Chicago City (part 39 of 57)

has among its citizens tens of thousands of toilers, many of whom have contributed, in a tangible form, to thegrowthand prosperity of the city and are among its most patriotic and respected residents. Among them are not a few of foreign birth, whose loyalty to the country of their naturalization has been repeatedly attested. The presence of this large number of working men, in whose ranks are embraced nearly every variety of skilled and unskilled labor, has resulted in the formation of innumerable chapters, lodges and branches of all descriptions of brotherhoods, unions, federations, councils, etc., all connected by a bond of sympathy, more or less common. Some of these - particularly the older - are conservative; others are younger and more aggressive in their aims and methods. Among the former may be enumerated the brotherhoods of locomotive engineers and of firemen; among the latter is the American Eailway Union.

The aim of the founders of the last named organization, of which Eugene V. Debs is the executive head, was the amalgamation of the old brotherhoods and the uniting in one common bond of all workingmen who were identified with the railroad interests, whether manufacturing or operative. Unlike the bodies which it aimed to absorb, it is in no sense a secret society, having no form of initiation and being without signs, grips or passwords. Although regarded by the older bodies " with looks askance," it rapidly grew, particularly in the West, and to its influence may be attributed the railroad strike of 1894, which resulted in so heavy a pecuniary loss, not only to the city of Chicago, but also to the State of Illinois, and which brought about the interruption of interstate traffic, the paralysis of business, the inconvenience of the traveling public and the invocation of the aid of the military arm of the government, both Federal and State.

Had the American Eailway Union confined its efforts for the amelioration of the condition of its members to those branches of the organization which had an actual grievance, probably the general public might have acquiesced in bearing the hardship resulting from a strike which, if not technically legal, was at least governed by the rules which have dominated similar uprisings in the past.

The immediate cause of these troubles was a disagreement between the Pullman Palace Car company and the employes in its car shops at Pullman upon the question of wages. The latter, claiming that they were unable to live upon the amounts respectively paid them, demanded the restoration of a former and higher scale of compensation. Other grievances were suggested, but these were of minor importance. The company, by way of reply, asserted that the conditions of its business were not such as to justify an increase of wages ; that orders were few and contracts had been taken at a loss in order that employment might be given to as many workmen as possible. To demonstrate the truth of this statement the management offered to submit its books to the inspection of a committee of the employes. The minor grievances, it was promised, should be impartially and promptly investigated.

It was at about this juncture that the American Railway Union commenced organizing branches of that association among the Pullman workmen. Public meetings were held, at which grievances - real or imaginary - were discussed by the men who already considered themselves wronged. The employes were promised financial and moral aid and support, and were over and again advised and urged to "stand firm." They determined to strike. They stigmatized the company's offer to permit an examination of its books as insincere (they called it a "bluff"), and on May llth one and all quit work. The corporation accepted the situation and at once closed the works. Then began a period of privation and suffering. If the condition of the workmen and their families had been hard before, it soon began to be intolerable. Relief committees were appointed, and subscriptions for the aid of the destitute and suffering were solicited from the charitably disposed in all parts of the city and in every walk of life; bnt the funds and supplies thus obtained were, at best, but partially adequate, and want added, day by day, a keener edge to the discontent of the strikers.

In the latter part of June, a convention of delegates from the district unions of the American Railway Union met in Chicago, and before that body a delegation of the disaffected Pullman employes laid their grievances. Atonce a committee was appointed by the convention to wait upon the management of the car company and urge arbitration of the matters in dispute between that concern and its former employes. To this the answer was given, that the company saw nothing to arbitrate ; that the men had voluntarily quit work; that the management, not caring to carry on operations at a pecuniary loss, had closed the shops; and that there the matter ended. When the committee reported to the convention the failure of its mission, much indignation was expressed, and it was at once proposed to place a boycott upon all railroads hauling Pullman cars by ordering a strike of all members of the Union against the companies continuing their use upon their lines after being notified by the men that such continuance would be regarded as an act of hostility toward organized labor. After some hesitation and more or less discussion, resolutions to this effect were adopted and made public on June 22d, the date for the beginning of the boycott being fixed as the 26th. The method of procedure to be adopted was thus outlined by Mr. Debs in an interview held on the 22d with a representative of a leading city newspaper :

It will not be a boycott in the usual sense of that term. The order will go out to the general executive boards of the American Railway Union on the various systems as the proceedings of this convention, showing it was the sense of the convention that no member of the union have anything to do with the transportation of Pullman cars. This means that the members of our organization will refuse to handle those cars. Car inspectors will not inspect them; switchmen will not switch them on to trains, and engineers and brakemen will refuse to haul them. The trouble will probably begin with the switchmen. We expect the first to refuse to switch a Pullman car will be either laid off or discharged by the officials of the railroad. But our men will be watchful, and the moment any man attempts to take his place every member of the union employed on that road will quit work. This will tie up the system, and as far as I can see the inter-State commerce law will cut no figure whatever in the strike.

The general managers of the various lines entering Chicago were not slow in perceiving the impending storm and preparing for mutual defence. They met, chose an executive committee (of which Mr. John M. Egan was chairman), and on June 25th, the day before the Pullman boycott was to go into operation, adopted the following resolutions:

WHEREAS, It is stated that the object and intent of the said boycott is to discommode the traveling public and embarrass the railroads, in the belief that the public and the railroads affected will influence the settlement of the question as the American Railway Union desires; and

Resolved: 1. That it is the sense of this meeting that the said proposed boycott, being confessedly not in the interest of any employes of said railroad companies, or on account of any grievance between said railroad companies and said employes, Is unjustifiable and unwarranted.

2. That the employes of said railroad companies cannot nor can any of them with propriety embarrass said companies or discommode the traveling public because of their sympathy with the supposed wrongs of employes engaged in a wholly different class of labor.

3. That we hereby declare it to be the lawful right and duty of the said railway companies to protest against said proposed boycott; to resist the same, in the interests of their existing contracts and for the benefit of the traveling public, and that we will act unitedly to that end.

History, Of Chicago

began. The first road to suffer was the Illinois Central, and, one by one, within a week or ten days nearly all others entering this city found themselves suffering most serious inconvenience. Freight trains could not be moved, and several lines notified shippers that they found themselves unable to receive consignments. Suburban traffic on all the roads running south was from necessity virtually suspended, and through trains ran very irregularly, owing, at first, to the lack of men to open and close the switches. But men were brought from the East, and the officials of the roads, aided by clerks from their offices, turned out to do the work of the striking switchmen, and did fairly well; although the force was small and some of the workers incompetent.

On the same day that the boycott went into effect - June 26th - general manager Charles Watts, of the Pennsylvania system, called on chief of police Brennan for protection. Inspector Hunt was sent to Grand Crossing, from which point he reported that he had two hundred officers in reserve, and was prepared to suppress any disturbance which might arise. Chief Brennan, however, said that while his department would do all in its power to preserve peace and protect prop erty, the railroad should bear in mind that the police had other duties than to protect railroad property. One thousand men, he said, could be turned out on short notice if it became necessary, which he hoped it would not.

But this sanguine estimate of the gravity of the situation was soon proved to be erroneous. On the next day - the 27th - president Debs called out all the members of the American Railway Union in the employ of the Santa Fe road, and on the 28th ordered a general strike of all members of the organization throughout the West.*

*The employes of the Santa Fe, Mr. Debs said, were called out on independent groundspart of the city were driven from their posts, pedestrians and teams being thus exposed to imminent peril. Crowds of turbulent men gathered along the tracks of the Rock Island, Lake Shore, Pennsylvania, Monon, Michigan Central and Western Indiana roads, and assaulted trainmen and working switchmen. Trains were derailed and sidetracked at various points in and around the city.notably at Grand Crossing, Blue Island, Riverdale and Hammond, and business at the Stock Yards was practically brought to a standstill. The torch was also brought into requisition, and long trains of cars, some of them filled with valuable freight, were burned.

It is proper to say, in this connection, that soon after the inauguration of the strike the hoodlum element of the city was quick to take advantage of the opportunities for lawlessness and rapine which such disturbances always afford. The riotous, car-burning, foul-mouthed mobs, which trampled upon the law and defied its officers, were made up largely of this element, containing comparatively a small percentage of actual railroad men.

All classes of the community suffered. Chicago could neither buy at nor sell to points between which and this city trade had been established. Prices for meat and vegetables advanced. New York found its meat supply reduced, owing to the fact that Chicago shippers were unable to move trains. One or two packers made the attempt to start meat trains, but they were derailed or "ditched," the refrigerating cars were rendered useless, and in some instances the train was fired, the sickening smell of burning flesh contaminating the air throughout a section several square miles in extent. In fact so complete was the temporary ascendancy of the American Railway Union over the traffic of the city, that the chief executive of the municipality felt , impelled to invoke the influence of Mr. Debs when the public health necessitated the removal of a carload of dead cattle from the stock yards. The delegates to the annual convention of a religious organization (the Christian Endeavor Society) deemed it the wisest policy to request the executive head of the union to forbid interference with convention trains. Such being the facts, it is no wonder that a portion of the Chicago press dubbed Debs as dictator while the members of the Union hailed him as " an uncrowned king."

