trees grew on these marshes, whose trtinks and few branches were shaggy with the long strapshajK'd leaves that covered them. The trunks of some were tinted like Corinthian columns, and all were beautifully marked with leaf scars. There are now no trees at at! like them. Th.e straight tarring stems of rushes, slightly resembling the scouring rushes of today, hut almost tree like in size, were clustered over the marshes in impenetrable thickets. We woid. I look the earth. . wr now in vain to find such wealth of plant hie a- then struggled for existence in tile mar sites that covered Mahoning county but among all this wealth of tropical vegetation there was not one plant on whose branches a single (lower unfolded its petals in the sunlight. No butterflies or honey loving insects could live in that rl- -werles* world. No bird sang to his mate among those trees , r winged his Slight ab.ve them. The highe.st animal to be found in our county then were reptile-like creatures which, like frogs,

) passed through a tadpole stage in their development. The atmosphere was ?.«> heavy laden with moisture and stitlmg gases for th.e higher land animals.

j lint along with the general uprN-ng . -f the continent .is a whole, there seems jr> have lieen in this coal field a gradual sinking, though at a \ar\ rug rate When the sinking- was slow, the peat accumulated «> as v. build the surface up as rap-'db as p snil;, ibn- pre-ei-. iag ihc j marsh ; bill nl intervals thc sinking became too '"apid, the marsh plants were drowned, the sea again prevailed and o-.h:n<-iit was dep'-'tcl "ut the peat Smothered decay, under great pressure, trap- ifi rmed the peat into coal, and the sediments above it hardened into shah s and sandstones.

How many times coal-marsh and alternated over this period it is imposSHMC to | say, In s, .rpe parts of our count v there are the remains of sewn ..f these ..hi ]K-at lutr-hes in the fi>nii of coal beds, one over the other, with [ intervening beds of shale anil sandstone. Yet some time before the close of the coal |>criod the uprising of the continent as a whole brought this county well nbave the level of the sea, and made it permanently dry land. Then streams Ix-gan to flow over its surface and to excavate their valleys,

Upland \ lactation took the plate of that which had covered the marshes, This new growth consisted largely of cone ben ring trees, hut very unlike the pine*, spruce-, and hemlocks of today. None of them had the needleshaped leav es common in the cone In-arei s familiar to us. but instead their leaves were flat and more or less strap-shaped. Instead of bearing their seeds it> cones, they l»<re mil-like fruits.

We now reach a period when the geological history or our comity is interrupted, at least so far as we can learn from any iie|»*its at or beneath its surface. C.coiogieal bist.irv is written in the <i< and along the shares am! only in very exceptional cases on dry land Certain changes that have taken place in our county since it hecatTte permanently dry land arc apparent. From a )x i-itv .!i al the sea level it liris U-en raised until i?"W its highest i>oiut is ].,<-( 3 feet above it. or about 505 feet above Lake Frie. W hen tiie last seam of on! was formed over its surface it was level, like the marsh in which was formed, the peal t"'it pre ceded the coal; in .vv the o 0! swiiin descend aliotit .Mii feet in pissing from the north to the south line of the county. It u evident, too. that great quantities ->i material must bn\c been removed from its surface. F.very rain drop that falls on hare ground moves some tiny particles of earth from a higher to a lower level: every rill that trickles down the hillside hears with it -onic material it has gathered : even- stream in flood-time i« loaded with nient ; and so it has been ever since rain hegtltl to fall and streams t. - flow hit our surface.

Prof. Dana, who is regarded as one of our most conservative authorities dunks ~-\ po.b a Me that at Ic-M tj.nvvxvi voir' have elapsed smce the close nf the coal perioil. and if our county lx-eame dry land lxMore its close, it must have heen exposed to the action of the elements much longer. It we assume the time to have been only io.0O0.O00 years, and the average rale at which the surface has been worn away to have been the same as that at which the basin of the Mississippi is nowwearing away, namely one foot in 5,000 years, we reach the conclusion that a layer _\(kx> feet thick has been carried away from the present surface of Mahoning county. This may seem startling to one who has given the subject but little thought, but it is probably under rather than ab.ve the truth. Many U-ds of workable coal, w ith their intervening layers of shale ami sandstone, probably once layabove the present surface, but the destroying tooth of tune has liecn gnawing away at them until we have but a mere remnant left. Nature has Iter economies, but. from a human standpoint, she has her wastes as well.

The coal age was followed bv the age of reptiles, some of which were proVd«tv the largest land animals thru ever lived; while the forests of broad-leaved evergreens were graduliv replaced by those of needle shaped leaves bearing true cones. Timidly among the si range reptiles appeared the lirst land mammals, small in size and low in structure. Gradual! v the reptile- declined, while the mammals grew larger ami more numerou-. until thev became the rulers of the fore-; arid the plain. Is it |»-"ible I am s|H'akint.r of Malf -nir.g county when I say that the elephant and the -till larger ma-I' d-n tliere in al! probability cropped the tender herbage and blew their shrill trumpets in the forests; that the hi ml of the hyena was heard in the hills; that the sal>ertonthed tiger made his lair in the thickets and the rhinocerous forced las way through the dense underbrush; that tmnps of wild horses galloped Co || and occasionally the camel anil the tapir were found within its tarder*; that h< tie woods and by the streams were parrots ami trogrmn and flamingoes, and other

Toward the close of this ape the seasons became more marked. Something much like winter came with each round of the sun, and for the first time snow-flakes whitened the surface of our ootinly. As the result of causes not yet well understood, the temperature continued to fall and the winters grew longer and longer. Soon on the highlands of Canada more snow fell each winter than the summer's sun could melt away, and the edge of the snowmass crept southward. The ice age was coming on.