But freshly fledged leaders, in the exuberant exultation attendant upon investiture with unexpected and untried power, are apt to lose control over their followers; and of the truth of this aphorism the recent strike has afforded a notable exemplification. Scarcely a week had elapsed before the troubles of the Pullman employes had been entirely forgotten in the fierce, blind struggle between the American Railway Union on the one hand and the Western roads on the other. Mr. Debs said that the body of which he was the head was waging a war for the right of labor to organize, in which view of the situation he was supported by the master workman of the Knights of Labor. The general managers of the railways, on the other hand, emphatically denounced the claim as preposterously absurd. They pointed out that the majority of the companies affected had recognized organized labor by entering into contracts with trades unions of various sorts, which contracts had been faithfully carried out ; and that no complaint of any grievance had been made by employes. In other words the strike, so far as common carriers were concerned, was purely and wholly sympathetic.

The people generally inclined to sympathize with the railroads on this issue, especially that portion of the traveling public which found itself side-tracked and compelled to remain for hours (sometimes even days) with but scanty supply of food or water; constantly terrorized by angry mobs Trains were stopped on nearly every road leading into Chicago, and the prostration of business was well-nigh complete.

Before this point had been reached, however, the strong arm of the National government had been invoked, owing to the fact that the passage of trains carrying the United States mails had been impeded. In fact, mail trains had been derailed, and no appeal proved of any avail. Under the penal code of the United States this constitutes a grave offence. District-attorney Milchrist officially directed the attention of attorney-general Olney to the existing situation as early as June 28. The legal adviser of the National government acted promptly, U. S. marshall Arnold being at once instructed to protect all mail trains with armed guards. A large number of special deputies were accordingly sworn in, but among the ranks of the new recruits there were men who proved their unworthiness by deserting to the mob, and - in any event - the marshal's office would have been, from the very nature and extent of the disturbance, incapable of dealing with the trouble.

At about the same time the aid of the sheriff of Cook county was invoked. On June 29th, manager Miller, of the Monon, appealed to sheriff Gilbert for protection of the company's property at Riverdale, and the next day an additional force of deputies was sworn in and placed in service, both sheriff Gilbert and marshal Arnold distributing their men according to the exigencies of the situation.

These forces were extra and additional to the regular police force of the city, but the united efforts of all these elements proved insufficient to insure the prompt movement of mail trains along the routes affected. An injunction was prayed from, and granted by, the United States district court, the terms of which were wide-sweeping in their application. The American Railway Union was virtually enjoined, not only as to its executive officers but also in its entire membership. The restraining order was also directed against any and all persons interfering with the business ol railroads carrying the United States mails. Service of the injunction was easily effected upon Mr. Debs and the other strike leaders, who readily accepted the same and protested that it was idle to enjoin the Union from doing acts which it had never committed, and the performance of which it had never contemplated. The order, however, was directed against parties of all sorts, whose names were unknown to the court, who should, either directly or indircctlv, attempt to interfere with the ruiining of trains. For the purpose of reading the injunction to the disorderly crowds a special train was started on the Rock Island road, carrying, besides some officials of the company, a force of United States deputy marshals. The order was read to the mob, who received it with jeers, cursing and obscenity. Printed copies were thrown among the turbulent crowd only to be torn, spit upon and trampled under foot. The "special " went back to the city. The culminating outrage perpetrated by the mob upon the authority of the Federal government had been consummated, and President Cleveland found himself forced, as well by patriotism as by the sheer weight of circumstances, to take a decisive step. He did not hesitate. The garrison at Fort Sheridan was ordered to Chicago, and later Federal troops were sent here from points farther west, where reserves had been massed.

This action by the president was not taken without remonstrance on the part of the governor of Illinois, and some rather tart correspondence passed between tlie two officials. Governor Altgeld resented the employment of United States troops in Illinois, except upon the demand of the State executive, but the president ignored the protest, the tangible outcome being the massing of some 2,000 regular troops in this city. A portion of the force was assigned to duty in the way of guarding the subtreasury ; the rest went into camp on the lake front, from whence they were deployed to guard trains and to hold rioters in check by their presence.

A few days later Mayor Hopkins requested the governor to order a part of the State militia to Chicago. The call of the municipal executive was promptly honored, and the entire second division of the Illinois National Guard, under General Wheeler, was placed under command of the mayor. No better opportunity ever presented itself for testing alike the patriotism and the efficiency of the State militia. The Chicago regiments are recruited from all classes. Club-men and mechanics, scientists and clerks walk side by side in the discharge of sworn duty, and in the face of insult, contumely and threats not a man flinched; not a soldier lost his selfcontrol.

The distribution of the State troops was made with a view to locating them at points where outbreaks were deemed most likely to occur or where the most turbulent spirit had manifested itself. The town of Pullman was garrisoned, a considerable force was stationed at and around the stockyards, and numerous companies were detailed to guard the tracks in the southern part of the city and act as escorts to trains.

The mobs were much incensed at the presence of the troops. Insulting epithets were showered upon them, missiles were hurled and sometimes shots fired at them. But the soldiers displayed exemplary fortitude and patience, dispersing the disorderly crowds by bayonet chaiges or driving them back by physical force, in preference to firing. Only on two occasions were there volleys discharged at the rioters, and then under circumstances when to have hesitated would have been an act of mistaken clemency.

The beneficial effect of the presence of the troops was soon perceived. The disorderly element found itself confronted by a wellequipped, thoroughly trained military force, (Federal and State) of 7,000 men, besides 1,000 deputy United States marshals and an augmented force of city police. The more conservative of the railroad employees began to perceive that the ultimate success of the cause was impossible, and the companies soon found themselves in receipt of hundreds of applications for reinstatement.

crisis had been reached. The executive officers of the American Railway Union had been assured of the aid of the Knights of Labor, and the master-workman of the latter organization (Mr. Sovereign) was summoned to Chicago for consultation. After a hasty conference, it was determined to call out workmen in various lines of labor who belonged to the order of the Knights, but the appeal, when issued, met with but a feeble response. Next, an effort was made to enlist the co-operation of the Trades and Labor Assembly of the city, it being supposed that the public inconvenience resulting from a general suspension of industrial operations would bring to bear upon the railroad companies a moral force which they would find it hard to resist. The assembly held two protracted sessions, lasting until the early hours of the morning, but the sympathetic action hoped for was indefinitely postponed. As a final resort, the support of the American Federation of Labor (probably the largestand most influential body representing organized labor in the world) was sought. Mr. Samuel Gompers, its head, called a meeting of the executive committee at the Briggs House, in this city, and Mr. Debs addressed the members at length. He was accorded respectful attention, but after thoughtfully weighing his arguments and carefully considering the issue's involved, the decision of the committee was adverse to ordering a general strike. This action gave the movement its death blow, and thereafter the great strike of 1894 was virtually at an end. - Men who had abandoned good positions from a sympathy with alleged wrongs which they never had a chance directly to redress applied for reinstatement. The impediments to traffic were rapidly removed, and trains were soon running as though no interruption had occurred.

With the resumption of the mail service and the restoration of order the Federal troops were withdrawn, and later the governor ordered the State militia to be relieved from duty, with the exception of a portion of the First regiment, which was held at Pullman in apprehension of a possible outbreak when the works at that point were once more put in operation.

Before this, however, steps had been taken looking toward the punishment of alleged violators of the United States statutes governing inter-state commerce and the transportation of mails. Attorney-general Olney authorized the employment of Edwin Walker, Esq., as special counsel to assist Mr. Milchrist. A special grand jury was impaneled, and decisive action was taken at once. Indictments charging conspiracy were returned against all the members of the executive board of the American Railway Union, bail being fixed at $10,000 in each case and promptly furnished. Later an information charging contempt of court in the violation of the injunction was filed against the same parties. The hearing being set for an early day the accused declined to furnish bail, preferring to be actually committed to the county jail. When the contempt proceedings came up for adjudication a long continuance was ordered and bail was tendered and accepted.

The situation at Pullman gradually became less tense. Meetings of strikers were held nightly, whereat rabid orators sought to stiffen the resolution of the "weak-kneed," but the more conservative element was anxious to go to work, leaving the adjustment of grievances to be subsequently arranged. On Thursday, August'2d, the whistles blew for the resumption of work in the repair shops, and between 400 and 500 hands (some of them wew men) reported for duty.

As has been said, the discussion of the operation of the economic and moral forces which have rendered possible such outbreaks and which, in some of their aspects, bid fair ultimately to menace the perpetuity of selfgovernment, is not germane to the present chapter, the writer whereof has aimed to present nothing niore than a succinct synopsis of events. Yet -all history has its philosophy, and it is difficult to close this necessar-

In the first place, it would seem that this costly_/?aseo has demonstrated the inherent folly of "sympathetic strikes." Whether or not a strike is the best agency for remedying the wrongs of labor may or may not be a question; but the American Railway Union has satisfactorily demonstrated to the workingmen of the country that a strike without an individual and clearly defined grievance, so far from commanding the sympathy of the public, will not be tolerated.

But another, and more important, lesson maybe learned. Monopolies of combined capital are indubitably pernicious ; they threaten the very existence of democratic government. Yet as their nature and methods are becoming more clearly understood, government and law, stimulated and guided by a growing public sentiment, are steadily and surely seeking to reduce to a minimum their power for harm. But the monopoly of labor, which has its stronghold and the centre of its power in the secret councils of labor unions,constitutesa menace scarcely less dangerous. The principle which such star chamber conclaves endanger is the inalienable, personal right of every American citizen to earn his bread by honest labor. Any monopoly which assails this right must be crushed with a hand no less heavy than that which should be turned against those of capital, whose permanence is inconsistent with the traditions of freedom and the hopes of the country.

For the existing condition of affairs numberless remedies (many of them empyric) have been suggested. There are those who believe that the true solution is to be fonnd in compulsory arbitration. Others favor widely different theories. Yet one fact seems certain: no satisfactory solution of the problem can be found until the public at large shall have been educated to a comprehension of the true relations between capital and labor. When these shall have been understood strikes will become impossible and their memory appear as an unpleasant dream. When, under the influence of such an education, capital and labor shall interchangeably recognize their mutual obligations and each shall respect the other's rights, nolonger will passion control the actions or fallacies pervert the judgment of men.

The strike was a prolific topic of discussion, both at home and abroad, in public resorts and by the fireside. The columns of the daily press were crowded with stories of its progress, and all parties presumably interested were interviewed. Mr. Debs, whose mental acumen and oratorical power can scarcely be questioned, issued several statements to the public. The following interview, furnished by Hon. Chauncy M. Depew cabled from London, is interesting and is given herewith as a part of the literature of the strike.

" The labor troubles in the United States are due to the long-continued industrial depression, and the strike was caused by the ambitous effort of Mr. Debs, president of the American Railway Union, to absorb all organizations of railway employes into one. The success of the disorder and the delay in suppressing it were owing to the heretofore undefined boundary between State and Federal authority. The financial crisis last year crippled many enterprises, and the uncertainties of tariff legislation which have followed prevented recovery and closed the majority of the mills and furnaces. This has made the number of unemployed greater than we have ever known. The abrupt and permanent curtailment of production and consumption has been felt in every department of American activity. From the farm to the factory every business has proportionately suffered, and the distress among the workingmen has been correspondingly severe. There is universal unrest and almost frantic desire for anything in place of present conditions.

created the party. The idea which its members gather from its teachings is that liberty means the right to violate law and violently stop or seize railroads and industries, provided the law-breakers are poor and are sufficiently strong to defeat or overawe the ordinary peace establishment of the community. In the States where this party is in power, strikes, lockouts, boycotts, and suppression of railway traffic received direct assistance or passive permission from the authorities. AVith these unprecedented industrial conditions, and the anomalous political relations in a few States, the elements were favorable for what in Latin countries would be revolution and with Anglo-Saxons riots, at first successful, and then reason soon re-asserts itself and firmly enforces the law.

" Tho delay and disappointments in tariif legislation at Washington impaired the confidence of the country in the ability of this Congress to provide measures of relief or to discover its incompetency and adjourn. An appeal to the country would lead, as every one believes, to an immediate and decisive response.

"Our railroads have about 170,000 miles of trackage and 1,000,000 employes. Among employes the locomotive engineers, firemen, trainmen, switchmen and others have each their organization or brotherhood. These labor organizations have become conservative with time, and their contracts with the companies are inviolable. The locomotive engineers are the strongest and richest of American labor unions, and their agreements, while not enforcible at law, are adhered to with scrupulous honor. Mr. Debs was for many years a high and popular official of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, and the editor of a labor magazine of advanced socialistic and somewhat anarchistic views. He conceived the idea of breaking up the existing organizations and gathering the railway world into his order. His scheme was attractive. The initiation fees were only one d ollar and the annual dues twenty-five cents. The order was to control the railways and coerce their managers. Debs would begin with a million of dollars in his treasury and possess an income of $250,000. He made his first appeal to the switchmen, and selected the Great Northern road for his attack. This line had been parallelling the Northern Pacific, had forced the latter into bankruptcy, and could not afford a tie-up.

"After a few days the managers of .the line surrendered. Debs' victory surprised himself by its completeness and far-reaching consequences. East of Chicago and in the older and thickly settled States the old organizations stood firm against him. He must again demonstrate power. Finding no real or imaginary grievance on any railway, he chose to make his fight upon the trouble between the Pullman car company and the mechanics in its shops over the construction of some hundreds of freight cars for various railways.

" Debs ordered a boycott of the Pullman cars, and on the refusal of the railways to break their contracts with the Pullman company and inflict shameless cruelties upon their passengers, he ordered their lines closed. Trains were stopped wherever telegrams reached them, traffic ceased and business was paralyzed over about two-thirds the area of the United States. The reliance of the strikers was upon the impotence of the State government and the friendship of the local authorities. They could confidently count on the co-operation of rival local politicians. The industrial financial distress gave them general sympathy, though their action intensified the suffering a thousand fold. The result proved how well Debs and his associates understood the powerlessness of the States to control the situation. With the exception of three transcontinental lines, all our railroads are chartered by the several States. State laws have permitted consolidation of connecting roads, so that many companies run through several States as one company under one management, but the portion of the line in each State is still wholly subject to its charter in that State. The State governments, often controlled by opposite parties, have no joint or common action. Sympathy with strikers in Illinois at one end, and in California, 2,000 miles off, at the other, stops travel and traffic. State autonomy reached its perilous condition when the governor of Illinois gave great moral support to the strikers by rebuking President Cleveland and thus virtually ordering the United States forces out of his territory.

"It reached its ridiculous stage when the governor of California requested a permit from the strike leader to visit his capital, which was contemptuously refused.

" The popular belief has always been that the national government could not act in repressing riots or disorder until requested to by the State authorities of a commonwealth which was unable to cope with the insurrection. Legislation following the civil war has given the general government powers unused and forgotten. Congress, in enacting the interstate commerce law, had assumed to regulate commerce between the States, and unconsciously with it the responsibility to keep open interstate lines as national highways. The president, having satisfied himself as to his powers, did not hesitate in the performance of his duties. After President Cleveland's proclamation it required a few days for the general public and the strike leaders to grasp the idea that the president was in earnest and the army and navy in motion, when this gigantic conspiracy collapsed as suddenly as it had organized.

" The losses occasioned by the strike are enormous, but it is destined to prove of incalculable benefit to the country. The national idea has been strengthened and broadened. Safe anchorage has been found for persons and property. One of the hopeful features of the situation has been the unmistakable display of loyalty in the South. The so-called rebel States unanimously demanded the intervention of the Federal power to restore order before everything else. ' We surrendered,' they said, ' to a government with ample power to enforce the law, and we will live under no other.'

"The far-reaching results of this short revolution can be briefly stated. Interstate railways are national highways, which the government will keep open at any cost, and a method will be provided for the settlement of differences with their employes. The general government will find a way to protect the citizens of the States, who in a larger sense are citizens of the United States, from the cowardice of all State officers, or their corrupt sympathy with law-breakers. Every vested interest is more secure and the rights of every one more safe. Legitimate labor is better protected and more sure of its rights and of justice."

Chapter Xvii

TO provide with reverent respect for the remains of the dead hasbeeu a characteiistic of all civilized nations from the earliest times, and many of the honored burial places in this country will compare favorably in respect of location and adornment with the finest and most noted of those in the old world.

In the early days of Chicago, when there was no indication and but little anticipation of its coming greatness, no particular spot was set apart for burial purposes, each interment being made at or near the residence of the deceased or that of his relatives. Those dying within the stockade of Fort Dearborn, where a majority of the inhabitants of the settlement lived, were laid to rest just across a line running east of the Kinzie residence. Those who died of cholera in 1832 found a common burial place on a lot near the northeast corner of Lake street and Wabash avenue.

It was not until 1835, when the town of Chicago numbered three thousand three hundred inhabitants, that the people began to feel the need for a public burying ground. Two lots were selected, one on the south side, near what is now Twenty-third street and the lake shore, containing sixteen acres, and the other on the north side, near Chicago avenue and east of Clark street, containing ten acres. As soon as these grounds were platted and dedicated, interments were prohibited elsewhere within the limits of the town.

In 1840, as told in another chapter, the city became the owner of one hundred and twenty acres of ground in section 23, township 110, range 14, on the lake, the southern sixty acres of which were laid out and used as the Chicago city cemetery. The south side grounds at Twenty-third street, having ceased to be used after 1842, the bodies interred there were subsequently transferred to the city cemetery, as were also those buried in the north side cemetery near Chicago avenue.

As heretofore pointed out* the entirely unlooked-for and phenomenal growth of the city by 185S made the further use of the city cemetery dangerous to the public health, but it was not until 18G4 that the council passed an ordinance prohibiting any further burials in those grounds. Provision was made for the removal of the bodies to Rosehill, Graceland, Calvary, and other cemeteries; and the land was set apart for a public park, to which was given the name of Lincoln, in honor of the great war president, who had but recently won his crown of martyrdom.

Li view of the possibility of such action being taken and of the rapidly growing necessities of the city, which by this time numbered a hundred thousand people, some leading citizens, in connection with a committee of the common council, appointed for the purpose of selecting a suitable site for a new cemetery, after a careful survey and topographical reconnoissance of the vicinity of Chicago, selected the grounds which afterwards became and still are known as "Rosehill cemetery."

The land is a gravelly, undulating ridge, from thirty to forty feet above Lake Michigan, of which it commands a view, partly covered with a native growth of trees, 'principally oak, and being sufficiently above the surrounding prairie to ensure the freedom of the lots from water at all times.

Hi Story Of Chicago

It is located seven miles nearly north of the city hall and includes five hundred and twenty acres of land, of which two hundred and fifty are platted and improved. The company was chartered February 11, 1859, and the grounds were dedicated with formal ceremonies in the presence of eight thousand spectators on July 28th following. The corner stone of the chapel was laid with masonic rites, and an address delivered by Dr. II. A. Johnson, representing the Grand Master of the State. The dedicatory oration was delivered by Dr. J. V. Z. Blaney, the first president of the board of managers.

Among the names of the promotors of the worthy enterprise may be mentioned the following: William B. Ogden, Charles G. Hammond, John II. Kinzie, Levi D. Boone, B. W. Kaymond, Charles V. Dyer, John Evans, Dr. Blaney and Philo Judson.