The tropical plants of our forests gradually disappeared to he replaced by the deciduous trees, and these in time gave way to the hardened pine, spruce and hemlock, which waged a gallant but losing fight with the oncoming cold. Our birds and animals sought a more congenial clime to the southward. At length there came a summer in which the snowthat had fallen over the desolate surface of our county the previous winter did not all melt away; the close of the next summer saw it deeper still. The ice age had come. For centuries the snow deepened. How high it piled above the surface here wc cannot tell, but in New England it covered the White Mountains. 6.000 feet high, and here it may have been _\otx> feet thick or ev en more.

Along with this accumulation of snow, and probably one cause of the cold at that time, the highlands of Canada were uplifted several hundred feet above their present level. The snow compacted in its lower parts into ice by the weight of the mass alxne. and forced southward l>oth by the slope and the pressure of the deeper accumulations to the north, was transformed into ;t mighty glacier which began its slow but resistless march southward.

The surface of our county then was much more rugged than it is now, for it had been dry land for millions of years, and the streams had cut very deep valleys across it. The moving glacier acted upon this broken surface like an immense rasp, of which fragments of hard nek frozen into its under surface formed the teeth. Moving from the northeast it cut away all |>ortions of the surface, but. as it bore hardest on I he hills, the general effect was to destroy inequalities, though soft strata were cut away more rapidly than were hard ones. ( )ur ri**ks. w herever exposed, show the planed and grooved characteristics of glacial action. How much soil and rock this immense icc-p!ow shaved off from the surface, or how long our o unity was subject to its action, we cannot say. Finally, however, the rigors of the long winter l>egati to soften. Once more the melting exceeded the snowfall, and the ice sheet was doomed. Slowly grew thinner and slowly its southern edge receded northward. It was long after this change began before even the southern border of Mahoning county peered out from under its cover of ice. and much longer still, for the change was slow. Iwforc the ice had retreated beyond the northern Ivmndary. As the glacier melted away, the immense amount of material which it had torn up from the rocks beneath, much of which had been pulverized as though ground lietween the upper and nether millstones, was left unevenly distributed over the rock surface, and it is this material, known as the "drift." that constitutes our present soil.

Effect Of Glacial Action On The Landscape

The rounded gravel knolls so common in the southwestern part of our county and the less common gravel ridges, are characteristic of glacial deposits, and are supposed to mark the places where the edges of the ice remained nearly constant for a long time, the rale of melting being just equal to the onward motion of the ice. Thus a heavy belt of material, forming what is called a Morain. was accumulated along the ice from, Detached masses of ice sometimes became deeply buried in these dejx^sits and when *oiig afterwards they melted, the gravel above them settled down.

And Representative Citizen'S

leaving peculiar pits and amphitheater depressions among the gravel knolls. This is the origin of some of our small lakes and catholes. To these causes we owe the variety of soil, and. to a certain extent, the variety of landscape found in different parts of our county.

Since the final retreat of the ice our streams have been steadily at work cutting their way through the drift. Of the stream channels cut in the rock previous to the ice age, smaller ones were prol>ably obliterated by the grinding action of the glacier, but some of the larger and deeper seem to remain even yet, though deeply buried and sometimes completely choked by the drift. The larger of our new streams as they found their way over the drift seem generally to have followed the course of the old channels, but they are sometimes compelled to turn aside, and in that case they soon cut through the drift and have since been flowing over rocky l>eds. which, like that of Niagara, have been excavated since the retreat of the ice. The l>oulders or "hard-heads" of granite and allied rocks so frequently strewn over our surface, are not our products. They were produced in the highlands of Canada long, long ago. packed in ice and imported duty free. Theirs was a long, hard journey of hundreds of years, and it must have !>ccn tedious even for a boulder. Only the most hardy among them survived to reach their journey s end, and they had their once sharp angles worn off and many had one or more faces ground smooth where they were pressed against the bed rock beneath the glacier and forced onward.

Viewed as a whole, the surface of Mahoning county mny be regarded as an undulating plain, sloping gentlv to the north, its southern litie running on or rear the divide lief ween the waters of the Mahoning- on the north and the Little Heaver on the south, and having an altitude of from three to five 1 utidred feet above the valleys of the n< rth border. Topographically, the county forms a portion of the highlands of the southern rim of the lake basin, but since the rim is cut through by the deep gorge oi the Mahoning, the drainage, though locally northward, is all earned through that channel into the Ohio. Hut little of the surface is even locally level, but consists of an alternation of broad valleys of excavation, separated by rounded bills and table j lands, with gentle slopes. It is all varied and I picturesque, while at the same time it is well f adapted for agricultural purposes, and is now very generally in a high state of cultivation. The soil is in some places derived from the decomposition of the underlying rocks; but it, for the most part, rests ujjon a sheet of drift material, for the county lies within the drift area, though reaching its margin on the south. The general slope of the surface, ami part of the local erosion, seem to have Ix'cn produced by the southern extension of a tongue or lolxr of the great glacier, which, moving from the north, excavated the low country that lies between the highlands of Geauga and Portage on the west and those of Pennsylvania on the east. By this agent the northern out-crop of rocks which underlies the county have !>een ground away, and a large amount of material transported southward from its place of origin. As the eroded rocks were largely sandstone and conglomerate, much of the transported material is sand and gravel. Glacial marks are seen on the exposed surfaces of the harder rocks in nearly all parts of the county, and they are especially noticeable on the sandstone ledges on the northeast side of the Mahoning in Youngstown and Poland and on the higher strata of the same character in the southern part of Canfield and Ellsworth. The direction of the glacial scratches is nearly north and south; but they are sometimes reflected by local impediments a few degrees either east or west.