As an appropriate introduction to this chapter the following remarks from the address of Dr. Blaney are quoted: "The custom of burying the dead within the limits of large cities is one which was unknown to the ancients, and resulted from the abuse of a privilege granted, at first, only as a mark of high distinction to martyrs and saints, and afterwards claimed as a right by the rich and powerful, but ever deprecated by science and by the church as detrimental to the public health.

"By the Jews, the Greeks and the Romans cemeteries were, by the most rigorous enactment, placed without the walls of cities and villages, and this salutary provision was adopted in the discipline of the early Christian church.

"It was only during the period of the decadence of letters in the middle ages that this custom, injurious to the living and unwarranted by any principle of public hygiene, by good taste, or by respect for the dead, was allowed to creep in as one of many evidences of stolid ignorance and degraded morals. With the revival of letters efforts began to be made to remedy a custom whose consequences in the more crowded communities of Europe had come to be seriously felt. * * * * It was not, however, until 1765 that the parliament of Paris, by legal enactment, led the way to a remedy of these evils, and those noble institutions, "Perc le Cliaisc," " Vaugirard'' and "Montrnartre," became the first exemplars of those rural cemeteries which, both in Europe and America, are at once the ornaments and the patterns of horticultural tastes of so many large communities, and of which Mt. Auburn, Green wood, Laural Hill(and othei-smentioned) in this country are illustrious examples."

Eosehill, thus auspiciously inaugurated, is not only the oldest and largest "city of the dead" in the vicinity of Chicago, but one of the most beautiful and highly improved. While it does not possess the natural advantages of some of the eastern cemeteries, the best landscape effects possible have been produced by the arrangement of avenues and ' the planting of rare trees and foliage plants and flowers. The artificial lake, the handsome greenhouses and conservatories, and the ample lawns have all been so planned and arranged as to add greatly to the picturesque and park-like appearance of the grounds.

Among the striking monuments is a high obelisk at the head of the main avenue, erected in memory of the brave soldiers of the late civil war ; and the high marble column, surmounted by a single figure, representing a fireman on the lookout, in honor of the Volunteer fire brigade. The most costly monument thus far erected and the most conspicuous, is the one provided for himself by the late John Wentworth. The stone shaft, made of Hallowell granite, rises to a height of sixty-five feet. It cost about $40,000 and $10,000 was expended in the purchase and beautifying of his lot. Another monument, erected to the memory of Andrew J. Snelland costing $12,000, is in the form of an obelisk, hewn out of Barre granite. Other conspicuous granite shafts and marble columns mark the last resting places of Ebenezer Peck, William Lill, Solomon Smith, H. M. Thompson, Wilbur F. Storey, George S. Bangs, David Cole, C.

Cheney, John B. Pinch (erected by the Good Templars), William II. Ilervey find James S. Kirk. The monument of C. J. Hull consists of a bronze statue resting on a marble base. Costly columns have also been erected on the lots of John 15. Drake, W. C. Nelson, Matthew Lafliu, General Torrence and Louis Wahl.

The last resting places of not a few of Chicago's eminent citizens during the past may be found here, while of many others it may be said, that although their names are not inscribed on costly monuments their busy lives and sterling worth will also be remembered, even after costly tombs shall have crumbled back to dust.

The cemetery has its own water system, derived from an artesian well 2,278 feet in depth, which yields a steady and ample flow of clear, pure water, affording a sufficient supply for ordinary purposes. Besides this there is a connection with the city water system by means of a large supply pipe.

A wise provision was made in the revised charter, under the terms of which ten per cent of the proceeds of the sale of lots is reserved for a fund for the perpetual care of the cemetery grounds. This fund now amounts to over $90,000 and is rapidly in- ' creasing.

The interments in Kosehill now number over thirty-eight thousand. The price of lots is from fifty cents to one dollar and upwards per square foot. The board of managers consists of Hon. Henry W. Blodgett, Thomas Bates, H. M. Scarrett, C. H. Knights, W. A. Thrall, William II. Turner and Frederick B. Tuttle.

The eighty acres of land which comprise the principal portion of Graceland were Graceiand. purchased for that purpose by T. B. Bryan in 1860, and the following year the cemetery association was incorporated by act of the legislature, the first board of managers being Edwin H. Sheldon, William B. Ogden, Sidney Sawyer and George P. A. Healy. The admirable location is one and a half miles nearly south of Rosehill, and other tracts have been added to that originally purchased, 'so that now it contains one hundred and sixty-five acres for cemetery purposes.

The grounds are admirably laid out in beautifully rolling lawns, bordered by shade trees, shrubbery and flowers. The lots in greatest demand and the most expensive are near the artificial lake, with its wooded island, in the northeast portion of the grounds.

"Near the centre of the cemetery stands the new chapel, not long since completed. It is in the Gothic style of architecture, and the whole building is constructed of colored Wisconsin granite, the roof being of red tile. The north half of the chapel has a red tile flooring and is supplied with long, cushioned pews, while the south half is filled with beautiful plants and ferns. The ceiling and walls are decorated with fresco paintings in harmony with the bright and pleasing colors of the woodwork, which is of oak, finished in natural color. In the middle of the floor is an oblong trap-door, through which the coffin is lowered after the funeral services. The lower rooms, partly built under a hill, contain the heating apparatus, a coal magazine and the vault proper, along the walls of which there are two hundred and ninetyeight receptacles for coffins."*

Graceland cemetery contains many fine monuments and private vaults. Among those recently erected, elaborate and beautiful in construction, may be mentioned the monument to the late Carter H. Harrison, the C. II. McCormick obelisk, the costly shafts of Jason Gurley, the F. C. Sherman family, Jonathan Burr, L. C. P. Freer, Solomon M. Wilson, Dr. Daniel Braiuard, Walter L. Newberry, John B. Turner, Peter Page and the marble or- granite vaults of William H. Mitchell, Peter Schoenhafen, Martin Ryerson and M. Brand, the two last named having cost from $25,000 to $30,000 each.

The entrance gate, in its beauty of design, is in keeping with the artistically laid-out grounds with their splendid avenues, bordered by shrubs and flowers, and groups of evergreen and deciduous trees, along which walks may be seen chiseled monuments and marble slabs. The drives and walks show the care of a skillful superintendent in their ornate appearance, while the good taste of the general arrangement is perceptible on every side.

Costly monuments, vaults and mausoleums mark the resting places of some of Chicago's most respected citizens of the Catholic faith. The monument erected to the memory of that gallant Irish soldier in the late civil war. Colonel James A. Mulligan, who lost his life bravely leading his brigade at the battle of Kernstown, Virginia, in 18G4, is especially worthy of mention. Other handsome shafts have been erected in honor of William M. Devine, Charles J. O'Neill, Thomas Lynch, John Cudahy, John McAvoy and W. B. Snow. The vault of the late Richard M. Hooley and the costly mausoleums erected to the memory of P. J. Sexton are specially noticeable.

The number buried here has exceeded one hundred and twenty-five thousand. The money derived from the sale of lots is turned over to the Archbishop, who (in his right as a corporation sole) directs its investment for

Another beautiful Catholic cemetery is that of Mount Olivet, which is situated half a mile west of Morgan Park, and opposite the entrance of Mount Greenwood. It contains eighty acres of rolling ground, covered with trees. The land was purchased in 1884, and the cemetery was consecrated June 28, 1885, since which time about four thousand five hundred bodies have been buried there. It is under the same management as Calvary cemetery.

The originator of Oakwoods cemetery was Marcus A. Farwcll, who owned the land upon which it is located, south of Sixty-seventh street and east of Cottage Grove avenue, comprising 180 acres. The cemetery association was incorporated in 1864, and the plat for the grounds,, after a careful survey, was made by the late Adolph Strauch, the accomplished superintendent of Spring Grove cemetery, near Cincinnati. The avenues are laid out in curves, on an established grade, and perfect drainage is secured by scientific engineering. The land is of a dry, sandy nature and is covered by a sufficient depth of soil to insure the thrifty growth of trees, shrubs and flowers. Due attention has been given to the improvement and embellishment of the grounds, which present a park-like appearance, and are in every respect beautiful as a place for the long slumber of the dead.

A convenient office building has recently been erected, costing over $10,000, also a fine entrance, consisting of a number of polished granite shafts arranged in an artistic manner.

Entrance Tc Graceland Entrance To Rosehill

The skill of the sculptor is frequently seen in these hallowed grounds in the large number of costly tomhs and granite or marble monuments, which record in brief the virtues of the dead.

Among the most striking of these may be mentioned those of William H. Newman, John N. Gage, Israel Holmes, William S. Hancock, Henry A. Spence, William Hickling, Alfred Cowles, A. S. Trude, Paul Cornell, Conrad Stuckart, Hiram Kelley, J. M. Ellsworth, Burton C. Cook, Peter Abt, Kobert Cunninghan, James Campbell and the sarcophagus of II. J. McFarland. The Union soldiers' monument is a statue representing a private soldier with his rifle, on a marble pedestal. In the foreground are four cannons, guarding the graves of the seventy veterans there entombed.

The prices for lots here range from fifty cents to one dollar per square foot. Single graves are ten dollars for adults and six to eight dollars for children.

Marcus Farwell was the manager of this cemetery, having filled the office of president of the association for many terms, and up to the time of his death in June of the present year. He has been succeeded by his son, Fred M. Farwell.