One of the most interesting features in the surface geology of Mahoning count v is the deep erosion of the valley of the Mahoning. In Trumbull county the river flows through a gently undulating country, and it* banks are so !ow that it can hardly be said to hav e a well defined valley. This is due to the general prevalence of soft, shaley rocks which have tieen broadly and evenly eroded. Soon after entering- Mahoning- county the river encounters the conglomerate and the heavy bedded sandstones that overlie thccoal. These form l>"1i| bluffs which gradually approach, until at Lowell, the valley is quite narrow and about three hundred feet deep; for the search for oil, which lias been made at numerous points between Yonngstown and Newcastle. Pennsylvania, has shown that in this interval the river is now running considerably alxwe its ancient bed. At the State line it was found necessary to sink through eighty feet of sand and gravel in the old channel before solid rock was reached: and in some wells, near the junction of the Mahoning and Chenango, pipe was driven one hundred and forty feet to the rock. These facts were among the first observed of those which led tit the discovers' that our principal rivers were flowing at a lower level when the continent was higher than now: the valley of the Mahoning, which is evidently excavated from the solid mck. must have been cut out when the drainage southward was much freer than at present, and this seems to have Inrn out- of the channels through which the lake basin, filled to a much higher level than row with water, communicated with the Ohio, and t r t \i -. with the gulf. The fact that rock is frequently seen .in the Ixittom of the river does not conflict with the statements made ahue. for the stream docs not follow the line of its ancient l>ed : but when the old channel was filled, and the work of excavation began asniu. the course of the river crossed projections from the sides of the valley, and in these nlaces has a rock botioni. The borings to which this reference has )<een made prove that there is a continuous, deeply excavated trough running beneath the Ixittom land of the valley at base, the conglomerate and the lower group of coal seams, except the uppermost, No. 7, with their associated sandstones, shales, limestones, tire clays and iron ore. The dip of all the strata is toward the southeast, from ten to twenty feet to the mile: and as a conse- I quence the outcrop of the different meml>ers 1 of the series form irregular lxtlts, conforming to the topography, but having a general east and west direction: but the outcrop of the rocks, which are lowest geographically, being lowest topographically, are found on the northern margin of the county, while the highest cap the hills along the southern boundary. The extensive explorations for coal in Mahoning county show that the W'averly rocks for a long time formed the surface, and were extensively eroded IxMore the deposition of the next succeeding rock, the conglomerate. Hence its upper surface is very irregular, showing hills and valleys over which the conglomerate and coal measures were deposited, sometimes in local depressions with W'averly borders, so that both are found at a lower level than the adjacent outcrop of W'averly rock. This has produced much confusion in the search for coal: but all the drillers have noticed that the surface of the W'averly is reached at various depths and that hills of "bottom rock" cut out the co.-d. In such cases the coal was never formed on these hills, but had accumulated in lower ground surrounding them as a bed of peat that readied to a limiied distance up their sides.

Probably but little of the area of Mahoning county is underlain bv the conglomerate. Patches of it are found in the northwestern corner, and these nnv extend for a long distance southward: but the great sheet of conglomerate which occupies Geauga county ami the northern part of Portage county, thins out rapidlv toward the east and between Niles and the State line ;i either does not exist, or is represented by a thin bed of sandstone without pel ii tie-

Famois Coal Ok Mahox1Xo Coixtv

Coa! N'ii One, "I'll is is the scam which furnishes the famous Brier Hill, or Mahoning coal, so extensively used for irmi smelting and widely distributed through the markets of the northwest. It is the sanie seam that is sn largely worked in western Pennsylvania. The true position of this coal scam ts from twenty In fifty feet above tin- conglomerate. The quality of the Mahoning \ alley coal is so excellent and the coal field lies so near the (ireat Lakes market that it has become the lusis of an extensive commerce, and the mainsjiring of the most iiii]>oi t.uit iron industry of the West. The first development of coal mining in the valley of the Mahoning took place at the old Brier Hill and ("rah Creek mines near the north line of Youngstown. The search for coal has radiated from this center m every direction, and as a consequence the country about Youngstown has been more thoroughly explored than any other part of the county. A number of extensive basins have been discovered here, and several of them have U-en extensively worked

County

In the -liale over coal nunibiT one. in Youngstown, also nr the carU irinVnub -and rocks which cap the hills, arc to be found beautiful specimens of the fo-sil nuts and fruits oj (lie earli. .ni feroiis age. Among the varieties found near Youngstown are the following: Trigonocarpou Triloculare. Trigottorarpou Tricttspidattim. Trigi xnxarp- >u Fragariordes (Mill v'reck 1'ark). I "ardi- >cai|r <>} Flongatum, Cardioearpon Anuhitus Mcliimnsii - this last named specimen was discovered by Mr. W. H. McCiinnis. local geologist for Mahoning county - also fine specimens of the Rbahdocarpon Adamsii. The species known as Trigonocarpon Ciigantum has also been discovered I- ere. but is very rarelv met wish. It is more abundantly found near Lisbon, in Columbiana county. In Ellsworth township, Mahoning county, are found the most beautiful, perfect, and highly crys'alucd specimens of Selenite. a variety of gypsum. They are much sought after by geologists from all parts of the world. They are indeed a most wonderful illustration of the simplicity of nature in the midst of diversity. In a stratum of iron ore which was formerly mined near the old Mill Creek furnace in what is now Mill t rick Park, the s|ules which hold the nodules, arc great numbers of very beautifully preserved fossil plants, several of which have not yet been found elsewhere, making this the most interesting locality of fossils yet found in the county. In the center of a block of coal, taken from the \\ etuiorc mine, in Caniield township, a k-autifu! fossil fish was found with all its scales and tin rays complete: it is a species of Paleomcus (P, Petttganus), N'ewberrvii: the writer hereof has also several beautiful sjMrimetis of fossil fish, about five inches in length, and well preserved. These la the spring of iKiio an exceedingly rare and valuable fov.il was found by Prof. W. 1 1. MrCinnis of Vonugstown. I'pon a very critical examination by Professor Orton. then State Geologist for Ohio, and Professor Collacott. of the Ohio Stale University, it was decided by them to be the fossil head of the \f».d- <>x. The tossil skull was found in a sand b:mk in what is now beautiful Mill Creek Park I his Ud of sand is located near the --Narrows." and is abnul sixty feet high and extends to an unknown depth Itelow the surface of Mill Creek. When Prof. \Ywl>errv ma.le his geological survey of this portion of Ohio be visited Ibis s,-,,.,! bank and deCared that it was a former channel of the Malvniu" River that bad become completely rilled up with gravel and sand, and that at the "Narrows" Mit| Creek had worn its wav through the sand and left the strata of s and and

Chapter Ii Prehistoric Races

Speculation on the Origin of the American Race - . IntuinHy -i Man in America - Probable European Origin of the American Races - The Mound Builders.