Saint Boniface cemetery is situated on North Clark street, at the corner of Lawsaint rence avenue, and belongs to and Bouiface. js U3eci by fciie German Roman

Catholics. It contains thirty-six acres, of which twenty-six are improved. It was laid out and consecrated in 1863, and the first body, that of an infant named Marie Jung, buried there October 19th, since which time about twenty-seven thousand have been interred.

The surplus from the annual receipts for the sale of lots is expended for the maintenance of the orphanage at Rosehill and other benevolent purposes. The surplus amounted, in 1893, to five thousand nine hundred dol-

Saint Maria, another German Catholic cemetery, is located at Washington Heights, near Eighty-seventh street, and contains one hundred and two acres of ground. It was laid out and consecrated in 1888. The site, which was a naked prairie, is now covered with trees, shrubs and flowers, divided by beautiful drives and walks, and contains many handsomely chiseled tombs. The receiving vault, a massive stone structure, has room for four hundred coffins.

the city, having been consecrated and used since 1856. The grounds contain only a few acres, which are thickly covered with graves, riiany of them having been used two or three times.

Concordia, another German Lutheran cemetery, is located near the Desplaines river, on Madison street, nine miles west of the city hall. The main entrance is directly west of the German Old People's Home. The sixteen acres of ground which it comprises are handsomely laid out and kept scrupulously clean and in good order. It was dedicated and thrown open to the public in 1872, since which time about seventeen thousand bodies have here received sepulture.

Just south of " Wunder's Church Yard," on North Clark street, is situated the oldest Jewish burial place in the city, known by them as "Chebra Kadisha Ubikur Cholim" cemetery. It contains five acres of ground, which are carefully kept. It was opened in the summer of 1854, and the first body interred was that of Ida Kolm, since which time over two thousand others have followed her to rest in these grounds.

The Jews have separate divisions assigned to them in Ilosehill and in Oakwoods, besides which they have eight small burial places on the road leading from Forest Home to Riverside, which were laid out in 1876.

Mount Greenwood cemetery is located half a mile west of Morgan Park, fourteen miles south of the city hall. It contains eighty acres of land, and was opened to the public in 1879. The grounds are handsomely laid out in serpentine drives and walks, with beautiful lawns, bordered and dotted with trees and flowers, after the manner of a park. The first body was buried here April 28, 1880, since which time there have been over three thousand interments. The public vault has receptacles for five hundred coffins. Although one of the newest cemeteries it already contains many costly and splendid monuments.

from the court house. Ihe one hundred acres of ground comprised within its limits - formerly a part of Haase Park - are admirably adapted for purposes of sepulture, being high and dry with good natural drainage. The lawn system, by which no coping or other lot boundaries can be used, has governed the laying out of these grounds from the start, and they are all the more beautiful on this account.

A " perpetual care fund " has been provided by the management from the sale of lots, sufficient to insure their being kept clean and in order for all time. Another fund has been reserved, providing for necessary improvements when the revenue from the sale of lots shall have ceased.

Waldheim is a German cemetery, located in Harlem, on the Desplaines river, nearly ten miles from the city hall. The grounds contain eighty acres of high land, covered by a natural growth of forest trees. They were laid out in 1873, and now contain the remains of over sixteen thousand persons. That portion of the grounds used has been tastefully laid out in walks and avenues, bordered by shrubs and flowers.

Following the example of other Americanized nationalities, the Scandinavian Lutherans have provided for themselves a cemetery, which reflects great credit upon its projectors in its beautiful appointments. It is named Mount Olive, and is situated at Dunning, in the town of Jefferson, about nine miles west of the city hall. It contains fifty-two and a half acres of ground. Since its dedication to the public in August, 1886, over seven thousand five hundred bodies have been interred.

A commodious receiving vault has been erected, upon the most approved principles, and also a convenient chapel. The land is elevated above the surrounding prairie and is thoroughly drained.

The Bohemian national cemetery is situated about one mile from Irving Park, on Crawford avenue, about seven miles from the city hall. It contains fifty acres of ground, about thirty of which have been improved for burial purposes. The board of managers was incorated April 11, 1877. The grounds are well and handsomely improved, thoroughly drained and contain over nine thousand graves.

Mount Hope cemetery, one of the latest to be opened to the public, is located on the Blue Island ridge of wooded hills known as Washington Heights, west of and adjoining Morgan Park, and comprises three hundred acres. The association was incorporated in 1885, with a capital of $600,000, and four years were spent in improving the grounds and in making this what the founders intended

The grounds are artistically laid out on the park plan, with fine macadamized roads and drives winding over hills and lawns. The association has built two stations for the accornodation of lot owners and visitors, and have provided an elegant stone chapel for those desiring to hold funeral services at the cemetery. The public vault is capacious and complete, having receptacles for one hundred and sixty coffins.

The first burials were made in 1889, since which time the number of interments has exceeded one thousand. The price of lots is from fifty cents to one dollar per square foot and upwards. Good lots can be purchased for thirty dollars.

Chapter Xviii

at Chicago, representing manufactures, raw materials, machinery, merchandise and the fine arts. Permission was obtained from the city council for the erection of the necessary buildings on the lake front between Adams and Monroe streets. About $500,000 were expended for buildings and improvements, and the first exhibition was opened to the public in September, 1873. The receipts amounted to over $175,000. At first fifty cents was charged for admission, but subsequently the fee was reduced to twenty-five cents. The exhibitions yearly increased in interest, usefulness and popularity.

In 1885, and subsequently, the building was used for holding the annual fat-stock show by the State Board of Agriculture. It was also utilized for opera festivals and for the great concerts of Theodore Thomas, a large auditorium having been constructed for the purpose. Here were also held the national Republican conventions" of 1880 and 1884, and the Democratic national convetion of the latter year, the hall, then the largest in the world, being prepared especially for the occasion.

The coming of the World's Fair in 1891-93 overshadowed the inter-State exposition; and the city terminated the lease of the grounds (which were needed for other purposes) ; and the corporation, which had served its day, ceased to exist with the exposition of 1890. The association was controlled by leading

Tbe Railway service> ^ is to George B. Arm- Mail Service, strong, assistant-postmaster of Chicago from 1800 to 18G4, that belongs the credit of originating and establishing the railway mail service as it at present exists in this country.

Prior to 1864 all through mail was stopped at what were called " distributing offices," where it was remailed, in some instances as often as half a dozen times while in transit, thus delaying its passage and delivery from thirty to forty-eight hours, and hindering the dispatch of news and the transaction of business to that extent. Indeed, during the civil war, Mr. Armstrong observed that mail pouches lay in the office at Chicago for days, containing important letters which were thus delayed by the distributing office system. He conceived the idea of making this distribution on the cars, while they were speeding their way to their destination. As remarked by Schuyler Colfax: "One plan after another was conceived, considered and rejected as impracticable and inadequate. But at last the true thought flashed upon him, and the germ of the present system came into existence in his mind. Slowly but surely, patiently but persistently, he elaborated and perfected it." He met with opposition from conservatives, as is not infrequent with inventors, but at length, on July 1, 1864, he received authority from the post-office department to test his plans by actual experiment. He selected the Northwestern railroad for his first trial, and persuaded the company to fit up a car under his direction; and with only two clerks from the Chicago post-office he made his first trip, which proved successful. Again remarks Mr. Colfax, who was a warm supporter of Mr. Armstrong in congress, "no sooner had the first car been put into operation than the postoffice department, the railway companies and the business men of Chicago especially, realized that Mr. Armstrong's idea was all that he had claimed it to be, and the obstacles which at first beset him on every side rapidly disappeared." And from every quarter came praise and encouragement as the new system at once proved its great value to all public and private interests. It was rapidly extended, working well everywhere, until it became what it is to-day.

In 18t39 Mr. Armstrong was summoned to Washington by the department, and under his directions six postal divisions were established, which were placed in a distinct bureau, of which Mr. Armstrong was deservedly appointed general superintendent. It was in this office, created by his genius, that, in performing his laborous duties in the elaboration of his plans, he lost his health, as the result of overwork. He died in Chicago May 5, 1871. In 1881 a monument was erected to his memory on the post-oflice grounds, at the corner of Adams and Clark streets, consisting of a life-like bronze bust upon a polished granite pedestal, the whole rising nine feet three inches ' above the ground. It is the work of that distinguished Chicago sculptor, Leonard W. Volk, and bears this inscription:

In The Service

The unveiling of the monument was attended by imposing ceremonies, and was witnessed by more than eight thousand persons. The principal address was delivered by Hon. Sclmyler Colfax, ex-vice president of the United States.

Free delivery was established in Chicago in 18G4, with but twenty carriers and two The Chicago stations. In 1394 the number is 1,130, exceeding that in any other city except New York. Nearly twelve hundred clerks are employed in the office proper, and five hundred postal clerks are connected with the railway mail service. One hundred and forty linear miles are covered by the free delivery service - more than in any other city in the world. Dailv collections average seven hundred thousand letters, about five hundred thousand being addressed to points outside the city. Six hundred thousand letters are received and delivered daily, in addition to drop letters, besides one hundred and fifty thousand newspapers. The average number of pieces handled daily by each carrier is about one thousand.

The receipts from prepaid two cent letters daily is about fifteen thousand dollars. The entire receipts for the last fiscal year were $4,863,000 and the expenditures $1,800,- 000. The Chicago office is one of the few large offices that pays a profit ; the entire postoflice department falling behind about $9, 000,000 yearly.

During 1893 there were mailed at the Chicago office 1,300,000 pounds more of newspapers and periodicals than at Philadelphia Cincinnati, San Francisco, Cleveland, Washington, Louisville, Indianapolis and Buffalo combined.

Forty million pounds of second-class matter was mailed last year, that is about 320,- 000,000 newspapers, and of third and fourthclass matter (books and merchandise) nearly 10,000,000 pounds.

Histor7 Of Chjoaoo

Nearly four hundred and fifty concessions to firms and individuals were granted by the concessions attbe World's Columbian Exposiworid'sFair. £jon company, out of which

Of those concessionaires the twenty-seven conducting restaurants paid the largest sum, nearly $800,122, of which the Wellington Catering company paid in $307,927.

The soft drinks - soda water, lemonade, cider, etc. - paid $179,985, and of the thirtyfive concessionaires the Soft Drink Company returned $77,833, and S. Eubel, for sale of soda water, $38,499.

The best paying concessions on the entire grounds were those on the famous Midway Plaisance, which paid to the management $1,247,309, and in order that the reader may see whether he expended his quarters (of dollars) in the most popular direction or not the entire list is given as follows:

Amusements And Midway Shows

* For the f orpgoing facts anil figures relative to the Chicago postoflice the author is indebted to Hon. Washngton Hesing, the present (1894) postmaster.

The "Street in Cairo," it will be seen, attracted the largest crowd; Hagenbeck's menagerie came next; and the Ferris wheel was not far behind.

From the sale of flowers (Gallagher), $4,- 603; from the sale of book-marks, $2,219; from the rental of portable chairs, $17,513; from the sale of fans, $8,497; from the sale of chewing gum, $19,214; from the sale of cork screws, $2,219, and from checking privileges, $8,370.

T. 0. Duncan, chairman of the local committee of arrangements was chosen president of the body. Interesting reports from all parts of the world were received and read. So pronounced was the success of the gathering that it was determined to form a permanent organization which should hold meetings every five years. The first officers chosen were as follows:

National Homeopathic °°CUpied temporary head- Medical college. quarters at No. 541 North Halsted street, in conjunction with the recently organized Chicago Baptist Hospital. Twenty-one students were enrolled the first year. In 1892 both hospital and college removed to tin large building 32 and 34 Centre street. The accommodations there proving too small for both institutions, the college found a home at 571 Clybourn avenue.

In 1893 the number of students in attendance (undergraduates and physicians) was seventy-eight, of whom twelve were given diplomas. The motto of the school is "scientific, thorough, practical" instruction in medicine. More effectually to secure this result the faculty has arranged a course of reading in those physical and natural sciences, a knowledge of which is essential to an understanding of medicine, to be carried out before the matriculant enters upon the regular college course. A deviation from the rule is made, however, when the applicant has pursued the " Latin-scientific " course at some collegiate institution. This, with three years of laboratory work, didactic and clinical lectures, supplemented by demonstrations in the dispensary and hospital, virtually extend the undergraduate course over five years; post graduate courses are also given.

Thomas C. Duncan, M. D., Ph. D., Professor of General Medicine and Diseases of the Chest; James A. Printy, M. D., Professor of Surgical Gynecology ; C. C. Bernard, M. D., Professor of Practice and Clinical Surgery ; A. G. Thome, A. M., M. D., Professor of Obstetrics ; David Duncan, M. D., Professor of Practice of Medicine, and Rhinology and Laryngology ; C. F. Bassett, M. D., Professor Ophthalmology and Otology ; Alvin S. Butler, M. D., Professor of Mental Science ; W. M. W. Davison, M. D., Professor of Physiology, Dermatology and Venereal Diseases ; J. J. Thompson, A. M., M. D., Professor of Orificial and Plastic Surgery ; Julia Holmes Smith, M. D., Honorary Professor of Gynecology ; Wilson A. Smith, B. S., M. D., Professor of Medical Gynecology; L. D. Rogers, M.D., Professor of Surgery ; John C. Morgan, M. D., Professor of Military Surgery; W. O. Cheeseman, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Clinical Therapeutics ; W. E. Fruit, M. D., Professor of Psedology; Frederick Everett, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics ; A. J. Booth, M. D., Professor of Nervous and Mental Diseases ; Celia M. Haynes, M. D., Professor of Elec- tro-Therapeutics ; Le Roy 0. Hedges, M.D., Professor of Minor Surgery ; E. S. Reed, D. D. S., Professor of Dental Surgery; E. E. Mclntyer, M. D., Professor of Neurology ; J. C. Bennett, M. D., Professor of Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy ; S. S. Douglas, M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Toxicology and Diseases of Kidneys ; Theo. Nielson, M. D. , Professor of Pharmacology; P. R. Barnes, L. L. B., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence ; H. H. Wilder, M. D., Professor of Histology and Bacteriology; H. B. Fenner. M. D., Professor of Prottietical Science; J. H. S. Johnson, M. D., Professor of Diseases of Children ; A. F. McKay, M. D., Prof8«o:-oc" Sanitary Science ; H. P. Pratt, M. D., Professor of Electro-Physics and Therapeutics ; W. J. Truitt, M. D., Associate Professor of Obsterics; LinnieM.Ousley, M.D., Associate Professor of Surgical Gynecology; 0. F. Pierce, M.D., Associate Professor of Histology ; J. D.Craig, M. D., Lecturer on Principles of Homoeopathy ; Emma C. GMesse, M. D., Lecturer on Hygiene and Dietetics; C. Frischkorn, M. D., Associate Professor of General Pathology ; G. A. Siddons, M. D., Lecturer on Fevers; W. F. Becker, M. D., Associate Professor of Anatomy; G. L. Stubinger, M. D., Lecturer on Pathological Histology ; Nettie M. Ayers, B. L., Lecturer on Bacteriology ; W. Thompson, M. D., Lecturer on Physiology and Physical Culture; C. F. Adams, M. D., Demonstrator of Physical Diagnosis ; J. W. Parker, M. D., Lecturer on Surgical Anatomy and Demonstrator; B. L. Hotchkin, M. D., Clinical Assistant to Chair of Practice.

are entirely distinct. The incorporators, officers and contributors to the hospital are for the greater part prominently identified with the Baptist denomination. Its method of management resembles that employed in similar institutions under denominational control. Connected with the hospital is a training school for nurses.

The Hering Medical College entered in 1894, upon its third year of active work, in The Herine which short period it has at- Medicai College, tained remarkable success. Its teachings propagate the science of therapeutics as expounded by Hahnemann. Its faculty teaches that there are but three agencies for restoring health to the sick: Obedience to the laws of hygiene, the employment of curative drugs, and the use of the surgeon's knife. The course of study corresponds, substantially^ that folio wed by other first-rate homeopathic schools. In the year 1894 there were twenty-one graduates and eighty-seven matriculants, a fair proportion of the latter having been women. The outlook for the institution, even in its infancy, is bright.

Faculty - H. C. Allen, M. D., Dean, Professor of Materia Medica; W. J. Hawkes, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Clinical Medicine; F. 0. Pease, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics; T. S. Hoyne, M. D., Professor of Principles and Practice of Medicine, Skin, and Venereal Diseases; S. Mills Fowler, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine and Diseases of the Chest; J. A. Tomhagen, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Mental and Nervous Diseases; E. E. Reininger, M. D., Professor of Institutes of Homeopathy and The Organon; W. E. Waddell, M. D., Professor of Pajdology; T. G. Roberts, M. D., Lecturer on Physical Diagnosis; J. R. Boynton, M. D., Professor of Operative Surgery; E. W. Sawyer, M. D. Professor of Surgical Therapeutics and Clinical Professor of Morbid Growths; C. E. Fisher, M. D., Professor of Operative Surgery; Howard Crutcher, M.D., Professor of Surgical Anatomy and Principles of Surgery; F. H. Lockvvood, M. D., Lecturer on Minor Surgery; J. B. S. King M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Toxicol ogy; C. E. Fisher, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics; H. F. Smiley, M. D., Professor of Therapeutics of Obstetrics; J. R. Boynton, M. D., Professor of Operative Gynaecology; Mary Florence Taft, M. D., Professor of Medical Diseases of Women; Charles W. Day, M. D., 3255 Prairie Ave., Professor of Hygiene; Carrie Shaw, M. D., 2700 South Park Ave., Professor of Physiology and Embryology; S D. Bbersole, M D . Professor of Anatomy; W. W. Stafford, M. D., 6150 Oglesby Ave., Demonstrator of Anatomy; MaryK. Mack, M. D., 312 Bast 40th St., Demonstrator of Anatomy for Women ; B. A. Cottlow, M, D., Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy; H. W. Pierson, M. D., Professor of Histology and Pathology; L. 0. Fritts, M. D., Lecturer on Histology; Howard B. Bessemer, Ph. D., M. D., Demonstrator of Histology and Bacteriology; Charles J. Watts, M.D. Assistant Demonstrator of Microscopy; M. 0. Narymore, A. M., LL. B., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence; H. P. Holmes, M. D, Lecturer on Medical Ethics; Thomas J. Gray, M. D., Lecturer on Psycology.

This is a list of instructors which embraces not a few eminent names, and the number of matriculants has exceeded the anticapition of the institution's founders. Some of them, no doubt, were attracted by the prospects of superior advantages at moderate cost.

Born Voters At The Last Presidential Election

II1.-VOTEKS AND NATIONALITIES. COMPARATIVE TABLE SHOWING NATIVE AND FOREIGN BORN VOTERS AT THE LAST PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION IN 1892, AND THE NATIVE AND FOREIGN BORN POPULATION IN 1894 BY WARDS.

Iv.-Composition Of Chicago'S Votb.-1892

The following table shows the number of voters registered in the various wards of the city according to nationality. The figures were compiled from the registration sheets in the office of the election commissioners 03' Lars P. Nelson of the Special Assessment Bureau.