Hants. The native Americans wen- different e-tlter by way of the Aleutian islands or Behrnut only m color, but in many peculiarities of ing strait. There are a number of cogent facts implements of the true pale- -lithic type, together w itli some fragments of human skeletons, were discovered by Dr. C. C. Ahb-t in the gravels near Trent- >n. -n the Delaware.

Thc-e evidences, with many others winch we liave v.- I -pace t<- nienlinn. prow elearly that tool -making. tire-using Man "was here long- hen-re either Northern A-ia >-r the Polynesian islands were inhabited, a- it i- well known that those nan- <-f the world were lir-t peopled in neolithic time-."

Tlie modern geological disc- '-eery that at «me time - ab-nt the middle and later glacial ejh-ch - theie occurred an upht't of the :mnher:i part of the eminent, anil also of the north Atomic basin. >ecm- t>- answer the (|-.icsimn, as to whence came the first inhabitants of the New World. According to Prof, (.ieikie. and other e- >mpeient -cienti-t>. this uplift amounted lo a vertical elevation t-f from 2,000 to 3.000 feet ab-\e the present level, and resulted in establishing a continuous land connect n-n between the higher latitude- .-i tietwo e--ntitie:i'.s. which remained till the p---tglaeial period. This is con tinned by the character of the glacial -cori;e <-f the nek- ot

Crccnland. which unmistakable indications -a having Wen formed by land ice : and by a comparison of the fauna ami ll'-ra <>f the two continents. both living and f-.-sii. Thilaud bridge fomtctl a barrier between tin- Arctic and Atlantic oceans, so that the temjK-r ature of the higher latitude- \va- much higher than at prc-ent. Say- Dr. P.rinton. after a thorough consideration of the subject, "The evidence, therefore. cumulative that at the clo-e of the last glacial epoch, and for an indefinite time previous, the comparatively shallow bc-1 .-.f the \'- -rtlt Mlautic was above water and this was rib ut tin- lime that we tin I turn in the same stage of culture livintr on both its rh«r«'s ." It thus seems conclusive that the earliest inhabitant- of the American continent.

In this reference t-- :he prehistoric inliabitants of the continent, it remain- but to a. 1-1 a brief word ,n regard to the called tuv-- lei ions race . .f \h nmdhuiiders. whose w orks are found hi part- o- nln,, 1 tlmugh n--nc in Mahoning county 1 , and in s. -me neigJib nng Stales.

The mound-, fortifications, and other relics left by this race, have in recent years iveu tl'.o roughly ins e -tig ate- 1 1-v competent and pains taking- scientists, They contain no evidence to pr-ve that this people was in any e - cnt:al re-peel- different from the familiar rc-1 races wiioiti the tir-f white disc \ crcrs found 111 posse-ion of the soil. Mr. Warren K. M.».rebea-I. in In- "Primitive Man on the Ohio." thus sum- i:p die re-nlt of years of laborious exploration and careful investigation of these relics :

"Nothing ili'-re than the liprx-r statu- "! savagerv was attained bv any race or tribe bving within the limits of the present Stale of Obi... all statements t- - the contrary being misrepresentations. If we go by field testimony alone 1 :mt t- - --nut the rcp.rt- of early trceler- among X- -rtb American ti thes') we can asign primitive high attainment- in but tew thing-, an-! these indicate neither eivili/at-'-i nor anv approach to it.

"First, he excelled in building earthem fortifications, and in the interment of his dead: second, he made surprising' v hug y mriu'v s lor mica. cop]«-r. iead. -lie!'-, and other foreign -lib-' - 1 , |,< r ' -:,io:''":- : third, he was an adept in the clia-e .and in war; fourth, he chipped flint and made carvings mi bom:, -'one and -late exceedingly well, when «c con-ider the primitive t- - -1 - he employed; fii'iti. a few of the more -killful men of hi- tribe made fairly g-«-l representations of animals, birds and human figures in stone. This sums up in brief all that lie -ecmed capa-

And Representative Citizens

"On the other hand he failed to grasp the idea of communication by written characters, the use of metal I except in the cold state), the cutting1 of stone or the making of brick for building purposes, and the construction of permanent homes. Ideas of transportation, other than upon his own Iwck or in frail canoes, or the use of coal, which was so abundant about him and which he frequently made into pendants and ornaments, and a thousand other things which civilized beings enjoy, were utterly beyond his comprehension. Instead of living peacefully in villages, and improving a country unequalled in natural resources, of which he was the sole ]>ossessor, he spent his time in petty warfare, or in savage worship, and in the observance of the grossest superstitions. He possessed no knowledge of surgery or the setting of bones, unless we accept as evidence two neatly knitted bones found at Fosters, which by some extra effort he may have accomplished. But while admitting these two specimens to be actually and carefully set with splints, we have scores of femora, humeri and other lnnes from Forts Ancient and Oregonia. which are worn flat against unnatural sockets, formed after the bones had lx>cn displaced. We have broken fibula? and tibia? which had never been reset. They were lient like a bow. and nature alone had aided them in coming together. It has been the mistake of many writers upon the antiquities of Ohio, to accept as evidences of the civilization of these [>eoples the mere fact that they could build circular and square embankments, and great fortifications. Any sclwol boy knows that he can form a perfect circle by taking hold of the hands of his comrades, placing one of the number at ten feet from the line, to observe that the rest keq> properly stretched out. The lioy at one end acts as a pivot, the other swinging in a circle, while the boy at the end farthest from the pivot marks upon the ground with a stick as far out from the line as he can reach. Four hundred men placed in lines of one hundred each can easily mark a square which will be but two or three feet out of geometrical proportions.