Biographical

THE verdict of mankind has awarded to the muse of history the highest place among the classic nine. Considered merely with reference to the comparative nobility of her art, she should have ranked lower than the muse of poetry ; yet the accomplishment of her mission is fraught with results grander in their character and more far-reaching in their scope. The extent of her office, however, appears to be, by many minds, but imperfectly understood. The task of the historian is comprehensive and exacting. True, history reaches beyond the doings of court or camp, beyond the issue of battles or the effects of treaties, and records the trials and the triumphs, the failures and the successes of the men who make history. It is but an imperfect conception of the philosophy of events that fails to accord to biography its rightful position as a part - and no unimportant part - of historical narrative. Behind and beneath the activities of outward life the motive power lies out of sight, just as the furnace fires that work the piston and keep the ponderous screw revolving are down in the darkness of the hold. So, the impulsive power which shapes the course of communities may be found in the molding influences which form its citizens.

It is no mere idle, flippant curiosity that prompts men to wish to learn the private as well as the public lives of their fellows. Rather is it true that such anxiety tends to prove universal brotherhood ; and the interest in biography is not confined to men of any particular caste or avocation.

Yet communities are made up of individuals, and the aggregate of achievements - no less than the sum total of human happiness - is made up of the deeds of those men and women whose primary aim through life is faithfully to perform the duty that comes nearest to hand. Individual influence upon human affairs will be considered potent or insignificant according to the standpoint from which it is viewed. To him who, standing upon the sea shore, notes the ebb and flow of the tides and listens to the sullen roar of the waves as they break upon the beach in seething foam, seemingly chafing at their limitation, the ocean appears so vast as to need no tributaries. Yet without the smallest rill that helps to swell the " Father of Waters" the mighty torrent of the Mississippi would be lessened, and the beneficent influence of the Gulf Stream diminished. Countless streams, currents and counter-currents - sometimes mingling, sometimes counteracting each other - collectively combine to give motion to the accumulated mass of waters. So in the ocean of human action, which is formed by the blending and repulsion of currents of thought, of influence and of life yet more numerous and more tortuous than those which form "the fountains of the deep."

Men are not all mere puppets, controlled by wires worked from behind a screen, each one mechanically acting his allotted part, which any one else miglit have played as well. The majority may be so controlled, but the wires are pulled by the few, and it is in the lives of the few that we most readily find the explanation of the action of the masses. It is in biography alone that the attention of the reader is directed to some conspicuous individual, the effect of whose life is shown to the exclusion of everything and everybody beyond the sphere of his influence - direct or indirect - and the student of history is enabled to perceive more clearly how far personal agency has been at work in effecting the changes which he finds around him. It is not the true province of the biographer to trace general effects to general causes. History - pure and simple - aims, to place the reader on an eminence where the individual may be overlooked in the mass of humanity. Yet a bare knowledge of isolated facts, linked together by a chain of numberless and infinitely smaller facts, spanning the decades that intervene, would be of little value if that were all the knowledge that could be gained. Meagre details are as unsatisfying as is extended generalization. In order that the facts of history may become valuable for purposes of instruction, there must be an elaborate unfolding and discussion of causes and events ; and biography, having to take cognizance of the events of a single life only, is at liberty (indeed, is required) to take cognizance of both public and private actions in all their bearings.

The lives of some men are so intimately connected with public affairs, that a faithful narrative of their acts might furnish the recital of much that is valuable in the history of their own country during a particular period, besides affording a glimpse into the affairs of surrounding nations. Others pass their existence in the pursuits of philosophy or religion, of literature or science, of commerce or the professions. The State or the municipality is the triumph of their combined effort, and a study of their biographies affords the quickest insight into the silent revolutions that imperceptibly change the face of society. These are the giants of thought and effort, to whose unobtrusive - and often imperceptible - influence the world owes its progress.

Perhaps to no city of the present century do these reflections apply with more truth than to Chicago. From the ranks of her citizens have come those whose voices have been potent in both State and Federal councils, and who have helped to shape the destiny of the republic. She has given to the Nation men who were leaders upon, the battle-field and skilled in international diplomacy. Her merchants, through pluck, acumen and integrity, have attained a rank second to that held by the traders of no other metropolis. Witlmi her half century of municipal existence she has made long strides toward becoming; a centre of education, of science and of art. All this has been accomplished through the individual efforts of her sons, who have stood shoulder to shoulder to advance her welfare and to defend her fame through good and evil report alike. To name them all would be to exceed the limits of this volume ; brief sketches of the careers of a few of the more prominent only are given below.

John Herbert Foster

It is in connection with the cause of education that Dr. Foster is best entitled to be remembered as one of the benefactors of the city and State in which he lived.

Mr. Foster was the second son of Aaron and Mehitabel (Nichols) Foster, of the town of Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He was born at that place on the 8th of March, 1796. His parents were members of the Society of Friends, and all those who have known him will unite in bearing testimony that he never departed from the gentleness, the simplicity of life and character, and the truthful habits which were inculcated in the earliest lessons of his home.

As in the case of so many New England boys of that time, his early years were divided between the summer work on his father's farm and the winter attendance at the district school. At the age of sixteen he en- tered Kimball Union Academy, at Meriden, New Hampshire, intending to qualify himself as a teacher, and in 1815 he first taught school at Schoharie, New York, where his eldest brother, the late Kev. Aaron Foster, of Charlemont, Massachusetts, was teacher at the time. For a while he continued to assist his father in summer, pursuing his studies in the autumn and teaching in winter. He taught schools in Henniker, Cornish, and elsewhere in New Hampshire. His mother, who was a woman of more than common intellectual ability, died in 1816. Some years after this he graduated at the Medical College at Fairfield, New Hampshire, and afterward attended a course of lectures in the medical department of Dartmouth College, where he studied surgery with Dr. Muzzy, of Hanover. He practiced medicine for a time in connection with Dr. Starke, of Hopkinton, and afterward in Dublin, New Hampshire, and Ashby, Massachusetts, proving himself a successful physician and surgeon. In 1832, having accumulated by careful industry and economy, some thousands of dollars, he came West to invest his little fortune in land, and settled in Morgan county, Illinois. While there, he was appointed surgeon in the army, and served during the Black Hawk war.

He had a younger brother who was a lieutenant in the army, and who had been for a time stationed at Fort Dearborn (Chicago). Lieutenant Amos Foster purchased some of the original town lots of Chicago at the primary sale. He was afterwards ordered to Fort Howard, and Green Bay, and while at the latter point was shot and killed by an insubordinate soldier, whom he had reprimanded for drunkenness. On the death of his younger brother, which occurred in 1833, Dr. Foster came to Chicago to look after the estate, being himself one of the heirs, who having less confidencein the future of Chicago than he had, willingly sold their interests to him. The property which thus came into his hands became the nucleus around which other investments in this city were gathered, and thus was laid the foundation of the considerable fortune which he accumulated. Dr. Foster remained in Chicago till 1836, when, in consequence of General Jackson's specie circular and the financial depression which followed it, real estate in this city became a heavy burden to its owners. He therefore left his property in charge of his attorney and spent one or two years in New England.

On September 21st, 1840, Dr. Foster was married to Miss Nancy Smith, of Peterbo- . rough, New Hampshire. They immediately came to Chicago, where his real estate had begun once more to assume a positive value. Their first residence was on Lake street, not far from Franklin street. In 1845 the increasing value of Lake street property for business led Dr. Foster to seek a new residence near the then suburbs, on Madison street, not far from Wells street. Again, in 1860, Dr. Foster removed to a residence which he had built on Belden avenue, near North Clark street. This house was one of the last to go down in the great fire of 1871. After the fire he rebuilt a home on a part of the old lot, and here were spent the last days of his serene and peaceful old age.

In 1869, feeling the increasing weight of years and the burden of care for his extended property, he formed and executed a plan very unusual among men of large wealth. He gave to his three daughters a very large portion of his real estate, considerably more than one-half of his entire real property. This step, in the judgment of those who best knew him, added very greatly to the comfort of his later years ; and his children fondly hoped that the freedom from care which it brought would have added years to his gentle and blameless life. But an unfortunate accident caused the overthrow of these hopes. On Saturday, the 9th of May, 1874, he was violently thrown from his conveyance, in consequence of a sudden start of his horse. He was immediately taken home, and, after a short lapse from insensibility, his wonderful constitution seemed to rally, and confident hopes of his recovery were entertained ; but on Sunday, the 17th, fatal symptoms suddenly appeared, and on Monday, the 18th, he fell asleep so quietly that those about him hardly knew the moment of his departure. His funeral took place on Wednesday, the 20th, from Unity church, of which he had been formany years a devoted although unassuming member.

of both the city and State boards of education, faithfully giving, even at an age when most men excuse themselves from public service, his time and thought and work to the cause which enlisted the earliest sympathies of his boyhood and the matured interest of his later life.

Dr. Foster left surviving him his widow, Mrs. Nancy S. Foster, and three daughters, Mrs. Perkins Bass, Mrs. Edward C. Porter and Mrs. George E. Adams.

The title of the late Dr. Porter to a place among the biographies of citizens of Chicago rests upon the fact that he was nearly the earliest pioneer, that he introduced organized Protestant Christianity into Chicago, was for three years pastor of the First Presbyterian church (the first of any Protestant denomination to be formed), and subsequently, 1858 to 1861, was pastor of the Edwards Congregational church. Thus the period of his actual residence in Chicago was only six years, but during his sixty years of missionary and other service throughout the valley of the Mississippi, more varied, constant and devoted than that of any other minister of the Gospel, he made Chicago the centre of his extensive circuit, visited it often, and had the same solicitude for its spiritual interests, the planting and strengthening of Christian churches here, which a father has for his children.