"The impression usually conveyed by the term 'Mound Builders' will not stand the light of modern science. While it may be more or less of a disappointment to many not to be able to place primitive man in Ohio on an equality with the status of Mexican or South American tribes, yet it is a gratification to know that the vexatious question concerning his movements and everyday life has been very nearly settled. There is a fascination in studying him even as a savage, and investigating the numerous remains which attest his occupancy of this territory."

French Discoveries And Explorations

The Lreiich, who early established claims in a large portion of North America, gained access, to the inter-.. «r .f the continent by way of the Gulf ami the River of St Liwrence, ami the (.rent Lake, with their connect ing walerw av ».

John Verrayano. a native of Florence, sailing nn<!er authority nf Francis 1. in I s-'.v discovered the mainland in the neighb a h. .- d of ' Cape Fear. X. C. I le then coasted in a northerly <!irection as far as Cape 1'. ret on. landing at intervals t > traffic with she Indians, by ' whom he was well receive! lie named the country New I "ranee and claimed it in the name of the king.

Jacques I artier made three voyages to America. I>ctv.< m 1 5^4 and 1 54 _\ and probably another in 1 5 t.V In Ids first v.yage he explored the tinh of St. Lawrence, after passing through the strait of I Vile Isle. The gl««.im of St. Laurent, wind' name was afterward gradually transferred to the whoie gulf and to the river itself, which latter he e\pl .ted as far as the island of t Means. 1 le was received by the Indians with an enthusiastic display of friendly feeling. I'.emg taken hy them to the mountain w hich overlooked the 11. .Me |«noratna of river and forest at the junction of the (.'tlawa with the St. Lawrence, he gave to it the name Real." winch name was subsequently taken and retained by the great city it now over!, .oks, t 'artier made a third voyage 111 1 54 _-. 111 which, however, he made no new discoveries. But in litis year, and up to the autumn of 1543, th* Sagucnay river and the surrounding count n w<ie explored by KoUival. who had l>een apjf.inted by Francis I as Ins lieutenant in Canada French fur trader? had now found their way to Auticosti Lland and to the mouth nf the Saguenay. where there was an Indian trading |»-t : hut these traders made no attempt to settle the c .unlry of hmtgravc, a rich merchant of St. MaJo. for the purp -es of trade .and < -.- -ii/ntion. I'ontgrav e w as accompanied bv Samuel Clianiplain. who was bier to gain lasting tame for himself as one of the most indefatigable of French explorers. They ascended the St. Lawrence as far as the island of Montreal, and Champlain explored the Saguenay for a considerable distance. The fruit of the expedition was to add largely to the knowledge which France possessed of Canada and the country around the C.uif.

Soon after the return of this expedition a new company was formed, at the head of which was Sieur Henri de Monts, who received a royal commission as the King's lieutenant in Canada and adjacent countries, with the special object of exploring the illdetined region called "La Cadie." now known as Nova Scotia. Cliamplain was a meml>er of this expedition also. In June. 1604. they sailed into the beautiful hatW of Port Royal, which Cliamplain called "the most commodious and pleasant ]>lace that we liad vet seen on the continent." De Monts and his associates explored the Bay of Fundy and discovered the St. John and St' Croix rivers. Cliamplain remained three years in Acadia, making explorations and surveys of the southern coast of Nova Scotia, of the shores of the Hay of Fundy and of rite coast of New England from the St. Croix to Vineyard Sound, De Monts. after an unsuccessful attempt to effect a settlement on the St. Croix, removed his colony in the spring to the banks of the Annap>1is. where he founded the city of that name.

F.Staw.1S1I Ment Of Missions

John de Bienrourt, letter known as Baron de Fnntricourt. who had accompanied He Monts. and who had returned to France Ikfore him. after obtaining a renewed grant from the King, returned to Port Royal in June, 1610. He was accompanied by Fnther Fleche. a Catholic priest, who, upon landing, at once U'gan the work of converting the Indians. A younger Bienonirt, son of the above named, came out in the following year, bringing with him Father- Bianl nnd Masse, two

Jesuit priests, who engaged with zeal in the conversion of the savages. Other Jesuit fathers soon after came out, under the auspices of Mine, de Gucrcheville, who had bought the claims of de Monts, and who had also received a grant from the King, of the territory extending from Florida to Canada. France being now ruled in reality by the cruel and ambitious Marie fie Mediee, as regent during the minority of her son. Louis Nil I, the Jesuits were "virtually in possession of North America, as far as a French deed could give it away." But in making this liberal grant, the French monarch failed to take into account the English, who laid claim to the same territory by right of the discoveries of the Cabots, and who had already established a colony at Virginia, and made explorations along the coast as far as the Kennebec river.

First English Opposition

Samuel Argat. a young English sea captain from Virginia, who early in 161 3 was cruising off the coast of Maine, learning from the Indians of the presence of the French in that vicinity, attacked and destroyed the settlement of St. Sauveur. Soon after, on a second expediliou made under the authority of Sir Thomas Dale, governor of Virginia, he destroyed also that of Port Royal. The latter settlement in later years "arose from its ashes, and the fleurde-lis. or the red cross, floated from its walls, according as the French or English were the victors in the long struggle that ensued for the possession of Acadia."

In I'-oN Samuel Champlain again entered the St. Lawrence, and laid the foundations of the present citv of (Jueliec. This was one year after Captain Newport, representing the great company of Virginia, "to whom King James II gave a charter covering the territory of an empire, had brought the first permanent English 11 'oiiy of u:o persons up the James river in Chesapeake Bay. From this time forward France and England Itecnme rivals in America."

death twenty-seven years later, held the position <>f lieutenant-governor, during the summer 1 of i6ix> joined a party of tlx? Algonquin and Huron Indians of Canada, in an expedition up the Richelieu river to Lake Champlain. against the Iroquois; an act for which in later years the French had to pay dearly. After another visit to France, for the purpose of consulting with I)e Monts, Champlain returned in the spring' of 1610. to the St. Lawrence. He again assisted the allien" Canadian tribes against the Iroquois. lie appointed Frenchmen to learn the language and customs of the natives, so as to Ix* of use afterwards as interpreters. He also encouraged the policy of establishing missions. "Such a policy," says Bancroft, "was congenial to the Catholic church, and was favored by the conditions of the charter itself, which recognized the neophyte among the savages as an enfranchised citizen of France."

Attacks J1Y The Indians

In the work of Christianizing the Indians. ! the Jesuit missionaries were much hampered by the hostility of the powerful Iroquois. The ire of these war-like and omnipresent savages, of whom a fuller account will be given in the succeeding chapter, had l>cen aroused by the 1 part which Champlain had taken in assisting their enemies, the Algonquins and Hurons. against them. Thcv sent out their war parties for long distances in all directions, and torture and death was generally the fate of those who fell into their hands. To avoid them, the missionaries, instead of following the easiest and most direct routes to the interior, were often obliged to make long detours through the primeval forest, wading innumerable streams, and carrying their canoes on their shoulders for leagues through the dense woods, or dragging them through shallows and rapids and bv circuitous paths to avoid waterfalls. In spite of these precautions, some of them were captured and tell victims to the relentless savages. Father Jogues. who had K-en once captured and tortured by the Iroquois, and who, after escaping and revisiting France, returned in 1647 to America, was killed while endeavoring to negotiate a treaty with them. But in spite of such events, and although, in 1648, the missionary settlements in Canada were attacked and destroyed by the Iroquois, some of the missionaries, as well as many of their converts, falling victims to the fury of the conquerors, the zeal of the Jesuits could not be daunted. Missionaries in greater numbers entered upon the work so iatefully begun, and continued it through all vicissitudes until at last friendly relations were brought alxnit with their former enemies.

These improved conditions were chiefly due to a large military reinforcement which, in idbfi, arrived from France under command of the Marquis de Tracy, who had lxren sent out by Louis XIV. to inquire into and regulate the affairs of the colony. Within a few weeks more than 2,000 persons, soldiers and settlers, arrived in Canada. Existing fortifications were strengthened, and four new forts were erected from the mouth of the Richelieu to Isle La Mot he on Lake Champlain. These measures had a most salutary effect upon the Indians. Four tribes of the Iroquois at once made overtures for peace. The Mohawks, who held kick, were punished by a powerful expedition which destroyed their villages anil stores, and soon they also were ready to make terms. For twenty years thereafter Canada "had a respite from the raids which had so severely disturbed her tranquility, and was enabled at last to organize her new government, extend her settlements, and develop her strength for .lays of future trial."

Cnder L>ui< XIV Canada became a royal province, and its political and social conditions liegan to assume those forms which, with but slight modifications, they retained during the whole of the French regime.

Mississippi

Hut French discovery and enterprise were not destined to halt upon the banks of the St. Lawrence and its tributary waterways. In lUh- Father Claude .Mlouez, while engaged in missionary work among the Chippewas. first heard of a river to the westward called l>y the natives "Mcssippi." or threat river. This river had also been heard of by Jean Nicolet. a trader and interpreter, who. sometime before the death of Champiain, had ventured into the region of the Great I^akcs. an<l as far as the valiey of the Fox river. He is considered to have been the first European who reached Snutt Ste. Mane.

In 1071. Sim* in Francois Haumont, Sieur St. Lusson. under a commission from the governor < >f Onelicc. and accompanied by Nicholas Per rot and Ijmis Jolliet, took i>ossessi.,n at Satilt Ste. Marie of' the basin of the lakes and the tributary rivers. A mission load been established here some two years previously by Claude Dablon and James Marquette, it thus being the oldest settlement by Kuropeans within the present limits of Michigan.

pioneer trader of great courage, coolness, and resolution, ami Father Marquette, a zealous and self-sacrificing missionary, were cl:«>sen to explore the West and find the great river of w hich so many vague accounts had reached the settlements. With five companions, and two canoes, they crossed the wilderness which stretched beyond (.recti Kay. ascended the Fox river, then with Indian guides, traversed the portage to the Wisconsin, thus reaching the lower "divide" between the valleys of the lakes and that of the Mississippi, launching their frail canoes on the Wisconsin, thev followed its course, until, on the 17th of June. 1(173. thev found themselves, "with a great and inexpressible joy," on the l«osom of a mighty river which they recognized as the Mississippi. Descending its current to the month of the Arkansas, they there gathered stillicicitt information from the Indians to assure them that the great river emptied Us waters, not into the Cult of ( 'aliforma. but into the Gulf of Mexico. Returning by way of the Illinois and Pcsplains rivers, they crossed the Chicago portage, and at last found themselves on the southern shore of Lake Michigan. Jolliet reached Canada m trie follow ing summer. Marquette remained to lalmr among the Indians, and died in the spring of 1675, by the banks nf a small trenn which dows into Cake Michigan on the western shore. Ik-fore the end of the seventeenth century, the portages at the head of Cike Michigan had become widely known, and there had been a trading [>ost for some fifteen years at the I Chicago river,

The work, so well begun by Marquette and j Jolliet. of solving the mystery that liad so long ; surrounded the Mississippi river, was ronij pletcd bv Rene Kolicrt Cavalier. Sieur de la . Salle, a native of Rouen, who had come to Canada when a young man. Of an adventurour disjiosition. he had U-en greatly interested by the reports of the "great water" in the \\c<t, which, in common with many others at that tune, he thought might lead to the Cult" of California. In the summer of iOoK. while on an expedition with two priests, to the extreme western end of Ontario, he met and conversed with Jolliet. Leaving his companions, he plunged into the wilderness, and for two wars thereafter was engaged in independent ', exploration of which we have very little ac- ; count. In 1(177 'R* visited France, and received from the King letters-patent authorizing him to build forts south and west in that region - through which it would seem a passage to Mexico can lie discovered."