The career of Dr. Porter is unique among all the men who have lived and labored for the welfare of the West, for the length of its service, its varied character, and for the rare personal disinterestedness which surrendered every private ambition, every personal interest, and labored without ceasing for the spread of the Gospel, for the diffusion of Christian education, for the relief of the suffering, and the uplifting of the lowly and oppressed throughout a region as extensive

Dr. Porter was a son of New England, and an inheritor of its energy and evangelical spirit. He was born at Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1804, the youngest of twelve children of Dr. William and Charlotte (Williams) Porter. He had for a remote ancestor Samuel Porter, who settled in Hadley in 1639, and whose homestead there is still preserved with pious care by the family. Dr. Porter's paternal grandmother was a daughter of Keverend Jonathan Edwards, the famous divine, for years pastor of the Congregational church of Northampton, and author of several treatises on Calvanistic theology.

His early education was received, first under Dr. Huntington, of Hopkins Academy, and then, after a manner of the times, in the family of Dr. Alvan Hyde, a minister settled at Lee, Massachusetts. Entering Williams College, then under the presidency of Dr. Edward Dorr Griffin, he completed its full classical course, graduating in 1825 at the age of twenty-one years. His father was a physician, but the son had no inclination to follow that profession; neither was the law to his taste. At the age of fourteen years he experienced a spiritual birth, and offered himself for membership in the visible church, but was rejected by the elders as too young to take so serious obligations, but he still cherished his hope in Christ and longed to enter the ministry. Entering the Theological Seminary at Andover, he spent two years in study. Then, after a winter spent at home, he was persuaded by Dr. Griffin to take charge of a school at Troy, New York, where he passed two pleasant years as a teacher. During this interval he grappled with the questions of faith and duty, and settled them by accepting the Calvinistic theology in all its severity and logical coherenc, and consecrated his life to the work of the Gospel ministry. Having formed a friendship at Troy with the late Dr. Henry A. Boardman, for many years a distinguished preacher of the Presbyterian church at Philadelphia, the two young men repaired to Princeton, New Jersey, where they entered the Presbyterian Theological Seminary and enjoyed the teaching of the eminent professors, Alexander Miller and Hodge, and where Mr. Porter graduated in 1831. He was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association of Congregational churches the same year, and began the work in several towns of the vicinity. Before leaving Princeton he had been requested by Reverend Absalom Peters, secretary of the American Home Missionary Society, to accept an appointment as missionary at Fort Brady, a military post at the Sault Ste. Marie. Accepting the offer as a call of God, he was ordained by the Hampshire Association. At that period Presbyterians and Congregationalists, embracing the same theological system and differing only in church polity, co-operated in missionary work under a sort of tacit, but well defined, understanding that Congregationalism was a polity adapted only to New England; that it had no call to cross the Hudson river, and that while the whole West, then embracing the State of New York with some isolated points on the shores of the great lakes, if capable of settlement and civilization at all, ought to be under a church government of authority, the individual churches should be free to adopt whatever polity they might think best adapted to their needs." Under this understanding all the early missions in the West were started, and when they grew to the maturity of church organisations adopted, with few exceptions, the Presbyterian form of government.

In an unsectarian spirit, but with the zeal which had animated his ancestor Edwards to evangelize the savages and preach the gospel to the perishing, the young missionary set out on his long and perilous journey. One hundred and fifty years before, Jesuit Fathers, Franciscan friars and Benedictine monks had traversed the same route, animated by a burning zeal to carry the Gospel, as the Catholic church received it, and plant the cross in the outposts of civilization. But this was the beginning of a crusade that has carried the Protestant church wherever the National flag has gone, and has planted the school beside it - twin bulwarks of morality and liberty, - wherever American settlers have gone to subdue the wilderness and introduce modern civilization. Mr. Porter was a pioneer of this crusade. His journey to his destination was a long and tedious one. Traveling by stage to Albany, he went by the Erie canal to Buffalo, spending a Sunday with a brother at Auburn. From Buffalo he journeyed to Detroit by steamer, going thence to Makinaw by sail. At the latter point he embarked in a canoe, with three French voyageurs and an officer's servant, and coasted along the shore of Lake Huron and up St. Mary's river for a distance of ninty miles, camping at night on the uninhabited shore. He arrived at the "Soo" toward the end of November, 1831, where the party were compelled to break the ice in the river to make a landing and where he was received into the hospitable Christian family of Henry A. Schoolcraft, United States Indian agent, residing near the military post. He found at Fort Brady a company of United States troops under command of Major John Farrell, and a Baptist mission to the Indians under the charge of Rev. Abel Bingham. On Sunday, December 4,

1831, Rev. Mr. Porter preached his first missionary sermon, in the school room of the Baptist mission. Mr. Schoolcraft had a store room vacated and fitted up with seats and a pulpit, which was used as a church, and a Presbyterian church was soon organized, composed of three men who had been members of a church at Mackinaw, Mrs. Schoolcraft, who was an Episcopalian, two of her sisters received on confession, and a Methodist woman. The two ministers cooperated in all good works without jealousy or animosity. Both churches prospered. Dancing, which had been the winter amusement, was given up, and lectures and prayer meetings took its place. Temperance pledges were circulated and every officer except one, with their wives, took the pledge. A revival began, and before spring every officer except one recalcitrant lieutenant, with their families, professed conversion, and all with one exception united with the Presbyterian church, which by the following spring numbered thirty-three members, while the Baptist church had about the same number.

This Arcadian life, so peaceful in its course and so blessed in its spiritual harmony, was rudely disturbed by the Black Hawk war. In the spring of 1832 Captain J. B. P. Russell was ordered to join, with his command, General Winfield Scott at Mackinaw on his way to garrison Port Dearborn. The next spring Schoolcraft was transferred to Mackinaw, and Major Fowle was ordered to take the remaining troops to Fort Dearborn. His little church thus broken up by the exigencies of war, Mr. Porter determined, like John Robinson when his church embarked from Scrooby for Leyden, to accompany his flock. Passing along the west shore of Lake Michigan, where dwelt no white man save Solomon Juneau with his Indian wife, who had a trading post at Milwaukee river, the party arrived off the mouth of Chicago river May llth, 1833. Mr. Porter remained on board the schooner over Sunday, and on Monday, the 13th, he came ashore in the long boat and was rowed up the Chicago river past

Fort Dearborn and debarked at Wolf Point, where he repaired to Wattle's tavern, then known as the "Wolf Hotel," on the west side. Here he met the principal men of the town, who boarded there, the number in the settlement having swollen to about three hundred by refugees from the country, who flocked here for protection from savage barbarity.

Mr. John Wright, one of the praying men of the village, greeted him with great joy. "Yesterday," said he, "was the darkest day I ever saw. Captain Johnson, who had aided us so in our meetings, was about to leave us and I was almost alone. I was almost ready to despair, as I feared that the troops coming in would be utterly careless about religion. The fact that you and a little church were at the hour of our meeting riding at anchor within gun shot of the fort, is like the bursting out of the sun from behind the darkest clouds." Mr. P. P. W. Peck invited the minister to make his temporary lodging place and study in the unfinished loft of his two story store, standing on the southwest corner of South Water and La Salle streets. The first building in the rear of this store was the log house of Rufus Brown, where he found table board. Temporary arrangements were made for preaching in the fort, the carpenter shop being emptied and cleaned and seats put in. On the next Sunday morning Mr. Porter preached his first sermon in Chicago. In the afternoon, on the invitation of a Methodist brother, he preached in the log school house on the west side of the river at the Point. The school house was crowded and many went away for lack of room to stand within the doors. There was profound attention. Mr. Wright's eyes filled with tears at seeing the happy influence. At six o'clock he led a prayer meeting at the fort. After candle lighting he went to Father Walker's place, where another small meeting was held. Thus passed Mr. Porter's first Sunday in Chicago - happy harbinger of the spiritual harvests that were to follow. For some time Mr. Porter preached in the fort on Sundays to the garrison at ten o'clock, in the afternoon in Father Walker's log house, held prayer meeting at six o'clock in the fort, and preached, alternately with the Methodists, evenings at the Point. A sum having been subscribed for his support, Mr. Porter advised that it be applied to the erection of » frame building for a house of worship, he looking to the Home Missionary Society for his support.

On the 26th of June, 1833, he organized the First Presbyterian church, with twentysix members, seventeen of whom had been members of the church at Fort Brady and nine being residents of the village. Among those connected with the garrison who joined the church was Miss Eliza Chappell, who taught an infant school at the post. Every one of their first citizen members wasaCongregationalist, except Philo Carpenter, and he, a fewyears later, having been driven from the Presbyterian church on account of his antislavery principles, became the "chief stone of the corner" of Congregationalism in Chicago.

A lot on the southwest corner of Lake and Clark streets was selected as a site for a church, "although," says a chronicler of the time, " it was a lonely spot, almost inaccessible on account of surrounding sloughs and bogs." While preparations were being made for the erection of the building, the members were surprised one morning to see the frame of a small building, which had been erected during the night, standing on the Clark street front of the church lot, and work went on industriously through the dav. During the folio wing night a number of yoke of oxen were hitched to the trespassing building, and the next morning it was seen standing far down Clark street, a warning that the rights of occupancy and property must be respected, even though they pertained to holy things.