In the following year, with the encouragement and support of Frontenac. then governor of Canada, and accom|>anied by Henri dc 1 Toiity and Father Luiis Hennepin, he made 1 an cx|iedit)ou to the Niagara district, and built on Lake Frie the tir st vessel that ever ventured on the Lakes, which he called the "Griflin." This vessel was lost while returning from Green Hay with a cargo of furs, a calamity that was only the In-ginning of many misfortunes that might well have discourager] a man of less resolute and indomitable nature. Soon afterwards he had to contend with the disaffection of his own men. who in his absence and that of Tout v. destroyed a tort which he had built 011 the Illinois river, near ! the site of the present citv of Peoria. For this act the men were subsequently putosfied. Father Hennepin, while hi an expedition to the uglier Mississippi 1 1 ; .< 1 been captured bv a w.mdewiig trihe of Si' nx The lr«|i|o|s now began to be troublesome, tbeir war parties attacking the Illinois and burning tbeir villages. Tunty bail disappeared, having been obliged, while on an ex|>edition. to take refuge from the Iroquois in a village of the P' >ttawatamies at the head of Green Hay. La Salle subsequently found him at Mackinac, while on his way to Canada for men and supplies.

"On the 6th of February. 1682." says Bourinot. in "The Story of Canada." "I -a Salle passed down the swift current of the Mississippi, on that memorable voyage, which led bim to the Gulf of Mexico. He was accompanied by Tonty and Father Mcmbre. one of the Kecollet order, whom he always preferred to the Jesuits. The Indians of the expedition were Abenakis and Mohegans. who bad left the far-off Atlantic coast and Acadian rivers, and wandered into the great West after the unsuccessful war in New England which was waged by the Sachem Metaconiet. better known as King Philip. They met with a kindly reception from the Indians encamped by the side of the river, and. for the first time, saw the v illages of the Taensas and Natchez, who

I separately in canoes through the three channels of the Mississippi, and emerged on the bosom of the Great Gulf." Near the mouth of the river they raised a column with an inscription, taking p>ssession of the country in the name of the King of France. "It can be said." says Bourinot. "that Frenchmen had at last laid a basis for future empire from the Ijikes to the Gulf. It was for France to show her appreciation of the enterprise of her sons, and make good her claim to such vast imperial domain. The future was to show that she was unequal to the task."

Chapter. Iv Indian Occupancy

TV.v .'r.j</H.ii.v-- 'Their lamoiis League, I lahils.aml Costumes - The .ligonqiiins. Their Commerce, I'ieture-U'riting. aud Religion - Inaiait Warfare - Iroquois Conquests - Extermination of the lines - The Chalila-Mtiskoki Stork.

The Indian tribes which at tlie imio of the first Kuro|>ear. discoveries occupied that part of North America east of lite Mississippi, anil l*lwccn Hudson's Hav and 1 he (iulf oi Mexico, were embraced, with some few exceptions, in two generic divisions - ihe Algompiins and the Ir.vqnois. These two great families were separated fr..m each other by radical differences of language, rather than by any s|»ecia! racial or physical characteristics. To the Iroquois linguistic stock U-longeii the Fries, wlio inhabited the country immediately south of Lake F.rie: the IliiPins, or \\ vandots, whose home lay between Lakes Ontario ami Union; the Andastes <.r ( oticstogas am! the Susquehaunocks. of the lower Susquehanna; the t'herokees. who were foun.l ,>n the upper Tennessee; (he Tuscamras of Virginia and ICorth Carolina ; the Neutral Nation, who lived to the west of the Niagara river; the Mohawks. Oneidas. Onondagns. Senccas, and Cayuga*, who occupied almost the entire arc i "i New York, except the lower Hudson. ( >f the th e tribelast named, the Mohawks occupied tlie Mohawk valley anil the neimlv of Likes (icr^c ami Cbamplain. while liie oilier four tiiU-s were found m the region south oi Lake n.,:i i .ri .

The name Iroquois, though French in form, is said to have lieen derived from "Hiro" (I have spoken 1- the conclusion of all their harangues - and "Kouc;"' an exclamation of sorrowwhen it was prolonged, and of joy when pronounced shortly. The Iroquois were an inland people, whose original home w is proliahly in the district between the lower St. I-iwrenee and Hudson's Uay. They possessed an intelligence superior to that of most of tin- Indian trilns This was cxemphtied in the famous league or confederation Iietweeu tlie rive triU-s of New York. al»i\e mentioned (long known a- the Five Nations), whirl) was effected ali- -in the middle of the Fifteenth century by Hiawatha, a sagacious chief r>f the Ommdagas, and the subject of Longfellow's poem of that name. Says Horatio Hale, in his work entitled "The I nipt- 'is 11- -ok -i kites." "Ihe system he devised was not to be a ">c or transitory league, but a |H'rtuaner.*. g' eminent. \\ T.ile each nation was t,. ret a in its own council ami management of local alt.ms, the genera! con trnl was f In' lodg<s! m a federal senate, composed of representatives to U- e'ceied by each nation, holding ofricc during g. «*) behavior.

and acknowledged as ruling chiefs throughout the whole confederacy. Still further, and more remarkably, the federation was not to he a limited one. It was to be indefinitely expansible. The avowed design of its proposer was to abolish -.ear altogether. That this beneficent and farsighted plan failed of its ultimate object was due less to any inherent defects than to the fact that that object was too far advanced for the comprehension of those for whose benefit it was designed. Though retaining its governmental value in the regulation of tribal affairs, the league was soon perverted into a means of conquest and aggression until the name of Iroquois became a terror lo all the surrounding nations. It included, l>esides the five Xew York trifies almve mentioned, some portions of the Neutral Nation, and, at a later date, the Tuscaroras, who, about 171 2. were driven from North Carolina by the British, the confederation after this date lieing known as the Six Nations. It was to these trills only that the name Iroquois was applied by the early French and Fnglish settlers.

The Iroquois called themselves in general Ho-de-no-saunee, "The people of the long house," each triln? living in a separate village of long houses, large enough to hold from rive to twenty families each. "Each family was a clan or kin resembling the gens of the Romans - a group of males and females, whose kinship was reckoned onlv through females - the universal custom in archaic times in America." As the marriage tie was loosely regarded, all rank, titles, and property were based ujxm the rights of the woman alone. The child belonged to the clan, not of the father, but of the mother. Fach of the long houses was occupied by related families, the mothers and their children liclonging to the same clan, while the husbands and fathers belonged to other clans; couscqucquentlv the clan or kin of the mother predominated in the household. Every clan had a name, derived from the animal world, as a rule, which was represented in the "totem." or coatof-arms, of the kin or gens, found over the door of a long house, or tattooed on the amis or Ixxlies of its members. Being originally a nation of one stock and each trite containing parts of the original clans, "all the members of the same clan, whatever tribe thev belonged to, were brothers or sisters to each other in I virtue of their descent from the same common female ancestor." No marriage could take place Inrtween members of the same clan or kin. Yet while the Iroquois woman had so much importance in the household and in the regulation of inheritance, as well as a voice in the councils of the tribe, she was almost as much a drudge as the squaw of the savage Micmacs of Acadia.

Besides building better cabins and strongholds than other tribes the Iroquois also cultivated more maize. Although they had devised no method of recording history, they had many myths and legends, which were handed down with great minuteness from generation to generation. In rememljering them they were aided by the wampum belts and strings, which served by the arrangement and design of the beads to fix certain facts and expressions in their memory. " The Iroquois myths." says Brinton, "refer to the struggle of the first two brothers, the dark twin and the white, a familiar symbolism, in which we see the personification of the light and darkness, and the struggle of day and night."

The Algonquin stock was Ixrth more numerous and more widely scattered than that of the Iroquois. Their various tribes, according to linguistic identification, were distributed as follows: Ahnakis, in Nova Scotia and on the south hank of the St. Lawrence; Arapahocs. head waters of Kansas river: Black feet, bead waters of the Missouri river; Cheyennes, upper waters of Arkansas river; Chippcways. shores of Like Superior; t rees or Sauteux, southern shores of Hudson's Bay: Delawares or I.etiapes. on the Delaware river: Illinois, on the Illinois river: Kaskaskias. on the Mississippi below the Illinois river: Kickap - >s. on the upper Illinois river: Meliseets. in S'ova Scotia and New Brunswick : Miamis, between the Miami and Wabash rivers; Micmacs, in Nova Scotia; Menominees, near Green Bay: Mohcgans, on lower Hudson river; Manhattans, about New York bay ; Nanticoke, on Chesapeake bay; Ottawas, on the Ottawa river and south of Lake Huron ; Pampticokes. near Cape Hatteras; Passamaquoddies, on the Schoodic river; Piankishaws, on the middle Ohio river; Pottawattomies. south of Lake Michigan : Sacs and Foxes, on the Sac river; Secofties, in Labrador; Shawnees. on Tennessee river; Weas, near the Piankishaws. The Crees, one of the most important tribes, retained the original language of the stock in its purest form ; while the Nanticokes of Maryland, the Powhatans of Virginia, and the Pamticokes of the Carolinas spoke dialects which diverged more or less widely from it. The traditions, customs, and language of these tribes seem to point to some spot north of the St. Lawrence, and east of Lake Ontario, as the original home of the stock. The totemic system prevailed among the Algonquins. as also descent in the female line, but not the same communal life as among the Iroquois. "Only rarely do we meet with the 'long house' occupied by a number of kindred families." Most of the tribes manufactured pottery, though of a coarse and heavy kind. They employed copper in the manufacture of ornaments, knives and chisels, though their arrowheads and axes were usually of stone. They also carried on an extensive commerce in various articles with very distant parts, their trading operations extending even as far as Vancouver Island, whence they obtained the black slate, ornamented pipes of the Haidah Indians. Some tribes, as the Lenapes and the Chippeways. had developed the art of picture writing from the representative to the symbolic stage, as had lieen done by the Aztecs and kindred races of Mexico ; it was employed to preserve the national history and the rites of the secret societies. The religion of the Algonquins "was based upon the worship of light, especially in its concrete manifestations, as the sun and fire ; of the four winds as typical <>f the cardinal points, and as the rain-bringcrs; and of the totemic animal." Thev also, like the

Indian Warfare

The Algonquin and Huron- Iroquois nations had many customs in common. Though a general war could only l>e engaged in on the approval of the council, yet any number of warriors might go on the war path at any time against the enemies of the tribe. Their favorite method of righting was by a surprise or sudden onslaught. A siege soon exhausted their patience and resources. "To steal stealthily at night through the maze of the woods, tamahawk their sleeping foes, and take many scalps, was the height of an Indian's bliss. Curious to say, the Indians took little precaution to guard against such surprises, but thought they were protected by their manitous or guardian spirits." It was a general Indian belief that after death all men passed to the land of Shades - a land where trees, flowers, animals, and men were spirits.

The league formed by the Iroquois ( using the name in its limited application to the five tribes of New York), excited the jealousy and fear of all the surrounding nations, and their apprehensions were subsequently justified in the career of conquests and aggression pursued by the Iroquois. The Adirondacks, Hurons, Eries, Andastes. Shawnees, Illinois. Miamis, Delaware*. Susquchannocks. I'amis. Nanticokes. and Minsi. in turn fell victims to their prowess, some of them, like the Adirondacks and Eries. being practically annihiliated. At last they claimed by right of conquest, the whole of the country from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and from the Lakes to the Carolina-